1. The document discusses the morphology and classification of bacteria and other microorganisms. It describes the different shapes bacteria can take and how they are classified into kingdoms.
2. Key characteristics of bacteria are described, including their size, structures like the cell wall and flagella, and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
3. Different types of medically important bacteria are mentioned, as well as some common diseases they can cause. The document also provides brief summaries of archaea, algae, slime molds, protozoa and helminths.
Fungi are a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms that lack chlorophyll and include molds, yeasts, and mushrooms. They obtain nutrients by absorbing organic compounds from dead or living organisms. Fungi have cell walls containing chitin, reproduce sexually via spores or asexually through budding or fragmentation, and can be unicellular or filamentous. Major fungal divisions are classified based on their sexual reproductive structures. Fungi can cause superficial, cutaneous, or systemic infections in humans, and antifungal drugs target ergosterol synthesis or cell wall glucan to treat mycoses.
Fungi can never be classified in the kingdoms Plantae or Animalia because:
- Fungi are non-motile (lack mobility) unlike animals which are motile.
- Fungi reproduce via spores unlike plants which reproduce via seeds and animals which reproduce sexually.
- Fungi are heterotrophs that absorb nutrients externally from their environment unlike plants which produce their own food via photosynthesis. Animals obtain nutrients internally through ingestion and digestion.
- Fungi lack chloroplasts and chlorophyll for photosynthesis unlike plants. They also lack organized tissues like plants.
- Fungi are more similar to protists in their nutrition and some reproductive characteristics. But they
Definition, Characteristics, Nutrition, Special Structures, Reproduction, Nam...Dr. Rajbir Singh
This Lecture Include the Definition, Main Characteristics, Nutrition, Special Structures, Reproduction (Asexual and Sexual), Naming and Classification (Old and New)of Fungi.
Fungi are a diverse group of organisms that include mushrooms, molds, and yeasts. They obtain nutrients by secreting enzymes onto their food sources and absorbing the breakdown products. Fungi have branching filamentous structures called hyphae that form networks known as mycelia, and they can reproduce both sexually through spores or asexually through budding. They play important roles in decomposition and have complex life cycles involving both haploid and diploid stages.
The document summarizes key characteristics of fungi. Fungi can be unicellular, filamentous, or multicellular. They are heterotrophs that absorb nutrients from dead or living matter. Their cell walls contain chitin and they reproduce both sexually and asexually via spores. Fungi play important ecological roles as decomposers, symbionts that form relationships with plants and algae, and occasionally as parasites that can cause disease. The four main fungal phyla are Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota.
Biology I Presentation
FUNGI
We will learn
General characteristics of fungi
Structure of fungi
Economic Importance
Pathogenicity
Brief intro of some fungi
THE SIX KINGDOMS
Fungi are placed in a separate kingdom called the kingdom fungi
OF FUNGI
CHARACTERISTICS
The Characteristics of Fungi
Fungi are NOT plants
Nonphotosynthetic
Eukaryotes
Nonmotile
Most are saprobes (live on dead organisms)
The Characteristics of Fungi
Absorptive heterotrophs (digest food first & then absorb it into their bodies
Release digestive enzymes to break down organic material or their host
Store food energy as glycogen
The Characteristics of Fungi
Important decomposers & recyclers of nutrients in the environment
Most are multicellular, except unicellular yeast
Lack true roots, stems or leaves
fungi as a decomposers
The Characteristics of Fungi
Cell walls are made of chitin (complex polysaccharide)
Body is called the Thallus
Grow as microscopic tubes or filaments called hyphae
The Characteristics of Fungi
Some fungi are internal or external parasites
A few fungi act like predators & capture prey like roundworms
The Characteristics of Fungi
Some are edible, while others are poisonous
The Characteristics of Fungi
Produce both sexual and asexual spores
Classified by their sexual reproductive structures
The Characteristics of Fungi
Grow best in warm, moist environments
Mycology is the study of fungi
Mycologists study fungi
A fungicide is a chemical used to kill fungi
The Characteristics of Fungi
Fungi include puffballs, yeasts, mushrooms, toadstools, rusts, smuts, ringworm, and molds
The antibiotic penicillin is made by the Penicillium mold
FUNGI SIZE
NON-REPRODUCTIVE
Vegetative Structures
Hyphae
Tubular shape
ONE continuous cell
Filled with cytoplasm & nuclei
Multinucleate
Hard cell wall of chitin also in insect exoskeletons
Hyphae
Stolons – horizontal hyphae that connect groups of hyphae to each other
Rhizoids – rootlike parts of hyphae that anchor the fungus
Hyphae
Cross-walls called SEPTA may form compartments
Septa have pores for movement of cytoplasm
Form network called mycelia that run through the thallus (body)
Absorptive Heterotroph
Fungi get carbon from organic sources
Tips of Hyphae release enzymes
Enzymatic breakdown of substrate
Products diffuse back into hyphae
Modifications of hyphae
Fungi may be classified based on cell division (with or without cytokinesis)
Aseptate or coenocytic (without septa)
Septate (with septa)
Modifications of hyphae
Hyphal growth
Hyphae grow from their tips
Mycelium is an extensive, feeding web of hyphae
Mycelia are the ecologically active bodies of fungi
ASEXUAL & SEXUAL SPORES
REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES
REPRODUCTION
Most fungi reproduce Asexually and Sexually by spores
ASEXUAL reproduction is most common method & produces genetically identical organisms
Fungi reproduce SEXUALLY when conditions are poor & nutrients
The document discusses the classification of fungi according to Ainsworth (1973). It begins by outlining the key characteristics of fungi and discussing their evolutionary success. It then provides a schematic outline of Ainsworth's classification system, which places fungi in the kingdom Mycota. The major divisions are Myxomycota (slime molds) and Eumycota (true fungi). Key characteristics and classes are described for each subdivision, including Mastigomycotina, Zygomycotina, Ascomycotina, Basidiomycotina, and Deuteromycotina. The document also discusses early fungal evolution and the terrestrialization of fungi.
Fungi are a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms that lack chlorophyll and include molds, yeasts, and mushrooms. They obtain nutrients by absorbing organic compounds from dead or living organisms. Fungi have cell walls containing chitin, reproduce sexually via spores or asexually through budding or fragmentation, and can be unicellular or filamentous. Major fungal divisions are classified based on their sexual reproductive structures. Fungi can cause superficial, cutaneous, or systemic infections in humans, and antifungal drugs target ergosterol synthesis or cell wall glucan to treat mycoses.
Fungi can never be classified in the kingdoms Plantae or Animalia because:
- Fungi are non-motile (lack mobility) unlike animals which are motile.
- Fungi reproduce via spores unlike plants which reproduce via seeds and animals which reproduce sexually.
- Fungi are heterotrophs that absorb nutrients externally from their environment unlike plants which produce their own food via photosynthesis. Animals obtain nutrients internally through ingestion and digestion.
- Fungi lack chloroplasts and chlorophyll for photosynthesis unlike plants. They also lack organized tissues like plants.
- Fungi are more similar to protists in their nutrition and some reproductive characteristics. But they
Definition, Characteristics, Nutrition, Special Structures, Reproduction, Nam...Dr. Rajbir Singh
This Lecture Include the Definition, Main Characteristics, Nutrition, Special Structures, Reproduction (Asexual and Sexual), Naming and Classification (Old and New)of Fungi.
Fungi are a diverse group of organisms that include mushrooms, molds, and yeasts. They obtain nutrients by secreting enzymes onto their food sources and absorbing the breakdown products. Fungi have branching filamentous structures called hyphae that form networks known as mycelia, and they can reproduce both sexually through spores or asexually through budding. They play important roles in decomposition and have complex life cycles involving both haploid and diploid stages.
The document summarizes key characteristics of fungi. Fungi can be unicellular, filamentous, or multicellular. They are heterotrophs that absorb nutrients from dead or living matter. Their cell walls contain chitin and they reproduce both sexually and asexually via spores. Fungi play important ecological roles as decomposers, symbionts that form relationships with plants and algae, and occasionally as parasites that can cause disease. The four main fungal phyla are Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota.
Biology I Presentation
FUNGI
We will learn
General characteristics of fungi
Structure of fungi
Economic Importance
Pathogenicity
Brief intro of some fungi
THE SIX KINGDOMS
Fungi are placed in a separate kingdom called the kingdom fungi
OF FUNGI
CHARACTERISTICS
The Characteristics of Fungi
Fungi are NOT plants
Nonphotosynthetic
Eukaryotes
Nonmotile
Most are saprobes (live on dead organisms)
The Characteristics of Fungi
Absorptive heterotrophs (digest food first & then absorb it into their bodies
Release digestive enzymes to break down organic material or their host
Store food energy as glycogen
The Characteristics of Fungi
Important decomposers & recyclers of nutrients in the environment
Most are multicellular, except unicellular yeast
Lack true roots, stems or leaves
fungi as a decomposers
The Characteristics of Fungi
Cell walls are made of chitin (complex polysaccharide)
Body is called the Thallus
Grow as microscopic tubes or filaments called hyphae
The Characteristics of Fungi
Some fungi are internal or external parasites
A few fungi act like predators & capture prey like roundworms
The Characteristics of Fungi
Some are edible, while others are poisonous
The Characteristics of Fungi
Produce both sexual and asexual spores
Classified by their sexual reproductive structures
The Characteristics of Fungi
Grow best in warm, moist environments
Mycology is the study of fungi
Mycologists study fungi
A fungicide is a chemical used to kill fungi
The Characteristics of Fungi
Fungi include puffballs, yeasts, mushrooms, toadstools, rusts, smuts, ringworm, and molds
The antibiotic penicillin is made by the Penicillium mold
FUNGI SIZE
NON-REPRODUCTIVE
Vegetative Structures
Hyphae
Tubular shape
ONE continuous cell
Filled with cytoplasm & nuclei
Multinucleate
Hard cell wall of chitin also in insect exoskeletons
Hyphae
Stolons – horizontal hyphae that connect groups of hyphae to each other
Rhizoids – rootlike parts of hyphae that anchor the fungus
Hyphae
Cross-walls called SEPTA may form compartments
Septa have pores for movement of cytoplasm
Form network called mycelia that run through the thallus (body)
Absorptive Heterotroph
Fungi get carbon from organic sources
Tips of Hyphae release enzymes
Enzymatic breakdown of substrate
Products diffuse back into hyphae
Modifications of hyphae
Fungi may be classified based on cell division (with or without cytokinesis)
Aseptate or coenocytic (without septa)
Septate (with septa)
Modifications of hyphae
Hyphal growth
Hyphae grow from their tips
Mycelium is an extensive, feeding web of hyphae
Mycelia are the ecologically active bodies of fungi
ASEXUAL & SEXUAL SPORES
REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES
REPRODUCTION
Most fungi reproduce Asexually and Sexually by spores
ASEXUAL reproduction is most common method & produces genetically identical organisms
Fungi reproduce SEXUALLY when conditions are poor & nutrients
The document discusses the classification of fungi according to Ainsworth (1973). It begins by outlining the key characteristics of fungi and discussing their evolutionary success. It then provides a schematic outline of Ainsworth's classification system, which places fungi in the kingdom Mycota. The major divisions are Myxomycota (slime molds) and Eumycota (true fungi). Key characteristics and classes are described for each subdivision, including Mastigomycotina, Zygomycotina, Ascomycotina, Basidiomycotina, and Deuteromycotina. The document also discusses early fungal evolution and the terrestrialization of fungi.
