This is the second chapter under the Unit-1 of NEET examination syllabus. It is specially prepared to make the students of the NEET examination score all the possible questions for the chappter.
This document provides a summary of the five kingdom classification system and classifications within the animal and plant kingdoms. It outlines the main characteristics and examples of the kingdoms of Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. For animals, it describes the distinguishing features of major phyla including Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinodermata, Protochordata, and Chordata. It also summarizes the classifications of vertebrate classes including Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, and Mammalia.
The document provides information on the anatomy and tissues of flowering plants. It discusses the basic plant tissues like meristematic tissues, permanent tissues, simple tissues and complex tissues. It describes the primary tissues - parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma. It also elaborates on the complex vascular tissues - xylem and phloem. Furthermore, it discusses the three tissue systems - epidermal, ground and vascular tissue systems. Lastly, it compares the anatomical differences between monocot and dicot plants in roots, stems and leaves.
1. The document discusses various characteristics used to define living organisms such as growth, reproduction, metabolism, cellular structure, and consciousness.
2. It describes the three domains of life - Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya - as proposed by Carl Woese based on analysis of 16S rRNA genes.
3. Taxonomy and systematics are discussed as the scientific study and principles of classifying organisms, including characterization, nomenclature, and classification. Modern taxonomy incorporates various internal and external structural characters as well as ecological and developmental information.
The document provides information on the classification of living organisms. It discusses the need for classification due to the huge diversity of life. It explains the levels of classification from kingdom down to species. The five kingdom system of Whittaker is described, including the kingdoms of Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Characteristics of each kingdom are provided. The classification of plants and animals is then outlined down to class levels. Finally, scientific naming conventions are explained.
The document describes the evolution of classification systems for living organisms from the original two kingdom system proposed by Linnaeus to the five kingdom system currently in use. It outlines the key characteristics used to classify organisms into the kingdoms of Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. For each kingdom, it provides examples of phyla and details about their structures and traits. The hierarchical levels of classification from kingdom down to species are also defined.
The document summarizes key characteristics of the plant kingdom. It describes the four main divisions of the kingdom - algae, bryophyta, pteridophyta, and spermatophyta. It then focuses on describing the characteristics of algae in more detail, including their structures, pigments, reproduction processes, and major classes of chlorophyceae (green algae), phaeophyceae (brown algae), and rhodophyceae (red algae).
This document provides an overview of animal classification. It discusses that animals are classified based on fundamental features like cell arrangement, body symmetry, presence of coelom, and patterns of organ systems. The key levels of organization from cellular to organ systems are described. Important characteristics used for classification, like symmetry, diploblastic/triploblastic nature, presence of coelom, segmentation, and notochord, are defined. Finally, the major animal phyla are introduced, with 1-2 defining features provided for each.
This document provides a summary of the five kingdom classification system and classifications within the animal and plant kingdoms. It outlines the main characteristics and examples of the kingdoms of Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. For animals, it describes the distinguishing features of major phyla including Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinodermata, Protochordata, and Chordata. It also summarizes the classifications of vertebrate classes including Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, and Mammalia.
The document provides information on the anatomy and tissues of flowering plants. It discusses the basic plant tissues like meristematic tissues, permanent tissues, simple tissues and complex tissues. It describes the primary tissues - parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma. It also elaborates on the complex vascular tissues - xylem and phloem. Furthermore, it discusses the three tissue systems - epidermal, ground and vascular tissue systems. Lastly, it compares the anatomical differences between monocot and dicot plants in roots, stems and leaves.
1. The document discusses various characteristics used to define living organisms such as growth, reproduction, metabolism, cellular structure, and consciousness.
2. It describes the three domains of life - Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya - as proposed by Carl Woese based on analysis of 16S rRNA genes.
3. Taxonomy and systematics are discussed as the scientific study and principles of classifying organisms, including characterization, nomenclature, and classification. Modern taxonomy incorporates various internal and external structural characters as well as ecological and developmental information.
The document provides information on the classification of living organisms. It discusses the need for classification due to the huge diversity of life. It explains the levels of classification from kingdom down to species. The five kingdom system of Whittaker is described, including the kingdoms of Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Characteristics of each kingdom are provided. The classification of plants and animals is then outlined down to class levels. Finally, scientific naming conventions are explained.
The document describes the evolution of classification systems for living organisms from the original two kingdom system proposed by Linnaeus to the five kingdom system currently in use. It outlines the key characteristics used to classify organisms into the kingdoms of Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. For each kingdom, it provides examples of phyla and details about their structures and traits. The hierarchical levels of classification from kingdom down to species are also defined.
The document summarizes key characteristics of the plant kingdom. It describes the four main divisions of the kingdom - algae, bryophyta, pteridophyta, and spermatophyta. It then focuses on describing the characteristics of algae in more detail, including their structures, pigments, reproduction processes, and major classes of chlorophyceae (green algae), phaeophyceae (brown algae), and rhodophyceae (red algae).
This document provides an overview of animal classification. It discusses that animals are classified based on fundamental features like cell arrangement, body symmetry, presence of coelom, and patterns of organ systems. The key levels of organization from cellular to organ systems are described. Important characteristics used for classification, like symmetry, diploblastic/triploblastic nature, presence of coelom, segmentation, and notochord, are defined. Finally, the major animal phyla are introduced, with 1-2 defining features provided for each.
