This document discusses biological classification. It provides an overview of the major classification systems proposed by Aristotle, Linnaeus, Haeckel, Copeland, Whittaker, and Woese. Whittaker's five kingdom system, which divides organisms into Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia, is described as the most widely accepted classification. Each kingdom is then defined, with Monera covering prokaryotes, Protista unicellular eukaryotes, Fungi heterotrophic organisms like mushrooms, Plantae photosynthetic eukaryotes, and Animalia multicellular organisms. Key aspects like nutrition, reproduction, and structure are outlined for representatives

1. BIOLOGICAL
CLASSIFICATION
By: Dr. Pritima Gupta

2. HISTORY OF CLASSIFICATION
• He gave two kingdom classification.
ARISTOTLE’S CLASSIFICATION
ARISTOTLE
PLANTS
ANIMALS
TREES
SHRUBS
HERBS
WITH RBC
W/O RBC

3. • He also gave two kingdom classification in 1758.
LINNAEUS CLASSIFICATION
LINNAEUS
PLANTS
ANIMALS

4. DRAWBACKS OF TWO KINGDOM
CLASSIFICTAION
1. Organisms which possess characteristics of both plants and
animals were having no place to keep.
2. It included unicellular & multicellular organisms in same group.
3. It did not differentiate between heterotrophic fungi and
autotrophic green plants. Fungi have chitinous cell wall while the
green plants have cellulosic cell wall.

5. EARNEST HAEKEL CLASSIFICATION
• He gave three kingdom classification.
EARNESTHAEKEL
PROTISTA
PLANTAE
ANIMALIA
But again where to keep
Fungi?????

6. • He gave four kingdom classification.
• He included prokaryotes in Monera
itself.
• Unicellular eukaryotes were included
in Protista.
• This was a NATURAL SYSTEM
OF CLASSIFICATION.
HERBERT F. COPELAND
CLASSIFICATION
MONERA
PROTISTA
PLANTAE
ANIMALIA
C
O
P
E
L
A
N
D

7. • He gave the most accepted and running five kingdom classification.
• This classification is based on cell structure, thallus organisation,
mode of nutrition, reproduction & phylogenetic relationships
R.H. WHITTAKER CLASSIFICATION
WHITTAKER
MONERA
PROTISTA
FUNGI
PLANTAE
ANIMALIA

8. • He gave six kingdom classification.
WOESE CLASSIFICATIONWOESE
ARCHAEBACTERIA
EUBACTERIA
PROTISTA
FUNGI
PLANTAE
ANIMALIA
• Archaebacteria
included old,
ancient bacteria
which can still
survive in all
conditions.
• Eubacteria are
advanced bacteria.
We can call them
as present day
bacteria.

9. WHITTAKER’S KINGDOM
CLASSIFICATION

10. KINGDOM MONERA
• It includes all prokaryotic organisms.
• Pro = primitive; karyon = nucleus.
• HABITAT – All possible environment.
• Based on the shape, bacteria are
4 categories –
1. COCCI/ COCCUS (circular)
2. BACILLI/ BACILLUS (rod)
3. VIBRIO (comma)
4. SPIRULA/ SPIRULLUM (spiral)
5. MYCELIA (thread)

11. • Two cocci = DIPLOCOCCUS
• Cocci arranged in chain = STREPTOCOCCUS
• Cocci in cluster = STAPHYLOCOCCUS

12. CLASSIFICATION OF BACTERIA BASED
UPON FLAGELLA
BACTERIA
Based upon +nce/ -
nce of flagella
TRICHOUS
Flagella +nt
ATRICHOUS
Flagella -nt
1 flagella = MONOTRICHOUS
1 flagella at both the ends = AMPHITRICHOUS
Many flagella at 1 end = CEPHALOTRICHOUS
Cluster of flagella at both the ends = LOPHOTRICHOUS
Flagella all around the cell = PERITRICHOUS

13. STRUCTURE OF FLAGELLA
• Flagella has three parts –
[1] BASAL BODY – Rings
[2] HOOK – Connection b/w
basal body & filament
[3] FILAMENT – Tapering.
Made up of globular protein
(FLAGELLIN) arranged in
helical manner.

14. GRAM STAINING
• Staining process was developed by HANS CHRISTIAN GRAM.

15. RESPIRATION IN BACTERIA
RESPIRATION
AEROBIC
ANAEROBIC
1. OBLIGATE AEROBES – Bacteria
which can survive only in +nce of O2.
2. OBLIGATE ANAEROBES – Absence
of O2 is must for survival.
3. FACULTATIVE AEROBES – Bacteria
can survive in +nce of O2 also but they
are normally anaerobic.
4. FACULTATIVE ANAEROBES –
Normally they are aerobic but can survive
in -nce of O2 also.