1. The document provides an overview of fungi, including their general characteristics, classification, morphology, reproduction, and importance.
2. Fungi are classified based on their sexual reproduction (zygomycetes, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes) or morphology (molds, yeasts, yeast-like, dimorphic). They reproduce both sexually and asexually through spores.
3. Fungi play important beneficial roles like decomposition and producing antibiotics, but can also cause diseases and spoilage. Understanding their properties, life cycles, and taxonomy is important for fields like medicine and agriculture.
Fungi are eukaryotic, nonphotosynthetic organisms that grow in warm, moist environments. They have filamentous hyphae made of chitin and reproduce both sexually through the formation of zygotes and asexually through spores. Fungi play important ecological roles as decomposers, parasites, and symbionts through mycorrhizal relationships with plants. They are also economically significant in industries like food production, medicine, and are important plant pathogens.
This document provides an overview of fungi, including:
- Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that absorb nutrients through their extensive hyphal networks. They can be saprobes, parasites, or form mutualistic relationships.
- Fungi reproduce both sexually through spores formed by meiosis and asexually through spores formed by mitosis. Their life cycles vary but generally involve both haploid and diploid stages.
- Major fungal divisions include Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota. They play important roles in decomposition, industries like brewing, and form mycorrhizal relationships with plants.
This document provides information about fungi through text and images. It describes the main characteristics of fungi, including that they are eukaryotic and heterotrophic, absorbing nutrients from dead organisms. It details their structures, including being made of hyphae and having cell walls containing chitin. The document outlines the different phyla of fungi and their characteristics. It also discusses fungi's roles in ecosystems, such as recycling nutrients, being plant parasites, and forming symbiotic relationships in lichens and mycorrhizae.
This document provides an introduction to plant pathogens and the field of plant pathology. It defines key terms like pathogen, plant disease, and symptoms. It outlines the importance of studying plant pathogens, which can damage crops and reduce yields, impacting food supply, prices, and industries. Examples are given of historic famines caused by diseases like the Irish potato famine from Phytophthora infestans. The document introduces some of the major types of phytopathogenic organisms that will be covered, including fungi, bacteria, viruses, and viroids.
Fungi have hyphae that form networks called mycelium. Hyphae absorb nutrients and transport them through the mycelium. Fungi reproduce both sexually through structures like basidia and ascocarps that produce spores, and asexually through fragmentation of hyphae or spores. They are classified into divisions like Zygomycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota based on their sexual reproduction structures and life cycles. Many fungi play important ecological roles as decomposers, parasites, or symbionts in mycorrhizal relationships with plants.
Protists are a diverse kingdom of eukaryotic organisms that are not classified as plants, animals, or fungi. They include both single-celled and multicellular organisms, many of which are aquatic. Protists can be categorized as animal-like, plant-like, or fungus-like depending on their characteristics and behaviors. Animal-like protists include those that use pseudopods, cilia, or flagella to move and feed, as well as non-motile sporozoans that are often parasitic. Plant-like protists include unicellular algae that perform photosynthesis and release oxygen into the environment, providing an important food source. Fungus-like protists absorb nutrients
Fungi are a diverse kingdom that can reproduce both sexually and asexually. They obtain nutrients through absorption or as parasites/saprophytes. Their cell walls contain chitin and they are more closely related to animals than plants. There are over 1 million known fungal species that can be classified into four phyla: Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota. These phyla contain many important and familiar fungi such as mushrooms, yeasts, molds, and lichens. The largest known organism is a honey mushroom fungus in Oregon covering over 2,200 acres.
Fungi can be divided into several groups based on characteristics. Yeasts are unicellular fungi that reproduce through budding or fission. Molds are filamentous and made of hyphae that grow at their tips. Hyphae can be septate or coenocytic. Fungi reproduce both sexually through spores and asexually through fragmentation or spore formation. Major fungal groups include zygomycetes, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes, and deuteromycetes. Zygomycetes reproduce sexually through conjugation of hyphae. Ascomycetes form ascospores within an ascus. Basidiomycetes form mushrooms
This document provides an overview of fungi, including its history, types, structure, reproduction, life cycle, importance, and impacts. It discusses how fungi were first described in 1729 and are estimated to include 1.5 million species. Fungi lack chlorophyll and reproduce both sexually and asexually through spores. They play important roles in ecosystems through decomposition and nutrient recycling but can also cause illnesses in humans and plants. In conclusion, fungi are essential organisms that aid nutrient cycling while also posing some risks.
- Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that absorb nutrients from their environment and differ from plants in their nutritional mode and lack of chlorophyll. They exist primarily as filamentous hyphae that branch and form a mycelium.
- Fungi reproduce both sexually through spores or asexually through budding. Their filamentous structure and absorptive nutrition allow them to serve important ecological roles as decomposers, parasites, and mutualists with other organisms like plants.
- There are over 100,000 known fungal species divided among several phyla. Many fungi play vital roles in ecosystems through nutrient cycling, though some are important pathogens of plants and humans.
This document provides information on the classification, body plan, nutrition, and reproduction of fungi. It discusses that fungi have diverse forms ranging from microorganisms like yeasts and molds to large mushrooms. They have filamentous hyphae that can aggregate to form tissues and structures. Fungi are heterotrophic and absorb nutrients from dead and decaying material or other living hosts. Reproduction can occur asexually through spores or sexually through the fusion of compatible hyphae and subsequent meiotic division.
- Mastigomycotina is a former taxonomic grouping of fungi that included classes like Chytridiomycetes.
- Chytridiomycetes, commonly called chytrids, are mostly aquatic fungi found in soils and aquatic habitats. They can be unicellular or filamentous.
- Synchytrium endobioticum is a chytrid fungus that causes the black wart disease of potato. It has both asexual and sexual life cycles involving zoospores, gametes and resting spores that allow it to infect and overwinter on potato plants.
Fungus is a eukaryotic organism classified in the fungi kingdom. It has cell walls composed of chitin, lacks chlorophyll, and stores energy as glycogen. Fungi obtain nutrients through absorption as heterotrophs. They can be unicellular, multicellular, or filamentous and are divided into sac fungi, club fungi, and thread-like fungi. Fungi reproduce through spores and have complex structures like mushrooms' caps, gills, stems, and mycelium. They can be saprophytes, parasites, symbionts, or predacious and play both useful and harmful roles.
This document summarizes the key characteristics and life cycles of fungi. It describes fungi as typically small, filamentous, and lacking chlorophyll. The body is made of a mycelium of branching hyphae that can be septate or aseptate. Hyphae have various structures like rhizoids, stolons, rhizomorphs, and haustoria. Fungi reproduce asexually through fragmentation, fission, budding or spore formation. Sexual reproduction involves plasmogamy, karyogamy and meiosis. Fungi can be saprophytes, parasites or symbionts. Classification is based on reproduction characteristics.
This document provides information about fungi. It begins by defining fungi and their key characteristics, such as being eukaryotic and non-photosynthetic. It then covers the different types of fungi including zygomycetes, ascomycetes, and basidiomycetes. The document discusses the different ways fungi reproduce, both sexually and asexually. It also lists some common fungal diseases caused by organisms such as Aspergillus, Candida, and Cryptococcus.
This is an illustrated account for Unit 1 of Coure Course III Mycology and Phytopathology of Bsc Hons Program - Introduction to True fungi including characters, affinities, thallus, cell wall, nutrition and classification
The kingdom Fungi includes a vast variety of organisms such as mushrooms, yeast, and mold, made up of feathery filaments called hyphae (collectively called mycelium). Fungi are multicellular and eukaryotic. They are also heterotrophs, and gain nutrition through absorption.
This document provides an overview of virus classification and the Baltimore classification system. It begins with an introduction to naming conventions for viruses and general approaches to classification. It then describes the Baltimore classification in detail, which divides viruses into 7 classes based on their genome type and replication strategy. The classification focuses on whether the viral nucleic acids are DNA or RNA, and if they are single- or double-stranded. Key viral families are listed as examples for each class.
Dokumen ini membahas tentang fungi (jamur) yang merupakan divisi dalam dunia mikroba. Jamur memiliki berbagai bentuk dan fungsi seperti jamur tiram, kapang, dan khamir. Jamur dapat berkembang biak secara aseksual maupun seksual."
1. The document provides an overview of fungi, including their general characteristics, classification, morphology, reproduction, and importance.
2. Fungi are classified based on their sexual reproduction (zygomycetes, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes) or morphology (molds, yeasts, yeast-like, dimorphic). They reproduce both sexually and asexually through spores.
3. Fungi play important beneficial roles like decomposition and producing antibiotics, but can also cause diseases and spoilage. Understanding their properties, life cycles, and taxonomy is important for fields like medicine and agriculture.
Fungi are eukaryotic, nonphotosynthetic organisms that grow in warm, moist environments. They have filamentous hyphae made of chitin and reproduce both sexually through the formation of zygotes and asexually through spores. Fungi play important ecological roles as decomposers, parasites, and symbionts through mycorrhizal relationships with plants. They are also economically significant in industries like food production, medicine, and are important plant pathogens.
This document provides an overview of fungi, including:
- Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that absorb nutrients through their extensive hyphal networks. They can be saprobes, parasites, or form mutualistic relationships.
- Fungi reproduce both sexually through spores formed by meiosis and asexually through spores formed by mitosis. Their life cycles vary but generally involve both haploid and diploid stages.
- Major fungal divisions include Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota. They play important roles in decomposition, industries like brewing, and form mycorrhizal relationships with plants.
This document provides information about fungi through text and images. It describes the main characteristics of fungi, including that they are eukaryotic and heterotrophic, absorbing nutrients from dead organisms. It details their structures, including being made of hyphae and having cell walls containing chitin. The document outlines the different phyla of fungi and their characteristics. It also discusses fungi's roles in ecosystems, such as recycling nutrients, being plant parasites, and forming symbiotic relationships in lichens and mycorrhizae.
This document provides an introduction to plant pathogens and the field of plant pathology. It defines key terms like pathogen, plant disease, and symptoms. It outlines the importance of studying plant pathogens, which can damage crops and reduce yields, impacting food supply, prices, and industries. Examples are given of historic famines caused by diseases like the Irish potato famine from Phytophthora infestans. The document introduces some of the major types of phytopathogenic organisms that will be covered, including fungi, bacteria, viruses, and viroids.
Fungi have hyphae that form networks called mycelium. Hyphae absorb nutrients and transport them through the mycelium. Fungi reproduce both sexually through structures like basidia and ascocarps that produce spores, and asexually through fragmentation of hyphae or spores. They are classified into divisions like Zygomycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota based on their sexual reproduction structures and life cycles. Many fungi play important ecological roles as decomposers, parasites, or symbionts in mycorrhizal relationships with plants.