This document provides an overview of the classification of living organisms into taxonomic groups from the cellular level to multicellular organisms. It summarizes key biologists like Whittaker who classified organisms into five kingdoms - Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Each kingdom is then further divided into subordinate taxa with defining characteristics described. The classifications of plants, animals and protists are summarized in a hierarchical outline.
Simply put, the living world can be described as the world around us. It comprises all living creatures, plants and microorganisms that we cannot see. It has changed over the course of billions of years but the general composition has remained the same. The main components are still organic and inorganic matter. Living things are divided into five kingdoms: animal, plant, fungi, protist and monera. Living things are divided into five kingdoms: animal, plant, fungi, protist and monera. Living things are divided into five kingdoms: animal, plant, fungi, protist and monera.
diversity in living organisms class 9 cbseVARSHINIINKULU
The document discusses diversity in living organisms and taxonomy. It covers evolution, Charles Darwin's contributions, the taxonomic hierarchy from kingdom to species, Carolus Linnaeus' binomial nomenclature system, the five kingdom system including Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. It also describes key characteristics of taxa within these kingdoms including plants, animals and vertebrate classes.
This document provides information on the classification and diversity of living organisms. It discusses how organisms are classified into a hierarchy of taxonomic ranks including kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. The five kingdom system is described, including Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. Each kingdom is further broken down with examples provided of characteristic phyla. The key characteristics used to classify organisms are also summarized such as cellular structure, mode of nutrition, and level of organization.
The document discusses the diversity of living organisms and their classification. It explains that organisms can be classified based on their cellular structure, whether they are autotrophic or heterotrophic, and whether their cells have walls. The five kingdoms proposed by Whittaker are described: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Key characteristics used to classify organisms within the kingdoms, like their cellular structure and nutrition, are also outlined. The document provides examples of classification schemes for plants and animals.
open it get everything clear
you can get exercise question also in ppt
this ppt can make clear every single thing in this chapter
diversity in living organisms class 9
NCERT Solutions | Class IX | Science (Biology) | Chapter 7 | Diversity in Liv...Biswarup Majumder
1. The document provides information about classifying organisms into kingdoms and divisions. It discusses the key characteristics used to classify organisms, such as cellular structure, presence of tissues, and reproductive structures.
2. Major divisions for classifying plants include thallophytes, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms. These are differentiated based on characteristics like differentiated body parts and presence of vascular tissue.
3. Animals are primarily divided into chordates and non-chordates based on presence of a notochord. Non-chordates are further divided into subgroups based on other features, while chordates are divided into vertebrate classes.
This document provides information on various kingdoms and types of organisms. It discusses key characteristics of Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia kingdoms. Within these kingdoms, it describes important groups like cyanobacteria, mycoplasma, chrysophytes, dinoflagellates, euglenoids, slime moulds, protozoans, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes, and deuteromycetes. It also summarizes generalized life cycles of fungi and alternation of generations in plants.
This document discusses biological classification. It provides an overview of the major classification systems proposed by Aristotle, Linnaeus, Haeckel, Copeland, Whittaker, and Woese. Whittaker's five kingdom system, which divides organisms into Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia, is described as the most widely accepted classification. Each kingdom is then defined, with Monera covering prokaryotes, Protista unicellular eukaryotes, Fungi heterotrophic organisms like mushrooms, Plantae photosynthetic eukaryotes, and Animalia multicellular organisms. Key aspects like nutrition, reproduction, and structure are outlined for representatives
This document provides information on the classification of organisms. It discusses how Aristotle initially classified organisms based on their habitats of water, air or land. It then describes the basic characteristics used in modern classification including cellular features, nutrition mode, and level of organization. The document outlines the five kingdom system proposed by Robert Whittaker which includes Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. It provides details on each kingdom, including defining characteristics and examples. The document also discusses further classification within kingdoms down to species level and introduces the need for scientific naming to avoid confusion from common names.
The document provides information on the classification of living organisms into five kingdoms - Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. It then describes some of the main groups within the plant and animal kingdoms. The plant kingdom is divided into cryptogams and phanerogams. The animal kingdom includes porifera, coelenterata, nematoda, annelida, arthropoda, mollusca, echinodermata, protochordata, and vertebrata. Examples are given for important groups like fungi, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms, and the five classes of vertebrates.
This document discusses the key characteristics of living things and provides details on various taxonomic classifications. It outlines the four main characteristics of living things as growth, reproduction, metabolism, and response to stimuli. It then explains the hierarchical taxonomic classification system from species up to kingdom. Various taxonomic aids that help in identification and classification of organisms like herbaria, botanical gardens, museums, zoological parks, and keys are also described.
R.H. Whittaker proposed a five kingdom classification system in 1969 based on cell structure, organism complexity, nutrition, reproduction, and phylogeny. The five kingdoms are Monera (bacteria), Protista (single-celled eukaryotes), Fungi, Plantae (plants), and Animalia (animals). Viruses were not included because they are not considered living but are infectious particles that cause diseases.
The document provides an overview of plant anatomy, including definitions, applications, and examples. It describes the internal structures of plants like vascular tissue, roots, stems, and leaves. It also outlines the development of plant tissues, organs, and reproductive structures. The summary covers the key topics, structures, and progression in plant anatomy from single-celled to multicellular organisms.