16. MODES OF NUTRITION IN BACTERIA
BACTERIA
ARCHAEBACTERIA
HALOPHILES
THERMOACIDOPHILES
METHANOGENS
EUBACTERIA
AUTOTROPHS
HETEROTROPHS
PHOTOAUTOTROPHS
CHEMOAUTOTROPHS
SAPROPHYTES
SYMBIOTIC
PARASITIC

17. #PHOTOSYNTHETIC AUTOTROPHS
(CYANOBACTERIA)
• They have chlorophyll a similar to that
of green plants.
• Unicellular, colonial or filamentous,
marine or terrestrial algae.
• The colonies are generally surrounded by
gelatinous sheath.
• Cytoplasm is divided into 2 zones –
• They often form blooms in polluted
water bodies.
• Some of them fix atmospheric N2 in
specialized cells called
HETEROCYSTS.
• E.g. Nostoc & Anabaena.
• Scientists believe that cyanobacteria has
shown ENDODYMBIOSIS.
Colourvaries–from
greentodeeppurple,
oftenbluegreen.

18. #CHEMOSYNTHETIC AUTOTROPHS
• They oxidize inorganic substances such as nitrates, nitrites & ammonia and
use the released energy for their ATP production.
• They play a great role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, iron
& sulphur.
#EFFECTS OF BACTERIA
• They are used to make curd from milk.
• Production of antibiotics.
• Fixing nitrogen in legume roots etc.
• Some are pathogens causing damage to human beings, crops, farm animals
and pets. E.g. Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, and citrus canker etc.

19. MODE OF REPRODUCTION IN BACTERIA
REPRODUCTION
SEXUAL
TRANSFORMATION
TRANSDUCTION
CONJUGATION
ASEXUAL/ VEGETATIVE
BINARY FISSION
ENDOSPORE
FORMATION

20. Transformation was explained by
GRIFFITH.
Transduction was given by ZINDER &
LEDERBERG.
Conjugation was given by LEDERBERG
& TATUM.

22. ARCHAEBACTERIA
• They live in harshest habitats such as –
Extreme salty areas (HALOPHILES),
Hot springs (THERMOACIDOPHILES) and
Marshy areas (METHANOGENS).
• Archaebacteria have a different cell wall structure for their survival in extreme
conditions and is made up of hydrocarbons and lipids.
• Methanogens are present in the guts of ruminant animals (cows, buffaloes etc).
They produce methane (biogas) from the dung of these animals.

23. MYCOPLASMA
• They are organisms without a cell
wall.
• They are the smallest living
cells known.
• They can survive without oxygen.
• Many are pathogenic in animals
and plants.
• Also k/as PPLO
(PLEURO PNEUMONIA LIKE
ORGANISM)

24. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA
#BENEFITS
1. LAB
2. Biotechnology
3. Pest resistant plants
4. Fibre retting
5. Curing of leaves
6. Cellulose digestion
7. Sewage treatment etc.
#HARMFULACTIVITIES
1. Disease causing
2. Denitrifying bacteria
3. Food poisoning etc.

25. Unicellular
eukaryotes
Primarily
aquatic
Nucleus and
other membrane-
bound
organelles. Some
have flagella or
cilia.
It forms a
link with
plants,
animals and
fungi.
Term given
by
HAECKEL
KINGDOM PROTISTA
PROTISTA
PHOTOSYNTHETIC
PROTOZOAN
SAPROPHYTIC

26. CHRYSOPHYTA
• They are found in fresh water and marine environments.
• They are microscopic and float passively in water currents (plankton).
• Most of them are photosynthetic.
• It includes diatoms & golden algae (desmids).
1. Microscopic, single celled.
2. Cell is k/as FRUSTULE/ SHELL.
3. Cell wall is divided into two halves –
upper half – EPITHECA
lower half - HYPOTHECA
DIATOMS

27. • They have siliceous cell walls forming two thin overlapping shells, which fit
together as in a soap box.
• The cell wall deposit of diatoms over billions of years in their habitat is
known as ‘diatomaceous earth’. This is used in polishing, filtration of oils and
syrups.
• Diatoms are the chief ‘producers’ in the oceans.
• Diatoms are k/as JEWELS OF PLANT KINGDOM.
• Modes of reproduction –
1. Vegetative reproduction
2. Sexual reproduction
• DIATOMS BASED UPON SHAPES – PINNATE
• CENTRIC

29. DINOFLAGELLATES
• Mostly marine and photosynthetic.
• They appear yellow, green, brown,
blue or red depending on the main
pigments in cells.
• Cell wall has stiff cellulose plates
on the outer surface.
• Most of them have 2 flagella;
one lies longitudinally and the
other transversely in a furrow between
wall plates.
• Red dinoflagellates (E.g. Gonyaulax)
undergo rapid multiplication so that
the sea appears red (RED TIDES).
• WHORLING WHIPS.
• Bioluminescence/ Phosphorescence due to
LUCIFERIN.
• FIRE ALGAE.
#MODE OF REPRODUCTION
• Asexual mainly.
• Few forms like Ceratium & Noctiluca – sexual
reproduction.