Protists are a diverse kingdom of eukaryotic organisms that are not classified as plants, animals, or fungi. They include both single-celled and multicellular organisms, many of which are aquatic. Protists can be categorized as animal-like, plant-like, or fungus-like depending on their characteristics and behaviors. Animal-like protists include those that use pseudopods, cilia, or flagella to move and feed, as well as non-motile sporozoans that are often parasitic. Plant-like protists include unicellular algae that perform photosynthesis and release oxygen into the environment, providing an important food source. Fungus-like protists absorb nutrients
Fungi are a diverse kingdom that can reproduce both sexually and asexually. They obtain nutrients through absorption or as parasites/saprophytes. Their cell walls contain chitin and they are more closely related to animals than plants. There are over 1 million known fungal species that can be classified into four phyla: Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota. These phyla contain many important and familiar fungi such as mushrooms, yeasts, molds, and lichens. The largest known organism is a honey mushroom fungus in Oregon covering over 2,200 acres.
Fungi can be divided into several groups based on characteristics. Yeasts are unicellular fungi that reproduce through budding or fission. Molds are filamentous and made of hyphae that grow at their tips. Hyphae can be septate or coenocytic. Fungi reproduce both sexually through spores and asexually through fragmentation or spore formation. Major fungal groups include zygomycetes, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes, and deuteromycetes. Zygomycetes reproduce sexually through conjugation of hyphae. Ascomycetes form ascospores within an ascus. Basidiomycetes form mushrooms
This document provides an overview of fungi, including its history, types, structure, reproduction, life cycle, importance, and impacts. It discusses how fungi were first described in 1729 and are estimated to include 1.5 million species. Fungi lack chlorophyll and reproduce both sexually and asexually through spores. They play important roles in ecosystems through decomposition and nutrient recycling but can also cause illnesses in humans and plants. In conclusion, fungi are essential organisms that aid nutrient cycling while also posing some risks.
- Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that absorb nutrients from their environment and differ from plants in their nutritional mode and lack of chlorophyll. They exist primarily as filamentous hyphae that branch and form a mycelium.
- Fungi reproduce both sexually through spores or asexually through budding. Their filamentous structure and absorptive nutrition allow them to serve important ecological roles as decomposers, parasites, and mutualists with other organisms like plants.
- There are over 100,000 known fungal species divided among several phyla. Many fungi play vital roles in ecosystems through nutrient cycling, though some are important pathogens of plants and humans.
This document provides information on the classification, body plan, nutrition, and reproduction of fungi. It discusses that fungi have diverse forms ranging from microorganisms like yeasts and molds to large mushrooms. They have filamentous hyphae that can aggregate to form tissues and structures. Fungi are heterotrophic and absorb nutrients from dead and decaying material or other living hosts. Reproduction can occur asexually through spores or sexually through the fusion of compatible hyphae and subsequent meiotic division.
- Mastigomycotina is a former taxonomic grouping of fungi that included classes like Chytridiomycetes.
- Chytridiomycetes, commonly called chytrids, are mostly aquatic fungi found in soils and aquatic habitats. They can be unicellular or filamentous.
- Synchytrium endobioticum is a chytrid fungus that causes the black wart disease of potato. It has both asexual and sexual life cycles involving zoospores, gametes and resting spores that allow it to infect and overwinter on potato plants.
Fungus is a eukaryotic organism classified in the fungi kingdom. It has cell walls composed of chitin, lacks chlorophyll, and stores energy as glycogen. Fungi obtain nutrients through absorption as heterotrophs. They can be unicellular, multicellular, or filamentous and are divided into sac fungi, club fungi, and thread-like fungi. Fungi reproduce through spores and have complex structures like mushrooms' caps, gills, stems, and mycelium. They can be saprophytes, parasites, symbionts, or predacious and play both useful and harmful roles.
This document summarizes the key characteristics and life cycles of fungi. It describes fungi as typically small, filamentous, and lacking chlorophyll. The body is made of a mycelium of branching hyphae that can be septate or aseptate. Hyphae have various structures like rhizoids, stolons, rhizomorphs, and haustoria. Fungi reproduce asexually through fragmentation, fission, budding or spore formation. Sexual reproduction involves plasmogamy, karyogamy and meiosis. Fungi can be saprophytes, parasites or symbionts. Classification is based on reproduction characteristics.
This document provides information about fungi. It begins by defining fungi and their key characteristics, such as being eukaryotic and non-photosynthetic. It then covers the different types of fungi including zygomycetes, ascomycetes, and basidiomycetes. The document discusses the different ways fungi reproduce, both sexually and asexually. It also lists some common fungal diseases caused by organisms such as Aspergillus, Candida, and Cryptococcus.
This is an illustrated account for Unit 1 of Coure Course III Mycology and Phytopathology of Bsc Hons Program - Introduction to True fungi including characters, affinities, thallus, cell wall, nutrition and classification
The kingdom Fungi includes a vast variety of organisms such as mushrooms, yeast, and mold, made up of feathery filaments called hyphae (collectively called mycelium). Fungi are multicellular and eukaryotic. They are also heterotrophs, and gain nutrition through absorption.
This document provides an overview of virus classification and the Baltimore classification system. It begins with an introduction to naming conventions for viruses and general approaches to classification. It then describes the Baltimore classification in detail, which divides viruses into 7 classes based on their genome type and replication strategy. The classification focuses on whether the viral nucleic acids are DNA or RNA, and if they are single- or double-stranded. Key viral families are listed as examples for each class.
Dokumen ini membahas tentang fungi (jamur) yang merupakan divisi dalam dunia mikroba. Jamur memiliki berbagai bentuk dan fungsi seperti jamur tiram, kapang, dan khamir. Jamur dapat berkembang biak secara aseksual maupun seksual."
The document discusses common parasites of military importance, including intestinal parasites like Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia, malaria parasites such as Plasmodium falciparum, blood flukes like Schistosoma species, and filarial parasites including Wuchereria bancrofti. It describes the lifecycles and military relevance of these parasites, noting how military personnel are at high risk of infection due to environmental exposures during operations and missions. The document aims to increase awareness of parasitic diseases that can impact military operations and public health.
This document provides an overview of antimicrobial preservation. It discusses the cell structure of microorganisms and how preservatives work to prevent their growth. Common preservatives used in ingestible and topical products are parabens, sorbic acid, benzoic acid, and sodium metabisulfite. Parabens are popular but can partition disproportionately into the oil phase of emulsions, reducing their effectiveness. Chelating agents and certain ingredients can enhance preservative efficacy while others may hinder it. Proper manufacturing and packaging are also important to consider.
Algae are a diverse group of photosynthetic organisms that are either protists or primitive aquatic plants. They vary greatly in size and structure from single-celled to multicellular forms over 70 meters long. While similar to plants in some ways like possessing chlorophyll and cell walls, algae differ in lacking true roots, stems, leaves and vascular tissue. They are classified into seven phyla based on pigments, food storage and cell wall composition, with the largest being the Chlorophyta (green algae), Phaeophyta (brown algae) and Rhodophyta (red algae). Algae play important ecological roles as primary producers and oxygen generators in many aquatic ecosystems.
Fungi are a diverse group of organisms that include yeasts, molds, and mushrooms. They have cell walls containing chitin and absorb nutrients from dead or living matter. Fungi can reproduce both sexually through spores and asexually through budding or fragmentation. Important divisions of fungi include zygomycota, ascomycota, basidiomycota, and deuteromycota. Fungi play many roles in nature such as decomposition and symbiosis with plants, but some cause diseases in plants, animals, and humans.
This document provides an overview of mycology (the study of fungi). It discusses that fungi are eukaryotic organisms that lack chlorophyll and can exist as unicellular or multicellular forms. It describes the cell structure of fungi including their cell walls made of chitin and cell membranes containing ergosterol. It covers the taxonomic classification of fungi into phyla and discusses the structures and reproduction of different types of fungi including yeasts, molds, and thermally dimorphic fungi. It also addresses the laboratory diagnosis of fungal infections through microscopy, staining, culture and the clinical manifestations of different fungal infections.
Organisms are classified by humans for convenience of reference. In the scheme of classification, mycologists may not give equal importance to the criteria available. And therefore, we find different schemes of classification
1. The document discusses virus morphology and classification, describing their size, shape, structure, and genomic components.
2. Viruses are the smallest infectious agents, ranging from 20-300nm, and have distinct shapes including spherical, bullet-shaped, brick-shaped, rod-shaped, and helical or icosahedral symmetry.
3. Their structure includes nucleic acids, a protein capsid, and some have an envelope, and they are classified based on these characteristics as well as antigenic and biological properties.
This document provides lecture notes on medical parasitology for health science students. It covers various protozoan, helminth, and arthropod parasites that are medically important. The notes are divided into multiple units that describe different parasite groups. The first unit provides a general introduction to parasitology and classification of medically relevant parasites. Following units discuss important protozoa like Entamoeba histolytica and Plasmodium species, as well as helminths such as schistosomes and nematodes. The notes aim to give students foundational knowledge of parasitic diseases and etiologic agents.
1. Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that can exist as molds or yeasts and reproduce both sexually and asexually. They have cell walls made of chitin and can cause superficial infections of the skin and nails as well as some systemic infections.
2. Common superficial fungal infections include ringworm, athlete's foot, and nail fungus. These are caused by dermatophyte fungi and generally only infect the outer layers of skin, hair, and nails. Diagnosis involves microscopic examination of skin and nail samples.
3. Systemic fungal infections are diagnosed through culture, histology, antigen detection and PCR. Treatment involves topical or oral antifungal medications such as azo
Candidiasis, Moniliasis, Oral thrush, Yeast infectionsEzekiel George
This document summarizes a student seminar presentation on Candida albicans. It discusses the taxonomy of Candida, the appearance and types of candidiasis infections. It describes risk factors, diagnosis, classification of fungi, laboratory diagnosis, treatment and prevention of candidiasis. The presentation covers topics such as oropharyngeal, esophageal and vulvovaginal candidiasis, as well as systemic candidiasis. It includes microscopy images and discusses diagnosis through culture and microscopy of specimens.
The document outlines the classification and characteristics of medically important parasites. It discusses the classification of parasites into helminths (trematodes, cestodes, nematodes) and protozoa. For each type of parasite, it describes morphological features, life cycles, important stages, habitats, and modes of infection. The objectives are to differentiate parasite types based on these characteristics and list examples of medically significant parasites.
Deuteromycota refers to fungi that reproduce asexually and whose sexual reproduction cycle is unknown. They are characterized by septate mycelium and reproduce through conidia. There are four orders within Deuteromycota distinguished by where conidia and conidiophores are produced. Some Deuteromycota have sterile mycelium or sclerotia and some undergo a parasexual cycle involving plasmogamy and haploidization but not true meiosis.
The document describes several nematode parasites including Trichuris trichiura, Trichinella spiralis, Capillaria, Ascaris lumbricoides, Enterobius vermicularis, Wuchereria bancrofti, and Ancylostoma caninum. For each nematode, key defining characteristics, pathogenesis, taxonomy, and life cycle stages are outlined. Morphological differences between nematode adults, eggs, and larvae are discussed. Functions of anatomical structures like phasmids, amphids, and muscles are also explained.