Spirogyra is a common freshwater green alga that forms long, thin filaments. It reproduces both asexually through fragmentation and sexually through conjugation. During conjugation, projections grow out from adjacent cells in different filaments and their contents fuse, forming zygospores. The zygospores are resistant and may lie dormant before germinating into new haploid filaments.
This document discusses the classification of plants and algae. It describes how early classification systems were artificial and based on only a few morphological characteristics. Later systems incorporated more characteristics including internal features, ultrastructure, anatomy, embryology and phytochemistry, moving towards more natural classifications. Modern systems also consider evolutionary relationships and use numerical and chemical data from organisms. The document also provides details on characteristics, reproduction and uses of algae, describing the three main classes of Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae.
This document summarizes different types of plant tissues. It discusses permanent tissues, which stop growing but can sometimes become meristematic again. Within permanent tissues it focuses on three simple tissues: parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma. For each tissue, it describes their key characteristics, functions, and origins, including that parenchyma is a primitive tissue involved in various plant organs, collenchyma provides early support to growing organs, and sclerenchyma cells have thick lignified walls that provide mechanical support.
The document discusses the kingdoms used in biological classification systems. It describes:
1) The five kingdom system proposed by Whittaker which divides organisms into the kingdoms Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia based on characteristics like cell structure, nutrition, and phylogeny.
2) The key characteristics of each kingdom, including that Monera contains prokaryotic bacteria and archaea, Protista contains unicellular eukaryotes, Fungi are heterotrophic and absorb nutrients, Plantae are autotrophic and contain chloroplasts, and Animalia are heterotrophic and motile.
3) Previous classification systems like Aristotle's which
Robert Harding Whittaker was an American plant ecologist active from the 1950s to the 1970s. He obtained his B.A. from Washburn University and Ph.D. from the University of Illinois. Whittaker held teaching and research positions at several universities, including Washington State College, Hanford National Laboratories, Brooklyn College, University of California Irvine, and Cornell University. He is known for proposing the five kingdom classification system in 1969 that divided organisms into the kingdoms of Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
Kingdoms are the second highest rank in biological taxonomy. There are traditionally six kingdoms - Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Archaea/Archaebacteria, and Bacteria/Eubacteria. However, some systems use five kingdoms excluding Archaea/Archaebacteria. The document then discusses Aristotle's early two-kingdom system and Linnaeus' two-kingdom system. It introduces Whittaker's influential five kingdom system of Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia based on cell structure, nutrition, and other characteristics. Each kingdom is then described in more detail covering key defining features.
This document provides an overview of the classification of living organisms into taxonomic groups from the cellular level to multicellular organisms. It summarizes key biologists like Whittaker who classified organisms into five kingdoms - Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Each kingdom is then further divided into subordinate taxa with defining characteristics described. The classifications of plants, animals and protists are summarized in a hierarchical outline.
Simply put, the living world can be described as the world around us. It comprises all living creatures, plants and microorganisms that we cannot see. It has changed over the course of billions of years but the general composition has remained the same. The main components are still organic and inorganic matter. Living things are divided into five kingdoms: animal, plant, fungi, protist and monera. Living things are divided into five kingdoms: animal, plant, fungi, protist and monera. Living things are divided into five kingdoms: animal, plant, fungi, protist and monera.
diversity in living organisms class 9 cbseVARSHINIINKULU
The document discusses diversity in living organisms and taxonomy. It covers evolution, Charles Darwin's contributions, the taxonomic hierarchy from kingdom to species, Carolus Linnaeus' binomial nomenclature system, the five kingdom system including Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. It also describes key characteristics of taxa within these kingdoms including plants, animals and vertebrate classes.
This document provides information on the classification and diversity of living organisms. It discusses how organisms are classified into a hierarchy of taxonomic ranks including kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. The five kingdom system is described, including Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. Each kingdom is further broken down with examples provided of characteristic phyla. The key characteristics used to classify organisms are also summarized such as cellular structure, mode of nutrition, and level of organization.
The document discusses the diversity of living organisms and their classification. It explains that organisms can be classified based on their cellular structure, whether they are autotrophic or heterotrophic, and whether their cells have walls. The five kingdoms proposed by Whittaker are described: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Key characteristics used to classify organisms within the kingdoms, like their cellular structure and nutrition, are also outlined. The document provides examples of classification schemes for plants and animals.
open it get everything clear
you can get exercise question also in ppt
this ppt can make clear every single thing in this chapter
diversity in living organisms class 9
NCERT Solutions | Class IX | Science (Biology) | Chapter 7 | Diversity in Liv...Biswarup Majumder
1. The document provides information about classifying organisms into kingdoms and divisions. It discusses the key characteristics used to classify organisms, such as cellular structure, presence of tissues, and reproductive structures.
2. Major divisions for classifying plants include thallophytes, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms. These are differentiated based on characteristics like differentiated body parts and presence of vascular tissue.
3. Animals are primarily divided into chordates and non-chordates based on presence of a notochord. Non-chordates are further divided into subgroups based on other features, while chordates are divided into vertebrate classes.
This document provides information on various kingdoms and types of organisms. It discusses key characteristics of Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia kingdoms. Within these kingdoms, it describes important groups like cyanobacteria, mycoplasma, chrysophytes, dinoflagellates, euglenoids, slime moulds, protozoans, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes, and deuteromycetes. It also summarizes generalized life cycles of fungi and alternation of generations in plants.