30. EUGLENA
• Mainly fresh water organisms
found in stagnant water.
• Instead of cell wall, they have
a protein rich layer called
PELLICLE. It makes their body
flexible.
• They have 2 flagella, a short
and a long one.
• They are photosynthetic in the
presence of sunlight.
• When deprived of sunlight they
behave like heterotrophs by
predating on other smaller organisms.
ASTAXANTHIN

31. • They being acting as connecting link –
Botanists placed them under – Division Euglenophyta
Zoologists placed them under – Phylum Protozoa;
Class – Mastigophora
Common term – PHYTOMASTIGOPHORA.
#MODE OF REPRODUCTION -
• Asexual – Longitudinal binary fission.
• Unfavourable condition
– Encysted; red colour –
HAEMATOCHROME.
• Adverse condition –
PALMELLA STAGE.

32. SLIME MOLDS/ SLIME FUNGI
• They are saprophytic protists.
• The body moves along decaying twigs and leaves engulfing organic
material.
• Under suitable conditions, they form an aggregation called
PLASMODIUM which may grow and spread over several feet.
• During unfavourable conditions, the plasmodium differentiates and forms
fruiting bodies bearing spores at their tips.
• Spores possess true walls. They are extremely resistant and survive for
many years. The spores are dispersed by air
• They are generally saprophytic, holocarpic.
• Spores germinate to produce – MYXAMOEBAE or BIFLAGELLATED
SWARM CELLS.

33. DIVISION OF PROTISTS BASED UPON
LOCOMOTIVE STRUCTURE -
ZOOFLAGELLATA
HABITAT –
Endoparasitic &
pathogenic.
LOCOMOTION –
Flagella
NUTRITION –
Heterotrophic &
saprozoic.
REPRODUCTION –
Asexual – longitudinal
binary fission.
EX: Trypanosoma
gambiense.
AMOEBOID
HABITAT – Fresh water
or marine; Endoparasitic
or pathogenic.
LOCOMOTION –
Pseudopodia
NUTRITION –
Heterophobic and
holozoic
REPRODUCTION –
Asexual – binary/
multiple fission.
EX: Sarcodina/
Amoeboid protists
CILIATED
HABITAT – Fresh water,
some Endoparasitic &
pathogenic.
LOCOMOTION – Cilia
NUTRITION –
Heterophobic & holozoic
REPRODUCTION –
Asexual – transverse binary
fission
Sexual – conjugation or
autogamy.
EX: Paramecium
SPOROZOA
HABITAT – Endoparasitic
and pathogenic
LOCOMOTION –
Absent.
NUTRITION –
Heterophobic and
sporozoic
REPRODUCTION –
Alternation of generation
b/w asexual (multiple
fission) and sexual
(syngamy)
EX: Plasmodium

34. • It is a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms either parasitic or
saprophytes.
• Thallus is made up of HYPHAE.
• Fungi are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water, soil and on animals and
plants.
• They prefer to grow in warm and humid places.
• E.g. Bread Mould, Orange Rots, Mushroom, Toadstools etc.
• White spots on mustard leaves are due to a parasitic fungus.
• Branch which deals with study of fungi is MYCOLOGY.
KINGDOM FUNGI

35. #FUNGAL STRUCTURE & NATURE OF
GROWTH
• Basic unit – hypha.
• Numerous hyphae network – MYCELIUM.
• Some fungi live symbiotically with algae – LICHEN.
• Hyphae could be -
• A body which consists of a single cell
and is completed converted into a
reproductive structure is k/as
HOLOCARPIC.
• When only a part of the thallus is used
up in the formation of reproductive
structure, called as EUCARPIC.