Fungi play both helpful and harmful roles. Some fungi decompose organic matter and release nutrients for plants. Mycorrhizal fungi form symbiotic relationships with plant roots to help absorb nutrients. However, some fungi are pathogens that cause diseases in crops like wheat, rice, and potatoes. Fungi also have many uses including as food, sources of antibiotics, enzymes for industries, and in fermentation to produce alcoholic beverages.
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that differ from bacteria in having true nuclei and organelles. Most fungi are multicellular and have cell walls containing chitin. Fungi can be classified based on their morphology and reproductive structures. Important characteristics include whether they are molds, yeasts, or dimorphic. Laboratory identification of fungi involves microscopic examination of stained smears and cultures as well as culture characteristics. Direct visualization with KOH preparations and histopathology are used to diagnose fungal infections.
1) Fungi have cell walls made of chitin, absorb nutrients from other organisms, and their bodies are made of long filaments called hyphae. 2) The five major phyla of fungi are Zygomycota, Oomycota, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Deuteromycota. 3) Fungi reproduce both sexually through spores and asexually through structures like mushrooms, puffballs, and molds.
This document outlines various ways that bacteria can be classified, including by shape, staining properties, temperature and oxygen requirements, pH tolerance, osmotic pressure tolerance, and cellular structure. Some of the key classification groups mentioned are cocci, bacilli, gram positive and gram negative bacteria, psychrophiles and thermophiles based on temperature, and obligate aerobes versus anaerobes based on oxygen needs. The document provides examples of bacteria that fall into each of the different classification groups.
This document provides an overview of mycology, including the characteristics of yeasts and molds, appropriate specimen collection and transport for fungal cultures, common fungal culture media, and methods for identifying fungi from cultures and direct specimens. It focuses on dimorphic fungi that can cause systemic infections like Histoplasma capsulatum, Blastomyces dermatitidis, and Coccidioides immitis. Key details on Histoplasma capsulatum morphology, disease, diagnostics, and growth at different temperatures are provided.
This document provides information about algae. It begins by defining algae as simple, eukaryotic phototrophs that carry out oxygenic photosynthesis using chlorophyll a. It then discusses the distribution, morphology, and reproductive structures of algae. The document further delves into the different divisions of algae, including their vegetative structures, characteristics, and examples like green algae, brown algae, red algae, diatoms, dinoflagellates, and euglenoids. The document concludes by discussing the ecological importance of algae and providing an overview of slime molds.
The document discusses the kingdoms Monera and viruses. It covers the characteristics of bacteria, including that they are prokaryotes, single-celled, and the oldest and most abundant organisms. It describes the two kingdoms of archaea and eubacteria. Archaea include extremophiles like thermophiles and methanogens. Eubacteria are more diverse and make up most bacteria. Key bacterial structures and processes like shape, nutrition, respiration, and reproduction are summarized.
This document provides information about viruses and bacteria. It discusses the structure and reproduction cycles of viruses, including how they infect host cells and use the host's machinery to replicate. It also describes bacteriophages and the lytic and lysogenic cycles they undergo when infecting bacteria. The document compares prokaryotes and eukaryotes and examines different bacterial characteristics such as shape, nutrition, and respiration. It provides examples of how bacteria are classified and discusses their importance in areas like nitrogen fixation and disease.
Bacteria are a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms that are typically a few micrometers in length. They have a variety of shapes ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria are divided into two domains, Archaea and Bacteria. Bacteria were some of the earliest life forms on Earth and are found in most environments including soil, water, and symbiotically or parasitically with plants and animals. They were first observed by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676 using microscopy.
Bacteria are a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms that are typically a few micrometers in length. They have a variety of shapes ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria are divided into two domains, Archaea and Bacteria. Bacteria were some of the earliest life forms on Earth and are found in most environments including soil, water, and symbiotically or parasitically with plants and animals. They were first observed by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676 using microscopy.
This document provides information about bacteria in three sections. It begins by describing the basic structures and characteristics of bacteria, noting they are prokaryotic cells that can take different shapes and reproduce through binary fission. Next, it discusses the roles of bacteria, including as producers that fix nitrogen and decomposers that recycle nutrients. Finally, it outlines important human uses of bacteria in food, beverages, industry, and medicine.
Wastewater treatment uses microorganisms like bacteria, protozoa, fungi, algae, and small invertebrates to break down organic matter in wastewater. These microbes convert wastewater contaminants into less harmful substances. Bacteria play the most important role in wastewater treatment by consuming organic matter. Other microbes like protozoa and rotifers help clarify the water by feeding on bacteria. The stabilization of wastewater is accomplished biologically using a variety of microorganisms in a wastewater treatment plant.
This document defines and describes various types of microorganisms. It explains that microorganisms include bacteria, fungi, protozoa, viruses, and other microscopic organisms. While some microorganisms are harmful and can cause disease, others play important roles in industries like food production, waste decomposition, and more. The document also provides details on the characteristics, structures and uses of specific microorganisms like bacteria, algae, fungi and protozoa.
3 morphology & cell biology of bacteria (2)UiTM Jasin
Bacterial cells can contain inclusion bodies which act as storage deposits. There are two main types: granules which are not membrane-bound and vesicles which are membrane-bound. Common inclusion bodies include polyhydroxybutyrate, polyphosphate, glycogen and sulfur granules. Some bacteria have gas-filled vacuoles or magnetite crystals in vesicles. Endospores are highly resistant structures produced by Bacillus and Clostridium under harsh conditions, allowing dormancy. They have protective layers including a cortex and spore coat. Sporulation involves the formation of a forespore within the cell which develops into a mature endospore. Germination returns the endospore to a vegetative state. Endospores
1) Cyanobacteria were the first algae and dominated as biogenic reefs from 3.5 billion years ago during the Proterozoic era.
2) They were the first organisms to evolve with two photosystems and produce oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis, which was important for the evolution of Earth's oxygen-rich atmosphere.
3) Cyanobacteria can fix or convert atmospheric nitrogen into usable forms through nitrogen fixation, which is important because nitrogen is necessary for life but atmospheric nitrogen is difficult for most organisms to use.
This document provides information about prokaryotes, including their defining characteristics, classification, and examples. Some key points:
- Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that lack membrane-bound organelles and a nucleus, and were the first living organisms to evolve around 3.8 billion years ago.
- They are classified into two domains: Bacteria and Archaea. Bacteria are further classified by shape, staining, cell walls, and other traits.
- Prokaryotes can be autotrophic or heterotrophic, living in diverse environments. They play important roles in industry, the environment, and human bodies.
This document provides an overview of microbiology and the classification of microorganisms. It discusses how Carolus Linnaeus established the scientific naming system using genus and species names. Microorganisms are classified into three domains - Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya - based on characteristics like cell structure and nucleic acid. Within these domains, microbes are further classified into six kingdoms and grouped according to their features. The document also describes key characteristics of bacteria, archaea, fungi, protozoa, algae, viruses, and multicellular parasites.
This document summarizes different types of microbes found in the microbial world. It describes prokaryotes like bacteria that come in different shapes and have a variety of metabolic functions. Archaea are also described as single-celled microorganisms that lack organelles. The document outlines different types of microbial metabolisms including autotrophs that produce their own food and heterotrophs that obtain energy through respiration. It also summarizes various protists like algae, diatoms, dinoflagellates, foraminiferans, radiolarians, and ciliates. Fungi are also briefly discussed as eukaryotic decomposers and parasites.
This document summarizes different types of microbes found in the microbial world. It describes prokaryotes like bacteria that come in different shapes and have a variety of metabolic functions. Archaea are also described as single-celled microorganisms that lack organelles. The document outlines different types of microbial metabolisms including autotrophs that produce their own food and heterotrophs that obtain energy through respiration. It also summarizes various protists like algae, diatoms, dinoflagellates, foraminiferans, radiolarians, and ciliates. Fungi are also briefly discussed as eukaryotic decomposers and parasites.
Bacteria are classified in several ways:
1. By staining (Gram positive/negative, acid-fast), shape (cocci, bacilli), motility, environment (aerobic/anaerobic).
2. The bacterial cell has a cell wall, cell membrane, flagella/fimbriae and cytoplasm. The cell wall provides structure and protection through its peptidoglycan layer.
3. Bacteria are further classified based on nutrition sources, temperature, pH and salt tolerance ranges they thrive in. Most bacteria serve important ecological roles while some can cause disease.
This document provides an overview of the kingdom Protista, which includes mostly single-celled eukaryotic organisms. It discusses the diversity of protists, including their habitats, modes of nutrition, and life cycles. It then describes several examples of protist groups in more detail, including Euglenozoa (euglenoids and kinetoplastids), Alveolata (dinoflagellates, ciliates, apicomplexans), Stramenopiles (brown algae, diatoms), and Rhodophyta (red algae). It highlights the importance of protists and their role in ecosystems.
The document discusses the kingdom Protista, which includes mostly unicellular eukaryotic organisms that can reproduce sexually or asexually and exhibit various modes of nutrition including photosynthesis, ingestion, and absorption. Protists display diverse and complex life cycles and forms, and include photosynthetic algae, protozoa, and many parasites of plants and animals. They are classified into major groups based on their structures and genetic relationships.
Algae range in size from microscopic to over 700 feet long. They are photosynthetic organisms that can be unicellular or multicellular. Algae reproduce both sexually and asexually and are classified into phyla based on their pigments, food storage, and cell wall composition. The major phyla are brown, red, and green algae. Algae are ecologically important as primary producers and oxygen generators. They also have many uses including food, hydrocolloids, fertilizers, and wastewater treatment.
Cyanobacteria are a phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis. They have several distinguishing features: they are photoautotrophic and gram-negative; they contain the blue pigments phycocyanin and chlorophyll a; and they can exist as unicellular, colonial, or filamentous forms. Cyanobacteria are found in diverse aquatic and terrestrial habitats worldwide. Though simple prokaryotes, they have a number of cellular structures for photosynthesis such as thylakoids and phycobilisomes. Cyanobacteria play important ecological roles and have several applications, such as nitrogen fixation, bioremediation, and use as nutritional supplements or biofuels.
Similar to B.Sc. Biotech Biochem II BM Unit-3.1 Classification and morphology (20)
Rai University provides high quality education for MSc, Law, Mechanical Engineering, BBA, MSc, Computer Science, Microbiology, Hospital Management, Health Management and IT Engineering.
The document discusses various types of retailers including specialty stores, department stores, supermarkets, convenience stores, and discount stores. It then covers marketing decisions for retailers related to target markets, product assortment, store services, pricing, promotion, and store location. The document also discusses wholesaling, including the functions of wholesalers, types of wholesalers, and marketing decisions faced by wholesalers.
This document discusses marketing channels and channel management. It defines marketing channels as sets of interdependent organizations that make a product available for use. Channels perform important functions like information gathering, stimulating purchases, negotiating prices, ordering, financing inventory, storage, and payment. Channel design considers customer expectations, objectives, constraints, alternatives that are evaluated. Channel management includes selecting, training, motivating, and evaluating channel members. Channels are dynamic and can involve vertical, horizontal, and multi-channel systems. Conflicts between channels must be managed to balance cooperation and competition.