This document discusses biological classification. It provides an overview of the major classification systems proposed by Aristotle, Linnaeus, Haeckel, Copeland, Whittaker, and Woese. Whittaker's five kingdom system, which divides organisms into Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia, is described as the most widely accepted classification. Each kingdom is then defined, with Monera covering prokaryotes, Protista unicellular eukaryotes, Fungi heterotrophic organisms like mushrooms, Plantae photosynthetic eukaryotes, and Animalia multicellular organisms. Key aspects like nutrition, reproduction, and structure are outlined for representatives
This document provides information on the classification of organisms. It discusses how Aristotle initially classified organisms based on their habitats of water, air or land. It then describes the basic characteristics used in modern classification including cellular features, nutrition mode, and level of organization. The document outlines the five kingdom system proposed by Robert Whittaker which includes Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. It provides details on each kingdom, including defining characteristics and examples. The document also discusses further classification within kingdoms down to species level and introduces the need for scientific naming to avoid confusion from common names.
The document provides information on the classification of living organisms into five kingdoms - Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. It then describes some of the main groups within the plant and animal kingdoms. The plant kingdom is divided into cryptogams and phanerogams. The animal kingdom includes porifera, coelenterata, nematoda, annelida, arthropoda, mollusca, echinodermata, protochordata, and vertebrata. Examples are given for important groups like fungi, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms, and the five classes of vertebrates.
This document discusses the key characteristics of living things and provides details on various taxonomic classifications. It outlines the four main characteristics of living things as growth, reproduction, metabolism, and response to stimuli. It then explains the hierarchical taxonomic classification system from species up to kingdom. Various taxonomic aids that help in identification and classification of organisms like herbaria, botanical gardens, museums, zoological parks, and keys are also described.
R.H. Whittaker proposed a five kingdom classification system in 1969 based on cell structure, organism complexity, nutrition, reproduction, and phylogeny. The five kingdoms are Monera (bacteria), Protista (single-celled eukaryotes), Fungi, Plantae (plants), and Animalia (animals). Viruses were not included because they are not considered living but are infectious particles that cause diseases.
The document provides an overview of plant anatomy, including definitions, applications, and examples. It describes the internal structures of plants like vascular tissue, roots, stems, and leaves. It also outlines the development of plant tissues, organs, and reproductive structures. The summary covers the key topics, structures, and progression in plant anatomy from single-celled to multicellular organisms.
Spirogyra is a common freshwater green alga that forms long, thin filaments. It reproduces both asexually through fragmentation and sexually through conjugation. During conjugation, projections grow out from adjacent cells in different filaments and their contents fuse, forming zygospores. The zygospores are resistant and may lie dormant before germinating into new haploid filaments.
This document discusses the classification of plants and algae. It describes how early classification systems were artificial and based on only a few morphological characteristics. Later systems incorporated more characteristics including internal features, ultrastructure, anatomy, embryology and phytochemistry, moving towards more natural classifications. Modern systems also consider evolutionary relationships and use numerical and chemical data from organisms. The document also provides details on characteristics, reproduction and uses of algae, describing the three main classes of Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae.
This document summarizes different types of plant tissues. It discusses permanent tissues, which stop growing but can sometimes become meristematic again. Within permanent tissues it focuses on three simple tissues: parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma. For each tissue, it describes their key characteristics, functions, and origins, including that parenchyma is a primitive tissue involved in various plant organs, collenchyma provides early support to growing organs, and sclerenchyma cells have thick lignified walls that provide mechanical support.
The document discusses the kingdoms used in biological classification systems. It describes:
1) The five kingdom system proposed by Whittaker which divides organisms into the kingdoms Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia based on characteristics like cell structure, nutrition, and phylogeny.
2) The key characteristics of each kingdom, including that Monera contains prokaryotic bacteria and archaea, Protista contains unicellular eukaryotes, Fungi are heterotrophic and absorb nutrients, Plantae are autotrophic and contain chloroplasts, and Animalia are heterotrophic and motile.
3) Previous classification systems like Aristotle's which
Robert Harding Whittaker was an American plant ecologist active from the 1950s to the 1970s. He obtained his B.A. from Washburn University and Ph.D. from the University of Illinois. Whittaker held teaching and research positions at several universities, including Washington State College, Hanford National Laboratories, Brooklyn College, University of California Irvine, and Cornell University. He is known for proposing the five kingdom classification system in 1969 that divided organisms into the kingdoms of Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
Kingdoms are the second highest rank in biological taxonomy. There are traditionally six kingdoms - Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Archaea/Archaebacteria, and Bacteria/Eubacteria. However, some systems use five kingdoms excluding Archaea/Archaebacteria. The document then discusses Aristotle's early two-kingdom system and Linnaeus' two-kingdom system. It introduces Whittaker's influential five kingdom system of Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia based on cell structure, nutrition, and other characteristics. Each kingdom is then described in more detail covering key defining features.
This document summarizes the key points of the five kingdom classification system proposed by R.H. Whittaker which includes Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. It provides details on the characteristics of each kingdom, including examples of organisms that fall under each kingdom. The kingdoms are differentiated based on factors like cell structure, nutrition, reproduction and phylogenetic relationships. Viruses and lichens are also briefly discussed.