36. • When the mycelium gets organised into loosely or compactly woven tissue
structure is called PLECTENCHYMA.
• When hyphae are loosely woven and more or less lie parallel to each other –
PROSENCHYMA.
• Mycelium in which the hyphae are very loosely packed –
PSEUDOPARENCHYMA.
• REPRODUCTION –
1. Vegetative Reproduction
2. Asexual
3. Sexual

37. #VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
FRAGMENTATION – Hyphae of fungus
break into small pieces & each piece may later
grow into new mycelium.
FISSION – Cell divides into daughter cells.
BUDDING – Daughter bud appears form
parent cell. Buds when fail to separate forms
PSEDOMYCELIIM.
OIDIA – Rounded/ oval structure having thin
walls. Hyphae undergoes segmentation &
produce yeast like cells called Oidia.
CHLAMYDOSPORES – Thick walled resting
cells. Under favourable conditions forms a new plant.
GEMMAE – Resemble chlamydospore structure
but not very durable and thick walled.

38. #ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
SPORE FORMATION – Spores are
unicellular, thin walled, spherical &
diameter ranging from 5-50μ. Several
types of spores are reported in fungi –
zoospores, sporangiospores, uredospores,
teleutospores, pycniospores etc.
• Spores are produced in a sac like
structure called SPORANGIA.
CONIDIA FORMATION –
Detachable sporangia are called conidia.
Hyphae bearing conidia are called
CONIDIOPHORES.
• Conidiophores in group form structures like – coremia, acervuli, synnemata etc.

39. #SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Fungi may be dioecious or unisexual. Some are monoecious or bisexual. Former are
HETEROTHALLIC and later are HOMOTHALLIC.
The gametes are formed within
GAMETANGIUM.
Three types of sexual reproduction
is seen in fungi –
1. ISOGAMY – Gametes are alike
in appearance and function.
2. ANISOGAMY – Dissimilar
gametes. Usually both the gametes are motile.
3. OOGAMY – Fusion of male (micro) gamete (small, flagellated, active)
with female (macro) gamete (non-motile, passive) is called oogamy.

40. • Sexual reproduction b/w 2
gametogonia – CONJUGATION.
• Gametangia can be differentiated –
ANTHERIDIUM & OOGONIUM
respectively male and female.
• In higher fungi somatic hyphae may
fuse to show SOMATOGAMY.
• When nuclei lie side by side -
DIKARYON

41. TRUE FUNGI
(EUMYCETES)
SEPTATE
(HIGHER FUNGI)
ASCOMYCETES BASIDIOMYCETES DEUTEROMYCETES
ASEPTATE
(LOWER
FUNGI)
PHYCOMYCETES
MASTIGOMYCETES ZYGOMYCETES

42. #PHYCOMYCETES/ ALGAL - FUNGI
• Called so because of aquatic habitat & form of thallus.
• Hyphae are multinucleated & aseptate – COENOCYTIC.
• Asexual reproduction – zoospore – motile
Aplanospores – non motile.
•Gametes can be isogamous or anisogamous.
•Ex: Rhizopus, Mucor, Albugo and Phytopthora.

43. ASCOMYCETES – THE SAC FUNGI
• Largest class of fungi.
• Spores are produced in sac shaped structures called ASCI.
• Each ascus bears 4-8 ascospores.
• Ascomycetes may be unicellular – yeasts.
• Many celled filaments – powdery mildews.
• Thickened and fleshy – truffles.
• REPRODUCTION –Asexual
• By conidia produced exogenously on the special mycelium
called conidiophores.
• Conidia germinate to produce mycelium.

44. • Sexual reproduction • By ascospores produced
• endogenously in sac like asci (sing. ascus).
• Asci are arranged to form ascocarps (fruiting bodies).
• Examples • Aspergillus, Claviceps &Neurospora.
• Neurospora is used in
biochemical and genetic work.
• Many members like morels &
truffles are edible and are delicacies.
• Each ascogonium is situated
On one or two small basal
Cells called STALK CELLS
& apex forms elongated
TRICHOGYNE.
• SPERMATISATION – Some ascomycetes bear minute spore like – SPERMATIA on
spermatophores.
• Pairs in ascogonium undergo conjugate divisions and ascogonium forms, hyphal outgrowths
called ASCOGENOUS HYPHAE.

45. • Includes mushrooms, bracket fungi or puffballs.
• They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living plant bodies as parasites
(e.g. rusts & smuts).
• Mycelium is branched & septate.
• The asexual spores are generally not found, but vegetative reproduction by
fragmentation is common.
BASIDIOMYCETES – THE CLUB FUNGI

46. • Sex organs are absent, but plasmogamy occurs
by fusion of two vegetative or somatic cells of
different strains or genotypes. The resultant
structure is dikaryotic. It gives rise to basidium.
• Karyogamy & meiosis occur in basidium
producing 4 basidiospores exogenously.
• Basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies
called BASIDIOCARPS.
• E.g. Agaricus (mushroom),
Ustilago (smut) and Puccinia
(rust fungus).

47. • Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only their asexual or vegetative phases are known.
• When perfect (sexual) stages were discovered they were often moved to ascomycetes & basidiomycetes.
• It is also possible that the asexual and vegetative stage have been given one name (and placed under
deuteromycetes) and the sexual stage another (and placed under another class). When the linkages were
established, the fungi were correctly identified and moved out of deuteromycetes.
• Deuteromycetes reproduce only by asexual spores (conidia).
• Mycelium is septate and branched.
• Some are saprophytes or
parasites. Majority are
decomposers of litter and
help in mineral cycling.
• E.g. Alternaria,
Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.
DEUTEROMYCETES – THE FUNGI
IMPERFECTII

48. KINGDOM PLANTAE
• It includes all plants (eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms with
cellulosic cell wall).
• Some are partially heterotrophic such as the insectivorous plants (e.g.
Bladderwort and Venus fly trap) or parasites (e.g. Cuscuta).
• Plantae includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms &
angiosperms.

49. • Life cycle of plants has two distinct phases –
The diploid sporophytic &
The haploid gametophytic – that alternate with each other.
• The lengths of the haploid and diploid phases, and whether these phases are
free living or dependent on others, vary among different groups in plants. This
phenomenon is called ALTERNATION OF GENERATION.

50. KINGDOM ANIMALIA
• They are multicellular, heterotrophic, eukaryotic organisms without cell
wall.
• They directly or indirectly depend on plants for food. They digest food in
an internal cavity and store food reserves as glycogen or fat. Mode of
nutrition is holozoic (by ingestion of food).
• They have a definite growth pattern and grow into adults that have a
definite shape and size.
• Higher forms show sensory and neuromotor mechanism.
• Most of them are capable of locomotion.

51. VIRUSES, VIROIDS, LICHENS
• In five-kingdom classification, acellular
organisms (viruses & viroids) and lichens are not
mentioned.
• Viruses are non-cellular and not truly ‘living’. So
they are not included in five-kingdom
classification.
• Viruses have an inert crystalline structure
outside the living cell.
• Viruses are obligate parasites.
• When they infect a cell they take over the
machinery of host cell to replicate themselves,
killing the host.

52. • LOUIS PASTEUR: Gave the name virus
(means venom or poisonous fluid).
• D.J. IVANOWSKY (1892): Discovered
virus. He recognized certain microbes that
cause mosaic disease of tobacco. They were
smaller than bacteria because they passed
through bacteria-proof filters.
• M.W. BEIJERINCK (1898): Demonstrated
that the extract of the infected plants of
tobacco could cause infection in healthy
plants and called the fluid as Contagium
vivum fluidum (infectious living fluid).
• W.M. STANLEY (1935): Showed that
viruses could be crystallized and crystals
consist largely of proteins.

53. • A virus is a nucleoprotein, i.e., it has a protein coat (capsid) & genetic material
(RNA or DNA).
• No virus contains both RNA & DNA.
• The genetic material is infectious.

54. • Generally, viruses that infect plants have single stranded RNA.
• Viruses that infect animals have either single or double stranded
RNA or double stranded DNA.
• Bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) usually have double
stranded DNA.
• The protein coat (CAPSID) made of small subunits
(CAPSOMERES) protects nucleic acid.
• Capsomeres are arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric
forms.

55. • Viruses cause diseases like mumps, small pox, herpes, influenza & AIDS.
• In plants, the symptoms can be mosaic formation, leaf rolling & curling,
yellowing & vein clearing, dwarfing & stunted growth.

56. • It is an infectious agent with a
free low molecular weight RNA
and no protein coat.
• These are smaller than viruses.
• It is discovered by T.O. DIENER
(1971). He found that it caused
potato spindle tuber disease.
VIROIDS

57. • Lichens are symbiotic associations
(mutually useful associations) between
algae & fungi.
• The algal component is called
PHYCOBIONT (autotrophic) and
fungal component is MYCOBIONT
(heterotrophic).
• Algae prepare food for fungi and fungi
provide shelter and absorb mineral
nutrients and water for its partner.
• Lichens are very good Pollution
indicators. They do not grow in polluted
areas.
LICHENS

58. PRIONS
• These are intercellular, infectious
protein particles that cause disease in
animals.
• They are discovered by STANLEY
PRUSINER (1970).
• DISEASES –
1. Scrapie in sheep
2. Kuru in Malaysian tribes
3. Creutzfeldt – Jacob disease (CJD)
4. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy.

59. THANK YOU