The document discusses integrated marketing communication and its various elements. It defines integrated marketing communication as combining different communication modes like advertising, sales promotion, public relations, personal selling, and direct marketing to provide a complete communication portfolio to audiences. It also discusses the communication process and how each element of the marketing mix communicates to customers. The document provides details on the key components of an integrated marketing communication mix and how it can be used to build brand equity.
Pricing is a key element in determining the profitability and success of a business. The price must be set correctly - if too high, demand may decrease and the product may be priced out of the market, but if too low, revenue may not cover costs. Pricing strategies should consider the product lifecycle stage, costs, competitors, and demand factors. Common pricing methods include penetration pricing for new products, market skimming for premium products, value pricing based on perceived worth, and cost-plus pricing which adds a markup to costs. Price affects demand through price elasticity, with elastic demand more sensitive to price changes.
The document discusses various aspects of branding such as definitions of a brand, brand positioning, brand name selection, brand sponsorship, brand development strategies like line extensions and brand extensions, challenges in branding, importance of packaging, labeling, and universal product codes. It provides examples of well-known brands and analyzes their branding strategies. The key points covered are creating emotional value for customers, building relationships and loyalty, using brands to project aspirational lifestyles and values to command premium prices.
This document outlines the key stages in the new product development (NPD) process. It begins with generating ideas for new products, which can come from internal or external sources. Ideas are then screened using criteria like market size and development costs. Successful concepts are developed and test marketed to customers. If testing goes well, the product proceeds to commercialization with a full market launch. The NPD process helps companies focus their resources on projects most likely to be rewarding and brings new products to market more quickly. It describes common challenges in NPD like defining specifications and managing resources and timelines, and how to overcome them through planning and cross-functional involvement.
A product is an item offered for sale that can be physical or virtual. It has a life cycle and may need to be adapted over time to remain relevant. A product needs to serve a purpose, function well, and be effectively communicated to users. It also requires a name to help it stand out.
A product hierarchy has multiple levels from core needs down to specific items. These include the need, product family, class, line, type, and item or stock keeping unit.
Products go through a life cycle with stages of development, introduction, growth, maturity, and decline. Marketing strategies must adapt to each stage such as heavy promotion and price changes in introduction and maturity.
This document discusses barriers between marketing researchers and managerial decision makers. It identifies three types of barriers: behavioral, process, and organizational. Specific behavioral barriers discussed include confirmatory bias, the difficulty balancing creativity and data, and the newcomer syndrome. Process barriers include unsuccessful problem definition and research rigidity. Organizational barriers include misuse of information asymmetries. The document also discusses ethical issues in marketing research such as deceptive practices, invasion of privacy, and breaches of confidentiality.
The document discusses best practices for organizing, writing, and presenting a marketing research report. It provides guidance on structuring the report with appropriate headings, formatting the introduction and conclusion/recommendation sections, effectively utilizing visuals like tables and graphs, and tips for an ethical and impactful oral presentation of the findings. The goal is to clearly communicate the research results and insights to the client to inform their decision-making.
This document discusses marketing research and its key steps and methods. Marketing research involves collecting, analyzing and communicating information to make informed marketing decisions. There are 5 key steps in marketing research: 1) define the problem, 2) collect data, 3) analyze and interpret data, 4) reach a conclusion, 5) implement the research. Common data collection methods include interviews, surveys, observations, and experiments. The data is then analyzed using statistical techniques like frequency, percentages, and means to interpret the findings and their implications for marketing decisions.
Bdft ii, tmt, unit-iii, dyeing & types of dyeing,Rai University
Dyeing is a method of imparting color to textiles by applying dyes. There are two major types of dyes - natural dyes extracted from plants/animals/minerals and synthetic dyes made in a laboratory. Dyes can be applied at different stages of textile production from fibers to yarns to fabrics to finished garments. Common dyeing methods include stock dyeing, yarn dyeing, piece dyeing, and garment dyeing. Proper dye and method selection are needed for good colorfastness.
Bsc agri 2 pae u-4.4 publicrevenue-presentation-130208082149-phpapp02Rai University
The government requires public revenue to fund its political, social, and economic activities. There are three main sources of public revenue: tax revenue, non-tax revenue, and capital receipts. Tax revenue is collected through direct taxes like income tax, which are paid directly to the government, and indirect taxes like sales tax, where the burden can be shifted to other parties. Non-tax revenue sources include profits from public enterprises, railways, postal services, and the Reserve Bank of India. While taxes provide wide coverage and influence production, they can also reduce incentives to work and increase inequality.
Public expenditure has increasingly grown over time to fulfill three main roles: protecting society, protecting individuals, and funding public works. The growth can be attributed to several causes like increased income, welfare state ideology, effects of war, increased resources and ability to finance expenditures, inflation, and effects of democracy, socialism, and development. There are also canons that govern public spending like benefits, economy, and approval by authorities. The effects of public expenditure include impacts on consumption, production through efficiency, incentives and allocation, and distribution of resources.
Public finance involves the taxing and spending activities of government. It focuses on the microeconomic functions of government and examines taxes and spending. Government ideology can view the community or individual as most important. In the US, the federal government has more spending flexibility than states. Government spending has increased significantly as a percentage of GDP from 1929 to 2001. Major items of federal spending have shifted from defense to entitlements like Social Security and Medicare. Revenues mainly come from individual income taxes, payroll taxes, and corporate taxes at the federal level and property, sales, and income taxes at the state and local levels.
This document provides an overview of public finance. It defines public finance as the study of how governments raise money through taxes and spending, and how these activities affect the economy. It discusses why public finance is needed to provide public goods and services, redistribute wealth, and correct issues like pollution. The key aspects of public finance covered are government spending, revenue sources like income taxes, and how fiscal policy around spending and taxation can influence economic performance.
The document discusses the classical theory of inflation and how it relates to money supply. It states that inflation is defined as a rise in the overall price level in an economy. The quantity theory of money explains that inflation is primarily caused by increases in the money supply as controlled by the central bank. When the money supply grows faster than the amount of goods and services, it leads to too much money chasing too few goods and a rise in prices, or inflation. The document also notes that hyperinflation, which is a very high rate of inflation, can occur when governments print too much money to fund spending.
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3.2 introduction to macro economicsRai University
This document provides an introduction to macroeconomics. It defines macroeconomics as the study of national economies and the policies that governments use to affect economic performance. It discusses key issues macroeconomists address such as economic growth, business cycles, unemployment, inflation, international trade, and macroeconomic policies. It also outlines different macroeconomic theories including classical, Keynesian, and unified approaches.
Market structure identifies how a market is composed in terms of the number of firms, nature of products, degree of monopoly power, and barriers to entry. Markets range from perfect competition to pure monopoly based on imperfections. The level of competition affects consumer benefits and firm behavior. While models simplify reality, they provide benchmarks to analyze real world situations, where regulation may influence firm actions.
This document discusses the concept of perfect competition in economics. It defines perfect competition as a market with many small firms, identical products, free entry and exit of firms, and complete information. The document outlines the key features of perfect competition including: a large number of buyers and sellers, homogeneous products, no barriers to entry or exit, and profit maximization by firms. It also discusses the short run and long run equilibrium of a perfectly competitive firm, including cases where firms experience super normal profits, normal profits, or losses.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
Current Ms word generated power point presentation covers major details about the micronuclei test. It's significance and assays to conduct it. It is used to detect the micronuclei formation inside the cells of nearly every multicellular organism. It's formation takes place during chromosomal sepration at metaphase.
Unlocking the mysteries of reproduction: Exploring fecundity and gonadosomati...AbdullaAlAsif1
The pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys colletei, is known for its viviparous nature, this presents an intriguing case of relatively low fecundity, raising questions about potential compensatory reproductive strategies employed by this species. Our study delves into the examination of fecundity and the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) in the Pygmy Halfbeak, D. colletei (Meisner, 2001), an intriguing viviparous fish indigenous to Sarawak, Borneo. We hypothesize that the Pygmy halfbeak, D. colletei, may exhibit unique reproductive adaptations to offset its low fecundity, thus enhancing its survival and fitness. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study utilizing 28 mature female specimens of D. colletei, carefully measuring fecundity and GSI to shed light on the reproductive adaptations of this species. Our findings reveal that D. colletei indeed exhibits low fecundity, with a mean of 16.76 ± 2.01, and a mean GSI of 12.83 ± 1.27, providing crucial insights into the reproductive mechanisms at play in this species. These results underscore the existence of unique reproductive strategies in D. colletei, enabling its adaptation and persistence in Borneo's diverse aquatic ecosystems, and call for further ecological research to elucidate these mechanisms. This study lends to a better understanding of viviparous fish in Borneo and contributes to the broader field of aquatic ecology, enhancing our knowledge of species adaptations to unique ecological challenges.
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
Or: Beyond linear.
Abstract: Equivariant neural networks are neural networks that incorporate symmetries. The nonlinear activation functions in these networks result in interesting nonlinear equivariant maps between simple representations, and motivate the key player of this talk: piecewise linear representation theory.
Disclaimer: No one is perfect, so please mind that there might be mistakes and typos.
dtubbenhauer@gmail.com
Corrected slides: dtubbenhauer.com/talks.html
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
8.Isolation of pure cultures and preservation of cultures.pdf
B.Sc. Biotech Biochem II BM Unit-3.1 Classification and morphology
1. Cell morphology
Course : B.Sc. Biotechnology, Biochemistry
Sem II
Sub: Basic Microbiology
Unit 3.1
2. Introduction
• In microbiology, the term morphology means
cell shape. Several morphologies are known
among prokaryotes.
• Among the major characteristics of bacterial
cells are their size, shape, structure and
arrangement. These characteristics constitute
the morphology of the cell.
4. 1. Classified into two kingdoms:
-- Eubacteria (true bacteria)
-- Archaebacteria (Ancient Bacteria).
2. are microscopic Prokaryotes. (“before nucleus”)
3. Adapted to living in all environments (even some
extreme) – they exist EVERYWHERE
4. Bacteria are much larger in size than viruses.
BACTERIA
6. 1. Cell wall – keeps cell from bursting or collapsing due to osmotic changes
(changes in water)
2. Flagella is used for movement
3. Pilli (Fimbrae) help bacteria cling to surfaces
4. Prokaryotes do not have organelles or a membrane bound nucleus
5. Nucleoid region contains a circular loop of DNA
6. Plasmids are rings of DNA, used in reproduction
7. Ribosomes in cytoplasm synthesize proteins
a. The cell wall may also be surrounded by an organized capsule
called a glycocalyx and/or by a loose jelly-like sheath called a
slime layer.
b. In parasitic forms, these outer coverings protect the cell from
host defenses.