CLASS 11. 2. BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION.pptxbhanupriya R
This document discusses biological classification based on morphology. It summarizes Ernst Haeckel's five kingdom classification system which groups organisms into kingdoms based on cell structure, body organization, nutrition, reproduction and phylogeny. It notes that four of the five kingdoms contain eukaryotes. The document then describes the characteristics of archaebacteria, eubacteria, photosynthetic cyanobacteria, chemosynthetic bacteria, heterotrophic bacteria and their modes of reproduction. It concludes with an overview of protist kingdoms including chrysophytes, dinoflagellates, euglenoids and slime molds, and types of protozoans.
The document summarizes R.H. Whittaker's five kingdom classification system which divides organisms into five kingdoms - Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. It describes the key features of each kingdom, including that Monera contains prokaryotes like bacteria, Protista contains unicellular eukaryotes, Fungi contains multicellular organisms like mushrooms that reproduce via spores, Plantae contains photosynthetic eukaryotes, and Animalia contains multicellular heterotrophs. The five kingdom system improved upon earlier two kingdom classifications by accounting for important differences in cell structure, nutrition, and other traits.
The process of grouping the organisms based on certain similarities such as physical characteristics is known as biological classification. Biological classification of a living world comprises all the five kingdom system With their development and drawback, in these slides elaborately kingdom Monera is represented .
Classification is the systematic grouping of organisms based on similarities. The document discusses various systems of classification including artificial, natural, and phylogenetic systems. It then describes the five kingdom system of classification proposed by Whitaker which divides organisms into Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia based on characteristics like cell structure, nutrition mode, and complexity. Each kingdom is defined along with examples of major groups within them. Finally, merits and demerits of the five kingdom system are outlined.
This document discusses kingdom Protista. Protists are eukaryotic, primarily single-celled organisms that were traditionally grouped together. They include algae, protozoa, water molds, and slime molds. Protists reproduce both asexually through binary fission, budding, spore formation, and multiple fission, and sexually through the fusion of gametes. They play important ecological roles as primary producers, decomposers, and prey for other organisms, and some species have economic significance through food production, biofuel potential, and industrial uses.
The five kingdoms of biology, based on the Whittaker system, are Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Each kingdom encompasses different types of organisms with distinct characteristics.
This document discusses biodiversity and the classification of organisms. It begins by explaining that less than one third of Earth's estimated 10 million species have been studied. It then defines biodiversity and discusses the factors that influence it. The document outlines the five kingdom classification system and describes each kingdom. It explains the goals and principles of classification, including binomial nomenclature.
This document provides an overview of microbiology and the classification of microorganisms. It discusses how Carolus Linnaeus established the scientific naming system using genus and species names. Microorganisms are classified into three domains - Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya - based on characteristics like cell structure and nucleic acid. Within these domains, microbes are further classified into six kingdoms and grouped according to their features. The document also describes key characteristics of bacteria, archaea, fungi, protozoa, algae, viruses, and multicellular parasites.
This document discusses the evolution of biological classification systems from early attempts based on use and morphology to more modern scientific approaches. It describes how Aristotle initially classified organisms based on simple morphological characteristics, while Linnaeus developed a two kingdom system of Plantae and Animalia. However, this did not adequately distinguish key differences and many organisms did not fit into either category. The five kingdom system proposed by Whittaker in 1969 introduced the kingdoms of Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia based on criteria like cell structure, body organization, nutrition and phylogeny. This system attempted to group organisms more scientifically based on evolutionary relationships rather than just morphology.
This document discusses the classification of organisms from Aristotle's early attempts to the five kingdom system proposed by Whittaker. It provides details on each kingdom:
- Kingdom Monera includes bacteria and archaea, which are prokaryotic and diverse in metabolism and habitats. Bacteria are further divided based on shape and metabolic traits.
- The five kingdom system separates organisms into Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia based on cell structure, nutrition, and phylogeny. It overcomes limitations of the two kingdom system.
The document discusses the history of biological classification systems. It describes the 5 kingdom system proposed by R.H. Whittaker, which divided organisms into 5 kingdoms: Plantae, Animalia, Fungi, Monera, and Protista. The criteria for classification included cell structure, nutrition, reproduction, and phylogeny. Key organisms were grouped as follows: plants with chloroplasts in Plantae, multicellular animals in Animalia, fungi in Fungi, prokaryotes in Monera, and unicellular eukaryotes in Protista. This 5 kingdom system is still widely used today.
The document summarizes R.H. Whittaker's five kingdom classification system from 1969. It describes the key characteristics of each kingdom - Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Monera contains prokaryotic organisms like bacteria and archaea. Protista contains unicellular eukaryotes. Fungi are heterotrophic organisms that absorb nutrients. Plantae contains photosynthetic eukaryotes. Animalia are multicellular heterotrophs that ingest food. The classification system aimed to group organisms based on cell structure, nutrition, and evolutionary relationships.
This document discusses the classification of organisms from Aristotle's early attempts through the current five kingdom system. It provides details on each kingdom, including:
- Aristotle initially classified organisms based on their blood and plant/animal distinctions.
- Linnaeus established the two kingdom system dividing organisms into plants and animals.
- Whittaker's five kingdom system divided organisms into Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia based on several characteristics.
- The document focuses on bacteria in the Monera kingdom, outlining their structure, diversity of forms, modes of nutrition, and impact on human activities.
Archaea are single-celled organisms that live in extreme environments. They reproduce asexually through binary fission, budding or fragmentation. Their cells are prokaryotic, surrounded by a cell membrane and cell wall composed of pseudomurein. Archaea are extremophiles that can survive in oxygen-free conditions. Examples include methanogens, halophiles and thermophiles.
This document provides an overview of the course "Phycology" which is the study of algae. It discusses key topics that will be covered in the course including:
- Definitions of important terms like phycology, algae, and their characteristics.
- The different types of algal ecology such as planktonic, benthic, thermal, soil, symbiotic, etc. algae and examples of each.
- The various algal thallus organizations including unicellular, colonial, filamentous, and parenchymatous forms.
- Methods of algal reproduction including vegetative reproduction through fragmentation or budding, and sexual and asexual reproduction involving spores or game
The document provides an overview of biodiversity and systems of classification of living organisms. It summarizes the five kingdom system of classification proposed by R.H. Whittaker, which divides organisms into five kingdoms - Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia - based on characteristics like cell structure, nutrition mode, and phylogeny. Key details are provided on defining features of each kingdom, addressing limitations of prior systems. The five kingdom system accounts for diversity of life and evolutionary relationships between different groups.
Microbes play an important role in human welfare. They are used to produce foods like curd, bread, cheese and beverages like wine and beer through fermentation. They are also used industrially to produce antibiotics, organic acids, enzymes and other bioactive molecules. Microbes help treat sewage by reducing biochemical oxygen demand and generating biogas from sludge. They act as biocontrol agents for pests and help increase soil fertility as biofertilizers by fixing nitrogen or solubilizing phosphorus.
Aging is a permanent irreversible change, but can be reversed and even stop by following some healthy practices. Practicing yoga, a proper antioxidant food, keeping the mind cool and calm, avoiding worries can slow down aging processes.
Animal husbandry, dairy and poultry farming, fisheries, and apiculture are important for enhancing food production. Breeding techniques like artificial insemination and embryo transfer aim to increase yield. Plant breeding techniques include cross-breeding crops to combine desirable traits and increase resistance to diseases and pests. Biotechnologies such as tissue culture and genetic engineering further aid in improving food quality and production. Overall, strategic animal and plant breeding combined with innovative technologies can boost agricultural output.
Working from home sounds like an ideal solution to them. Many of these dissatisfied souls will
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don’t even suspect.
The fact is that according to many sources, more than 90% (Ninety percent) of all Internet
business start-ups end in failure within the first 120 (one hundred twenty) days. Yes, you read
that right. NINETY PERCENT!
In a writing manual that the great Stephen King wrote, he talked about
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This is one of the major chapters for the examination NEET. A few questions are expected from this chapter and carry more weight as per the NEET syllabus.
The number of people with diabetes rose from 108 million in 1980 to 422 million in 2014.
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Between 2000 and 2016, there was a 5% increase in premature mortality from diabetes.
In 2019, an estimated 1.5 million deaths were directly caused by diabetes. Another 2.2 million deaths were attributable to high blood glucose in 2012.
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Diabetes can be treated and its consequences avoided or delayed with diet, physical activity, medication, and regular screening and treatment for complications
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
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How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
2. UNIT-I
Chapter-2
Biological Classification
Classification of living organisms started since the birth of civilization. All these
attempts were based on human needs like shelter, food and clothing. More scientific
basis of classification was begun by Aristotle. He sued morphological characters of
plants and animals, hence more artificial in nature. He classified plants into herbs,
shrubs and tree, animals into having RBC and without RBCs.
In Linnaeus' time a Two Kingdom system of classification with Plantae and Animalia
kingdoms was developed that included all plants and animals respectively.
Demerit of Linnaean system
• This system did not distinguish between the eukaryotes and prokaryotes,
unicellular and multicellular organisms and photosynthetic (green algae) and
non-photosynthetic (fungi) organisms.
• Classification of organisms into plants and animals was easily done and was
easy to understand, but, a large number of organisms did not fall into either
category.
• Hence the two-kingdom classification used for a long time was found
inadequate.
The classification system under goes many changes during the course of time
Haeckel proposed three kingdom classification and included bacteria in separate
kingdom-plantae, animalia and Monera.
Copeland proposed four kingdom classifications by separating non-
photosynthetic fungi under separate phylum-plantae, animalia, prokaryotes and
fungi.
R.H. Whittaker proposed Five kingdom classification by separating unicellular
organisms in a separate kingdom-Monera, Protista, fungi, plantae and animalia.
3. The main criteria for classification used by him include
• Cell structure, body organisation
• Mode of nutrition
• Reproduction and
• Phylogenetic relationships
Later, three domain system was proposed by Carl Woes et.al in 1990 by separating
the kingdom Monera into archaebacteria and eubacteria. The three domains are-
Bacteria, eubacteria and eukaryote. Eukaryote includes fungi, plantae and
animalia.
Thus, FIVE kingdom classification is established-archaebacteria, Eubacteria,
Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
Background for five kingdom classifications
❖ Earlier classification systems included bacteria, blue green algae, fungi,
mosses, ferns, gymnosperms and the angiosperms under ‘Plants’.