8. 7. Kingdom Archaebacteria
• Quite different than other bacteria
• They have unusual lipids (fats) in their cell membranes
• They have no peptidoglycan (a carbohydrate found in cell
walls)
• They are sometimes called “extremophiles”
• Live in extreme environments
9. Thermoacidophiles
• Live in extremely acidic environments such as hot springs (up
to 230 F)
• Live near volcanic vents
• Thrive in areas where the pH is less than 2
• Live in areas that leak scalding acid water at the bottom of the
ocean
10. Halophiles
• Salt-loving bacteria
• Found in areas with high salt concentrations
• Great Salt Lake, Dead Sea, etc
• Use salt to generate ATP
11. Methanogens
• Convert hydrogen and carbon dioxide to
methane gas
• Can only live in anaerobic conditions
• Found in “swamp mud” and sewage
• Found in the gut of animals
• Produce “gas” methane
12. 8. Kingdom Eubacteria
• “Stereotypical” bacteria
• Can be classified by shape and by staining
• By shape:
• Bacillus (plural: Bacilli) = rod-shaped
• Coccus (plural: Cocci) = sphere-shaped
• Spirillum (plural: Spirilla) = spiral-shaped
• “Streptococci” = cocci occur in chains
• “Staphylococci” = cocci occur in clusters
13. Classification based upon staining
Gram Positive vs
Gram Negative
Hans Christian Gram -- 1884
-- Crystal violet
Gram positive structure
-- thick layer of peptidoglycan
Gram negative structure
-- inner vs outer membranes
-- lipopolysaccharides and endotoxins
14. 9. Bacterial Reproduction
• Sexual reproduction called “conjugation”
• Asexual reproduction called “binary fission”
• Results in genetically similar/identical bacteria
• Can occur very, very quickly
15. 10. Common Bacteria & Problems
• “Staph” infections….often found on skin. Acne, skin
lesions/sores, etc
• “Strep” infections….strep throat, scarlet fever, impetigo, etc.
• Food Poisoning - Escherichia coli infections
• Pathogens
16. Harmful :
a. human diseases –
strep throat, tuberculosis,
tooth decay and bad
breath, anthrax, plague,
tetanus, food poisoning
17. Harmful :
a. human diseases –
strep throat, tuberculosis,
tooth decay and bad
breath, anthrax, plague,
tetanus, food poisoning
b. food spoilage and poisoning – caused by
Salmonella and Staphylococcus
c. Treated with antibiotics – Some bacteria are able
to survive in presence of antibiotics that kill
other bacteria – antibiotic resistant bacteria
Note: This is why doctors tell you to take the entire amount of
medicine given even if you start to feel better because if not, bacteria
will have the chance to evolve and become antibiotic resistant.
18. D. Importance:
1. Beneficial
a. breakdown dead matter to recycle
nutrients into ecosystem -
decomposers
Example:
a. Compost piles need microorganisms (ex. bacteria) to
decompose (breakdown) matter.
b. dairy industry - bacteria inyogurt, sour cream and
cheese
c. Oil spills - bacteria can digest small oil spills
19. d. symbiotic relationship - E. coli and our
intestines-both organisms benefit
Example: E. coli in intestines helps us digest food and make
vitamins (such as Vitamin K and B-complex) In
return, human intestines provide food and
shelter for bacteria.
(This strain of E. coli is different from the E. coli strain
that causes food poisoning.)
21. Algae
• Simple, eukaryotic phototrophs that carry out
oxygenic photosynthesis using chlorophyll a
• Have sexual reproductive structures
– Every cell becomes a gamete
• Differ widely in distribution, morphology,
reproduction, and biochemical traits
22. Algae
• Distribution of Algae
– Most are aquatic
• Live in the photic zone of fresh, brackish, and saltwater
– Accessory photosynthetic pigments that trap
energy of light and pass it to chlorophyll a
• Morphology of Algae
– Unicellular, colonial, or have simple multicellular
bodies (thalli)
23. II. ALGAE
Vegetative Structures of multicellular algae:
– Thallus: Body. Lacks conductive tissue.
– Holdfasts: Anchor alga to rock.
– Stipes: Hollow, stem-like structures. Does not support
weight.
– Blades: Leaf-like structures.
– Pneumatocyst: Floating, gas-filled bladder.
DIVISIONS OF ALGAE
Green algae: May be unicellular or multicellular.
• Have cellulose cell walls, contain chlorophyll a and b, and
store starch like plants. Most are microscopic. Live close to
water surface. Believed to be the ancestors of terrestrial plants.
• Sexual & Asexual production.
24. Brown Algae or Kelp: Macroscopic (up to 50 m
long). Most are found in coastal waters, at
intermediate depths. Rapid growth. Can be
harvested regularly.
Red Algae: Live at greater ocean depths than other
algae. Red pigments allow them to absorb blue
light that penetrates deepest into ocean. Agar is
extracted from many red algae. Some produce
lethal toxins.
25. DIVISIONS OF ALGAE (Continued)
Diatoms: Unicellular or filamentous algae with complex cell
walls with silica or calcium.
– Two parts of cell wall fit together like Petri dish.
Distinctive patterns are used for identification. Store
energy in form of oil.
– Some diatoms can cause neurological disease (memory
loss and diarrhea) in people who eat mussels, due to
domoic acid intoxication.
– Fossil deposits of diatoms (diatomaceous earth) are used
as filtering agents and abrasives in several industries.
26. Dinoflagellates (Plankton): Unicellular free-floating algae.
Rigid structure due to cellulose in plasma membrane.
Some dinoflagellates produce neurotoxins, which kill
fish, marine mammals, and humans.
– Paralytic shellfish poisoning: Consumption of clams and mussels that
have eaten dinoflagellates (Gonyaulax) that produce neurotoxin.
– Red Tide: Caused by large concentrations of (Gonyaulax).
Euglenoids: Unicellular, flagellated algae. Semi-rigid plasma
membrane (pellicle). Most have anterior red eye spot.
Frequently studied with protozoa, because lack a cell wall.
29. LICHENS
Combination of a green alga (or cyanobacterium) and a fungus.
Mutualistic relationship in which each partner benefits.
– Alga: Provides nutrients by photosynthesis to fungus.
– Fungus: Provides attachment and protection from desiccation.
20,000 species of lichens occupy unique habitats, in which either
fungi or algae could not survive alone: rocks, cement, rooftops,
trees, and newly exposed soil.
Grow very slowly, secreting acids that break down rocks.
Accumulate nutrients needed for plant growth.
Sensitive to air pollution.
Major food source for tundra herbivores (caribou and reindeer).
30. Ecological Importance of Algae
Important part of the food chain in aquatic ecosystems
because they fix carbon dioxide into organic molecules that
can be used by heterotrophs.
80% of the earth’s oxygen is believed to be produced by
planktonic algae.
Algal blooms are indicators of water pollution.
– Grow rapidly in water with high concentrations of organic material
(sewage or industrial waste).
Petroleum and natural gas reserves were formed primarily
from diatoms and plankton.
Many unicellular algae are symbionts in animals.
31. IV. SLIME MOLDS
Have both fungal and animal characteristics.
– Amoeboid stage
– Produce spores like fungi
Eukaryotic, classified as protists.
Cellular and plasmodial (acellular) slime molds.
Life Cycle of Cellular Slime Molds:
– Amoeba stage: Germinate from a spore.
– Slug stage: Many amoebas aggregate and sheath forms. Migration.
– Fruiting body: Releases spores which germinate into amoebas.
Plasmodial (Acellular) Slime Molds
– Mass of protoplasm with many nuclei (plasmodium).
– Capable of sexual reproduction.
34. Unicellular, chemoheterotrophic, eukaryotic organisms of
kingdom Protista (3-2000 mm).
Protozoan - “first animal”.
20,000 species, only a few are pathogens.
Most are free-living organisms that inhabit water and soil.
Some live in association with other organisms as parasites or
symbionts.
Reproduce asexually by fission, budding, or schizogony.
Some exhibit sexual reproduction (e.g.: Paramecium).
Trophozoite: Vegetative stage which feeds upon bacteria
and particulate nutrients.
Cyst: Some protozoa produce a protective capsule under
adverse conditions (toxins, scarce water, food, or oxygen).
35. V. PROTOZOA (Continued)
Nutrition
Most are heterotrophic aerobes. Intestinal protozoa can
grow anaerobically.
Some ingest whole algae, yeast, bacteria, or smaller
protozoans. Others live on dead and decaying matter.
Parasitic protozoa break down and absorb nutrients from
their hosts.
Some transport food across the membrane.
Others have a protective covering (pellicle) and required
specialized structures to take in food.
– Ciliates take in food through a cytostome.
Digestion takes place in vacuoles.
Waste may be eliminated through plasma membrane or an
anal pore.
36. Medically Important Protozoa
1. Amoeboflagellates (Phylum Sarcomastigophora)
Move using pseudopods (false feet) or flagella.
A. Amoebas (Subphylum Sarcodina)
Move by extending blunt, lobelike projections
(pseudopods).
Amoebas engulf food with pseudopods and phagocytize it.
Several species cause amoebic dysenteries of varying
degrees of severity.
– Entamoeba hystolytica: Feeds on red blood cells. Produces
dysentery and extraintestinal cysts.
– Dientamoeba fragilis: Found in 4% of humans. Usually commensal.
Can cause chronic, mild diarrhea.
Other diseases include:
– Meningoencephalitis: Caused by Naegleria fowleri. Penetrate
nasal mucosa of swimmers in warm waters. Mortality rate almost
100%.
– Keratitis: Caused by Acanthamoeba. Can cause blindness.
Associated with use of contact lenses.
37. B. Flagellates (Subphylum Mastigophora)
Move by one or more whiplike flagella. Some parasitic
flagellates have up to eight flagella.
Most are spindle shaped with flagella projecting from
anterior end.
Outer membrane is a tough pellicle. Food is ingested
through an oral groove or cytosotome.
Important pathogens:
– Trichomonas vaginalis: Causes genital and urinary infections. Has
undulating membrane. Lacks a cyst stage. Transmitted sexually or
by fomites.
– Giardia lamblia: Causes a persistent intestinal infection (giardiasis)
with diarrhea, nausea, flatulence, and cramps. In U.S. most
common cause of waterborne diarrhea. About 7% of U.S.
population are healthy carriers.
– Trypanosoma brucei gambiense: Hemoflagellate (blood parasite).
Causes African sleeping sickness.
– Trypanosoma cruzi: Hemoflagellate that causes Chaga’s disease, a
cardiovascular disease common in Texas and Latin America.
38. V. PROTOZOA (Continued)
Nutrition
Most are heterotrophic aerobes. Intestinal protozoa can
grow anaerobically.
Some ingest whole algae, yeast, bacteria, or smaller
protozoans. Others live on dead and decaying matter.
Parasitic protozoa break down and absorb nutrients from
their hosts.
Some transport food across the membrane.
Others have a protective covering (pellicle) and required
specialized structures to take in food.
– Ciliates take in food through a cytostome.
Digestion takes place in vacuoles.
Waste may be eliminated through plasma membrane or an
anal pore.
39. Medically Important Protozoa (Continued)
3. Ciliates (Phylum Ciliophora)
Move and obtain food using cilia.
Only known human pathogen is Balantidium coli, which
causes a severe intestinal infection in pigs and humans.
4. Microsporans (Phylum Mycrospora)
Obligate intracellular parasites, lack mitochondria and
microtubules.
Discovered in 1984 to cause chronic diarrhea and
conjunctivitis, mainly in AIDS patients.