❖ The character that unified this whole kingdom was that all the organisms
included had a cell wall in their cells.
❖ This placed together groups which widely differed in other characteristics.
❖ It brought together the prokaryotic bacteria and the blue green algae
(cyanobacteria) with other groups which were eukaryotic.
❖ It also grouped together the unicellular organisms and the multicellular
ones, say, for example, Chlamydomonas and Spirogyra were placed together
under algae.
❖ The classification did not differentiate between the heterotrophic group –
fungi, and the autotrophic green plants, though they also showed a
characteristic difference in their wall’s composition – the fungi had chitin in
their walls while the green plants had a cellulosic cell wall.
❖ When such characteristics were considered, the fungi were placed in a
separate kingdom – Kingdom Fungi. All prokaryotic organisms were grouped
together under Kingdom Monera and the unicellular eukaryotic organisms
were placed in Kingdom Protista.
❖ Kingdom Protista has brought together Chlamydomonas, Chlorella (earlier
placed in Algae within Plants and both having cell walls) with Paramecium
and Amoeba (which were earlier placed in the animal kingdom which lack
cell wall).
❖ It has put together organisms which, in earlier classifications, were placed in
different kingdoms.
❖ This happened because the criteria for classification changed.
❖ This kind of changes will take place in future too depending on the
improvement in our understanding of characteristics and evolutionary
relationships.
❖ Over time, an attempt has been made to evolve a classification system which
reflects not only the morphological, physiological and reproductive
similarities, but is also phylogenetic, i.e., is based on evolutionary
relationships.
Kingdom Monera
• Bacteria are the sole members of the Kingdom Monera.
• They are the most abundant micro-organisms.
4. • Bacteria occur almost everywhere.
• They also live-in extreme habitats such as hot springs, deserts, snow and
deep oceans where very few other life forms can survive.
• Many of them live in or on other organisms as parasites.
• Bacteria are grouped under four categories based on their shape: the
spherical Coccus (pl.: cocci), the rod-shaped Bacillus (pl.: bacilli), the
comma-shaped Vibrium (pl.: vibrio) and the spiral Spirillum.
• Though the bacterial structure is very simple, they are very complex in
behaviour.
• Compared to many other organisms, bacteria as a group show the most
extensive metabolic diversity.
• Some of the bacteria are autotrophic, i.e., they synthesise their own food
from inorganic substrates.
• They may be photosynthetic autotrophic or chemosynthetic autotrophic.
The vast majority of bacteria are heterotrophs, i.e., they depend on other
organisms or on dead organic matter for food.
Archaebacteria
• These bacteria are special since they live in some of the most harsh habitats
such as extreme salty areas (halophiles), hot springs (thermoacidophiles) and
marshy areas (methanogens).
• Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria in having a different cell wall structure
and this feature is responsible for their survival in extreme conditions.
• Methanogens are present in the gut of several ruminant animals such as cows
and buffaloes and they are responsible for the production of methane (biogas)
from the dung of these animals.
Eubacteria
• There are thousands of different eubacteria or ‘true bacteria’.
• They are characterised by the presence of a rigid cell wall, and if motile, a
flagellum.
• The cyanobacteria (also referred to as blue-green algae) have chlorophyll a
similar to green plants and are photosynthetic autotrophs.
• The cyanobacteria are unicellular, colonial or filamentous,
freshwater/marine or terrestrial algae.
5. • The colonies are generally
surrounded by gelatinous sheath.
• They often form blooms in
polluted water bodies.
• Some of these organisms can fix
atmospheric nitrogen in
specialised cells called
heterocysts, e.g., Nostoc and
Anabaena. Chemosynthetic
autotrophic bacteria oxidise
various inorganic substances
such as nitrates, nitrites and
ammonia and use the released
energy for their ATP production.
• They play a great role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, iron
and sulphur.
Heterotrophic Bacteria
• Heterotrophic bacteria are most abundant in nature.
• The majority are important decomposers.
• Many of them have a significant impact on human affairs.
• They are helpful in making curd from milk, production of antibiotics, fixing
nitrogen in legume. roots, etc.
• Some are pathogens causing damage to human beings, crops, farm animals
and pets. Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker are well known diseases
caused by different bacteria.
Reproduction in Bacteria
• Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission.
• Sometimes, under unfavourable conditions, they produce spores.
• They also reproduce by a sort of sexual reproduction by adopting a primitive
type of DNA transfer from one bacterium to the other.
6. Mycoplasma
• The Mycoplasma are organisms that completely lack a cell wall.
• They are the smallest living cells known and can survive without oxygen.
• Many mycoplasmas are pathogenic in animals and plants.
Kingdom Protista
• All single-celled eukaryotes are placed under Protista, but the boundaries of
this kingdom are not well defined.
• What may be ‘a photosynthetic protistan’ to one biologist may be ‘a plant’ to
another.
• It includes Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds and
Protozoans under Protista.
• Members of Protista are primarily aquatic.
• This kingdom forms a link with the others dealing with plants, animals and
fungi.
• Being eukaryotes, the protistan cell body contains a well-defined nucleus
and other membrane-bound organelles.
• Some have flagella or cilia.
• Protists reproduce asexually and sexually by a process involving cell fusion
and zygote formation.