40. VI. HELMINTHS (WORMS)
Characteristics
Eukaryotic, multicellular animals that usually have
digestive, circulatory, nervous, excretory, and reproductive
systems.
Worms with bilateral symmetry, head and tail, and tissue
differentiation (endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm).
Parasitic helminths spend most or all of their lives in host
and usually have the following specializations:
– May lack a digestive system. Absorb nutrients from host’s food,
body fluids, or tissues.
– Have a reduced nervous system.
– Means of locomotion is reduced or absent.
– Complex reproductive system. Individuals produce many eggs that
can infect another host.
41. VI. HELMINTHS (Continued)
Two main groups (phyla)
Platyhelminths (Flatworms)
Nematoda (Roundworms)
Life Cycle
Extremely complex
Intermediate hosts harbor larval (developmental) stage.
Definitive host harbors adult stage.
Sexual reproduction strategies:
– Dioecious: Male and female reproductive organs are found in
separate individuals.
– Monoecious (Hermaphroditic): One animal has both male and
female sex organs. Most hermaphrodites copulate with other
animals, a few copulate with themselves.
42. VI. HELMINTHS (Continued)
II. Nematodes (Roundworms)
Cylindrical body tapered at each end.
Have a complete digestive system: mouth, intestine, and
anus.
Body is covered by tough cuticle that resists drying and
crushing.
Most species are dioecious: separate males and females.
– Males are smaller than females and have one or two spicules on
posterior end.
Over 90,000 known species. Most are free-living. Only
about 50 are human parasites.
Life cycle of parasitic nematodes is simpler than that of
flatworms.
Infections can be caused by eggs or larvae.
43. II. Nematodes (Roundworms) Continued
Infectious eggs
– Pinworm (Enterobius vermicularis): Spends entire life in human
host. Adults live in large intestine. Female lays eggs in perianal
region which causes itching. Up to 90% of children are infected
through contaminated clothes or bedding. Infection usually
disappears after a few years.
– Ascaris (Ascaris lumbricoides): Large nematode, up to 30 cm.
Dioecious with sexual dimorphism. Live in small intestines of
humans, horses, and pigs. Eggs can survive in soil for long time.
Infectious larvae
– Adult Hookworm (Necator americanus): Live in small intestine of
humans, eggs are excreted in feces. Enter host by penetrating skin.
Enters bloodstream, travels to lungs, swallowed in sputum.
Avoided by wearing shoes.
– Trichinosis (Trichinella spiralis): Reproduce sexually in small
intestine of humans. Obtained from eating undercooked pork.
Larvae enter blood vessels and form cysts throughout body.
– Anisakines (Wriggly worms): Infected fish and squid. Killed by
freezing and cooking.
50. Fungi
• Chemoheterotrophic
• Have cell walls typically composed of
chitin
• Do not perform photosynthesis
– Lack chlorophyll
• Related to animals
51. Fungi
• The Significance of Fungi
– Decompose dead organisms and recycle their
nutrients
– Help plants absorb water and minerals
– Used for food and in manufacture of foods and
beverages
– Produce antibiotics
– 30% cause diseases of plants, animals, and humans
– Can spoil fruit, pickles, jams, and jellies
52. I. FUNGI (Mycology)
Diverse group of heterotrophs.
– Many are ecologically important saprophytes
– Others are parasites.
Most are multicellular, but yeasts are unicellular.
Most are aerobes or facultative anaerobes.
Cell walls are made up of chitin.
Over 100,000 fungal species identified.
Only about 100 are human or animal pathogens.
– Most human fungal infections are nosocomial and/or occur in
immunocompromised individuals.
Fungal diseases in plants cause over 1 billion dollars/year in losses.
53. CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI
1. Yeasts
Unicellular fungi, nonfilamentous, typically oval or spherical cells.
Reproduce by mitosis:
– Fission yeasts: Divide evenly to produce two new cells
(Schizosaccharomyces).
– Budding yeasts: Divide unevenly by budding (Saccharomyces).
Budding yeasts can form pseudohypha, a short chain of undetached
cells.
Candida albicans invade tissues through pseudohyphae.
Yeasts are facultative anaerobes, which allows them to grow in a
variety of environments.
– When oxygen is available, they carry out aerobic respiration.
– When oxygen is not available, they ferment carbohydrates to produce ethanol
and carbon dioxide.
54. CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI (Continued)
2. Molds and Fleshy Fungi
Multicellular, filamentous fungi.
Identified by physical appearance, colony characteristics,
and reproductive spores.
– Thallus: Body of a mold or fleshy fungus. Consists of many hyphae.
– Hyphae (Sing: Hypha): Long filaments of cells joined together.
Septate hyphae: Cells are divided by cross-walls (septa).
Coenocytic (Aseptate) hyphae: Long, continuous cells that are
not divided by septa.
Hyphae grow by elongating at the tips.
Each part of a hypha is capable of growth.
Vegetative Hypha: Portion that obtains nutrients.
Reproductive or Aerial Hypha: Portion connected with
reproduction.
– Mycelium: Large, visible, filamentous mass made up of many
hyphae.
55. CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI (Continued)
Dimorphic Fungi
Can exist as both multicellular fungi (molds) and yeasts.
Many pathogenic species.
– Mold form produces aerial and vegetative hyphae.
– Yeast form reproduces by budding.
Dimorphism in pathogenic fungi typically depends on
temperature:
– At 37oC: Yeast form.
– At 25oC: Mold form.
Dimorphism in nonpathogenic fungi may depend on other
factors: Carbon dioxide concentration.
56. NUTRITIONAL ADAPTATIONS OF FUNGI
Fungi absorb their food, rather than ingesting it.
Fungi grow better at a pH of 5, which is too acidic for most
bacteria.
Almost all molds are aerobic. Most yeasts are facultative
anaerobes.
Fungi are more resistant to high osmotic pressure than
bacteria.
Fungi can grow on substances with very low moisture.
Fungi require less nitrogen than bacteria to grow.
Fungi can break down complex carbohydrates (wood,
paper), that most bacteria cannot.
57. Fungi• Nutrition of Fungi
– Acquire nutrients by absorption
– Most are saprobes
– Haustoria allow some to derive nutrients from
living plants and animals
– May use ionizing radiation as energy source
58. Fungi
• Reproduction in Fungi
– All have some means of asexual reproduction involving
mitosis and cytokinesis
– Most also reproduce sexually
– Budding and asexual spore formation
• Yeasts bud in manner similar to prokaryotic budding
• Pseudohypha
– Series of buds that remain attached to one another and to
parent cell
• Filamentous fungi produce lightweight spores that disperse
over large distances
59. LIFE CYCLE OF FUNGI
Filamentous fungi can reproduce asexually by
fragmentation of their hyphae.
Fungal spores are formed from aerial hyphae and are
used for both sexual and asexual reproduction.
1. Asexual spores: Formed by the aerial hyphae of one organism.
New organisms are identical to parent.
Conidiospore: Unicellular or multicellular spore that is not
enclosed in a sac.
Chlamydospore: Thick-walled spore formed within a hyphal
segment.
Sporangiospore: Asexual spore formed within a sac
(sporangium).
2. Sexual spores: Formed by the fusion of nuclei from two opposite
mating strains of the same species. New organisms are different
from both parents.
61. IMPORTANT DIVISIONS OF FUNGI
2. Zygomycota (Conjugation Fungi)
Also known as bread molds.
Saprophytic molds with coenocytic hyphae
Asexual Reproduction: Used most of the time.
Sporangiospore: Asexual spore enclosed within a
sporangium or sac at the end on an aerial hypha.
Sexual Reproduction: Occurs through conjugation, the
joining of hypha of two different strains (plus and minus).
Zygospores: Sexual spores which are enclosed in a thick,
resistant wall.
Generally not pathogens.
– Rhizopus nigricans: Common black bread mold. May cause
opportunistic infections in diabetes patients
62. IMPORTANT DIVISIONS OF FUNGI
3. Ascomycota (Sac Fungi)
Molds with septate hyphae and some yeasts.
Asexual Reproduction: Conidiospores not enclosed in a sac.
Become airborne easily. Form chains (broom-like structures).
Sexual Reproduction: Ascospores enclosed in a sac-like
structure.
Include common antibiotic producing fungi and yeasts, and
several human pathogens.
– Penicillium notatum (Produces penicillin)
– Saccharomyces (Brewer’s yeast)
– Trychophyton (Athlete’s foot)
– Aspergillus (Carcinogenic aflatoxin in peanuts),
– Blastomyces (Respiratory infections)
– Histoplasma capsulatum (Respiratory and systemic infections)
63. IMPORTANT DIVISIONS OF FUNGI
4. Basidiomycota (Club Fungi)
Have septate hyphae.
Include mushrooms, toadstools, rusts, and smuts.
Sexual Reproduction: Produce basidiospores: Spores
formed externally on a club shaped sexual structure or base
called basidium.
Asexual Reproduction: Through hyphae.
Examples:
– Cryptococcus: Causes opportunistic respiratory and CNS infections in
AIDS patients.
– Amanita: Mushroom produces lethal toxins to humans.
– Claviceps purpurea: Produces ergot toxin in wheat and rye.
64. IMPORTANT DIVISIONS OF FUNGI
1. Deuteromycota
Not known to produce sexual spores.
Reproduce asexually.
Catch-all category for unclassified fungi:
– Pneumocystis carinii: Causes pneumonia in AIDS
patients. Leading cause of death in AIDS patients.
Originally classified as a protozoan.
– Candida albicans: Causes yeast infections of vagina in
women. Opportunistic infections of mucous
membranes in AIDS patients.
65. FUNGAL DISEASES
Mycosis: Any fungal disease. Tend to be chronic because fungi grow
slowly.
Mycoses are classified into the following categories:
I. Systemic mycoses: Fungal infections deep within the body. Can
affect a number if tissues and organs.
Usually caused by fungi that live in the soil and are inhaled. Not
contagious.
Examples:
– Histoplasmosis (Histoplasma capsulatum): Initial infection in lungs.
Later spreads through blood to most organs.
– Coccidiomycosis (Coccidioides immites): Resembles tuberculosis.
66. FUNGAL DISEASES (Continued)
III. Subcutaneous mycoses: Fungal infections beneath the skin.
Caused by saprophytic fungi that live in soil or on vegetation.
Infection occurs by implantation of spores or mycelial
fragments into a skin wound.
Can spread to lymph vessels.
IV. Superficial mycoses: Infections of hair shafts and superficial
epidermal cells. Prevalent in tropical climates.
67. FUNGAL DISEASES (Continued)
Opportunistic mycoses: Caused by organisms that are
generally harmless unless individual has weakened
defenses:
– AIDS and cancer patients
– Individuals treated with broad spectrum antibiotics
– Very old or very young individuals (newborns).
Examples:
– Aspergillosis: Inhalation of Aspergillus spores.
– Yeast Infections or Candidiasis: Caused mainly by Candida albicans.
Part of normal mouth, esophagus, and vaginal flora.
68. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI
25-50% of harvested fruits and vegetables are damaged by
fungi.
Fungal infections of plants are commonly called rots, rusts,
blights, wilts, and smuts.
– Phytophthora infestans: Caused great potato famine in mid-1800s.
Over 1 million people died from starvation in Ireland. Many
immigrated to the U.S.
Beneficial fungi:
– Candida oleophila: Prevents fungal growth on harvested fruits.
– Saccharomyces cerevisiae: Used to make bread and wine.
– Genetically engineered yeast strains are used to make proteins
(Hepatitis B vaccine).
– Taxomyces: Produces anticancer drug taxol.
– Trichoderma: Produces cellulase. Used to make fruit juice.
71. General features of Viruses
Viruses are infectious agents with both living
and nonliving characteristics.
1. Living characteristics of viruses
a. They reproduce at a fantastic rate, but only
in living host cells.
b. They can mutate.
72. …General features of Viruses
2. Nonliving characteristics of viruses
• They are acellular, that is, they contain no
cytoplasm or cellular organelles.
• They carry out no metabolism on their own
and must replicate using the host cell's
metabolic machinery.
73. …General features of Viruses
– Virus particles contains either DNA or RNA
(not both)
–Nucleic Acid is surrounded or coated by a
protein shell (capsid)
–Some viruses possess a membrane-like
envelope surrounding the particle
74. …General Properties of viruses
–Consists of 1 molecule of DNA or RNA
enclosed in coat of protein
–May have additional layers
–Cannot reproduce independent of living
cells nor carry out cell division as
procaryotes and eucaryotes do
• An intact viral particle is called a virion.
77. The Structure of Viruses
Virion size range is ~10-400 nm
virions : nucleocapsid
Some viruses : only of a nucleocapsid, others
have additional components
Envelopes
virions having envelopes = enveloped
viruses
virions lacking envelopes = naked viruses
78. Introduction – Structure – Replication – Virology – Medicine - Review
A VIRUS is either DNA or RNA, that is protected by a protein coat called a
CAPSID.
DNA CAPSID
VIRUS
11
79. How Do Viruses Differ From Living Organisms?
Viruses are not living organisms because they are incapable of
carrying out all life processes.
Viruses
– are not made of cells
– can not reproduce on their own
– do not grow or undergo division
– do not transform energy
– lack machinery for protein synthesis
Images: Eukaryotic living organism named Kayla, T. Port; H1N1
Influenza Virus, Public Health Image Library (PHIL) #11702
80. What Are Viruses Made Of?
Nucleic acid, proteins, and sometimes, lipids.
Nucleic acid surrounded by a protective protein coat, called a Capsid.
An outer membranous layer, called an Envelope. made of lipid and protein,
surrounds the capsid in some viruses.
81. Protein coat provides protection for viral nucleic acid and means of attachment to
host’s cells.
Composed of protein subunits called capsomeres.
Some capsids composed of single
type of capsomere; others
composed of multiple types.
The Viral Capsid
What Are Viruses Made Of?
The Viral Envelope
Acquired from host cell during viral replication or release; envelope is
portion of membrane system of host.
Envelope’s proteins and glycoproteins often play role in host recognition.
82. Helical viruses
• resemble long rods that may be rigid or
flexible.
• The viral nucleic acid is found within a hollow,
cylindrical capsid that has a helical.
• viruses - cause rabies and Ebola hemorrhagic
fever are helical viruses.
83. Polyhedral Viruses
• Many animal, plant, and bacterial viruses –
polyhedral viruses.
• The shape of capsid -icosahedron, a regular
polyhedron with 20 triangular faces and 12
corners .
• capsomeres of each face -equilateral triangle.
• example –adenovirus, poliovirus.
84. Complex Viruses
• bacterial viruses – complicated structures : called
complex viruses.
• One example -bacteriophage.
• Some bacteriophages : capsids to which additional
structures are attached.
• capsid (head): polyhedral and the tail sheath is helical.
• head - the nucleic acid.
• example - poxviruses, which do not contain
• clearly identifiable capsids but have several coats
around the nucleic acid.
85. • tail :hollow tube through which the nucleic acid passes
during infection
• T4 -largest phage.
• T4 tail - surrounded by a contractile sheath, which
contracts during infection of the bacterium.
• end of the tail, phages : base plate and one or more tail
fibers attached to it.
• The base plate and tail fibers - involved in the
• binding of the phage to the bacterial cell.
• Not all phages have base plates and tail fibers.
87. ENVELOPE GLYCOPROTEINS
• They are firmly embedded in the envelope
bilayer.
• This is facilitated by domains of host
membrane proteins called spanners.
• They can form spikes or other structures on the
outside of the virion.
• These can be used to attach to a host cell.
88. Let’s look at the Defining Properties
of Viruses
• Viruses are parasites that invade cells
• Viruses have either DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic
Acid) or RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
• Viruses direct the synthesis of new virus within
a host cell.
• Newly made viruses infect other cells.
Introduction – Structure – Replication – Virology – Medicine - Review
89. Cell Biology
Let's review a little cell biology since viruses cannot multiply without the help
of cells. The viruses enter the cell and forces the cell to make more viruses.
The cell has three main zones:
Introduction – Structure – Replication – Virology – Medicine - Review
Cytoplasm – this is the “factory”
where biochemical reactions
occur.
Membrane – this double layer protects
the cell and allows the cell to
communicate with the outside
environment.
Nucleus – this holds the DNA
or genetic information
about the cell.
90. Genetic Material of Viruses
Show more variety in nature of their genomes than do cells.
Like cells, viral genome is a nucleic acid., but can be _____ or ____; never
both.
Primary way scientists categorize and classify viruses.
Can be dsDNA, ssDNA, dsRNA, ssRNA.
May be linear and composed of several segments or single and circular.
Much smaller than genomes of cells.
What Are Viruses Made Of?
91. DNA/RNA
DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid, is
the double-stranded molecule
that encodes genetic
information (e.g. your hair color,
height, etc.) in the nucleus of
cells. The complete set of DNA
in a cell is called the genome.
RNA, ribonucleic acid, is typically
single stranded so that it can be read
to make proteins.
Introduction – Structure – Replication – Virology – Medicine - Review
DNA or RNA code for genes that defines who we are.
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92. GENOMIC PACKAGING
• Genome packaging has an important role in
the infection.
• Viral genomes are packaged in one of three
ways:
• Directly in the capsid-inner side of the
protein coat
• Enclosed in special proteins-nucleic acid
binding protein
• Enclosed in proteins from the host cell
94. Enveloped Viruses
Introduction – Structure – Replication – Virology – Medicine - Review
Enveloped viruses are viruses which have a membrane coat surrounding the
protein coat or capsid. These viruses are common in animal viruses, but are
uncommon in plant viruses.
Herpes Simplex Virus.
A membrane (made of proteins)
surrounds the capsid (also made of
proteins) which surrounds the viral DNA.
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95. DISEASE VIRUSES
AIDS HIV
Wart
Herpes Simplex
Virus
Flu Influenza
Measles Morbillivirus
Cancer Hepatitis B
Introduction – Structure – Replication – Virology – Medicine - Review
Examples of some viral diseases:
96. Who do viruses infect?
• Viruses infect Bacteria
– These viruses are called bacteriophages
• Viruses infect Plants
– One example is the Tobacco Mosaic Virus
• Viruses infect Animals
– One example is the common cold
Viruses usually infect a specific host including:
Introduction – Structure – Replication – Virology – Medicine - Review
97. Replication Phases
V - Release
- Assembly of virus
DNA and protein
coat into whole
new viruses
- Leaving the cell
http://www.cat.cc.md.us/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit2/viruses/adlyt.html
Phase I
Phase II
Phase IV Phase VPhase III
Introduction – Structure – Replication – Virology – Medicine - Review
I, II, III - Viruses enter cell
- Attachment to cell membrane
- Penetration inside cell
- Losing virus protein coat
IV - Replication
- Tricks cell into making
more viral DNA
- Tricks cell into making
viral protein coat
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98. The concept of a virus as an organism
challenges the way we define life:
* Viruses do not breathe.
* Viruses do not metabolize.
* Viruses do not grow.
* However, they do reproduce.
Introduction – Structure – Replication – Virology – Medicine - Review
99. How Viruses Multiply
• Active viruses enter cells and immediately begin to
multiply, leading to the quick death of the invaded cells.
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100. THE INFECTION CYCLE
• The infection cycle was first worked out in
bacteriophages (bacterial viruses).
• Animal virus infections can be either lytic or
lysogenic.
101. Filters – Very small holes in material filter only
viruses through
Sedimentary Centrifugation – A sample is spun
so fast, different elements in it are separated by
density
Electron Microscope – Electrons are smaller than
light wavelengths, so viruses can be “seen” by
reflecting electrons off of them
102. Viruses Can Help Cells, Too
Introduction – Structure – Replication – Virology – Medicine - Review
- Since viruses can transport DNA and RNA into
cells, scientists are exploring Gene Therapy
- In Gene Therapy, viral genetic material is
replaced with new DNA
- In time, this could be used to cure genetic
diseases. Currently we have no cure for
these types of illnesses
103. References
Books:
1. Biology of microorganisms By M. T. Madigan, J. M. Martinko, D. A. Stahl and D. P. Clark
Images:
1. https://ramyaraj16.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/ib0461.jpg
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_Lecture_Slides_pdf.pdf.jpg
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4. http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_Toi-rh0Nm00/TLLd4ElGLzI/AAAAAAAAGvM/g_dVIymgArw/s1600/pinworms.jpg
5. http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-8i8Q-_HlgSU/Un1bMDbKdYI/AAAAAAAAAV4/GcHOWaV1Wy4/s1600/lombriga.jpg
6. https://learnzoology.files.wordpress.com/2014/04/roundworms02.jpg?w=256&h=203
7. http://www.petualangan-aghaja.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Tsetse.jpg
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9. https://lh3.ggpht.com/ZFnF71d-Jk-8Lzrox3roj9ynttDnFzCob13hIVn4qp6Gi221zhYe7LiQUIvYrJIzpm61=s118
10. https://lh3.ggpht.com/zIEMb1BYMEVoFxz8xlzkN4rhTA_-_XIWaOpvRFEUZnEsDVhQTAoROfbKXbiLHrf8ld_9YQ=s97
11. https://lh6.ggpht.com/GAc1EoWlGfSwYSm5UvJBWYApshpoYNqOyRBbTkFiS24EBDIfMRUUddWAgY-
TO5Xo2x2Eww=s114
12. https://lh4.ggpht.com/HxdfAvLfngJ9_EvXU4FtA4gmqtlfvxD06rXXwkYhO4bEA7O49e6vflLh6v5uM9TC2Rg=s88
13. https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/-OBG_lFwGfAk/UlMyTOvz6RI/AAAAAAAAACo/D4VqNRWUU3w/s640/blogger-
image--814710016.jpg
14. https://lh4.ggpht.com/iGsWdNeV96W9w3ysaoTo0OOVzMPsVBE2MTFg2h6-ra4HJZdIYN4rY9JVUfOxmO3O-
81yJA=s114
15. https://lh5.ggpht.com/5llormqCVcqi_F96_HUxzQxzERwBroQu5wAA4dV6AUf84deWqNQtCDpM-dIjejawk8COVxI=s119
16. http://classes.midlandstech.com/carterp/Courses/bio225/chap13/Slide16.JPG