Chrysophytes
• This group includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids).
• They are found in fresh water as well as in marine environments.
• They are microscopic and float passively in water currents (plankton).
• Most of them are photosynthetic.
• In diatoms the cell walls form two thin overlapping shells, which fit together
as in a soap box. The walls are embedded with silica and thus the walls are
indestructible. Thus, diatoms have left behind large amount of cell wall
deposits in their habitat; this accumulation over billions of years is referred
to as ‘diatomaceous earth’. Being gritty this soil is used in polishing, filtration
of oils and syrups.
• Diatoms are the chief ‘producers’ in the oceans.
Dinoflagellates
• These organisms are mostly marine and photosynthetic.
• They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red depending on the main
pigments present in their cells.
• The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface.
• Most of them have two flagella; one lies longitudinally and the other
transversely in a furrow between the wall plates.
• Very often, red dinoflagellates (Example: Gonyaulax) undergo such rapid
multiplication that they make the sea appear red (red tides). Toxins released
by such large numbers may even kill other marine animals such as fishes.
Euglenoids
• Majority of them are fresh water organisms found in stagnant water.
• Instead of a cell wall, they have a protein rich layer called pellicle which
makes their body flexible.
• They have two flagella, a short and a long one.
7. • Though they are photosynthetic in the
presence of sunlight, when deprived of
sunlight they behave like heterotrophs
by predating on other smaller
organisms.
• Interestingly, the pigments of
euglenoids are identical to those
present in higher plants. Example:
Euglena
Slime moulds
• Slime moulds are saprophytic protists.
• The body moves along decaying twigs
and leaves engulfing organic
material. Under suitable conditions,
they form an aggregation called
plasmodium which may grow and
spread over several feet.
• During unfavourable conditions, the
plasmodium differentiates and forms
fruiting bodies bearing spores at
their tips.
• The spores possess true walls. They
are extremely resistant and survive
for many years, even under adverse
conditions. The spores are dispersed by air currents.
Protozoans
• All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites.
• They are believed to be primitive relatives of animals.
• There are four major groups of protozoans.
1. Amoeboid protozoans: These organisms live in fresh water, sea water
or moist soil. They move and capture their prey by putting out
pseudopodia (false feet) as in Amoeba. Marine forms have silica shells
on their surface. Some of them such as Entamoeba are parasites.
2. Flagellated protozoans: The members of this group are either free-
living or parasitic. They have flagella. The parasitic forms cause
diseases such as sleeping sickness. Example: Trypanosoma.
8. 3. Ciliated protozoans: These are aquatic, actively moving organisms
because of the presence of thousands of cilia. They have a cavity
(gullet) that opens to
the outside of the
cell surface. The
coordinated
movement of rows of
cilia causes the
water laden with
food to be steered
into the gullet.
Example:
Paramecium.
4. Sporozoans: This includes diverse organisms that have an infectious
spore-like stage in their life cycle. The most notorious is Plasmodium
(malarial parasite) which causes malaria, a disease which has a
staggering effect on human population.
Kingdom Fungi
• The fungi constitute heterotrophic organisms.
• They show a great diversity in morphology and habitat.
• Fungi seen on a moist bread and rotten fruits.
• The common mushroom are also fungi. White spots seen on mustard leaves
are due to a parasitic fungus.
• Some fungi are unicellular e.g., yeast is used to make bread and beer.
• Other fungi cause diseases in plants and animals; wheat rust-causing
Puccinia is an important example.
• Some are the source of antibiotics, e.g., Penicillium. Fungi are cosmopolitan
and occur in air, water, soil and on animals and plants.
• They prefer to grow in warm and humid places.
• Food in the refrigerator, is to prevent food from going bad due to bacterial or
fungal infections.
• Except yeasts which are unicellular, fungi are filamentous.
• Their bodies consist of long, slender thread-like structures called hyphae.
• The network of hyphae is known as mycelium.
• Some hyphae are continuous tubes filled with multinucleated cytoplasm –
these are called coenocytic hyphae. Others have septae or cross walls in their
hyphae.
• The cell walls of fungi are composed of chitin and polysaccharides.
• Most fungi are heterotrophic and absorb soluble organic matter from dead
substrates and hence are called saprophytes.
• Those that depend on living plants and animals are called parasites.
• They can also live as symbionts – in association with algae as lichens and
with roots of higher plants as mycorrhiza.
Reproduction in Fungi
❖ Vegetative means – fragmentation, fission and budding.
❖ Asexual reproduction is by spores called conidia or sporangiospores or
zoospores
❖ Sexual reproduction is by oospores, ascospores and basidiospores.
9. ❖ The various spores are produced in distinct structures called fruiting bodies.
The sexual cycle in Fungi
It involves the following three steps:
1. Plasmogamy: -Fusion of protoplasms between two motile or non-motile
gametes called plasmogamy.
2. Karyogamy: -Fusion of two nuclei called karyogamy.
3. Meiosis: - Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores.
The processes
When a fungus reproduces sexually, two haploid hyphae of compatible mating types
come together and fuse. In some fungi the fusion of two haploid cells immediately
results in diploid cells (2n). However, in other fungi (ascomycetes and
basidiomycetes), an intervening dikaryotic stage (n + n, i.e., two nuclei per cell)
occurs; such a condition is called a dikaryon and the phase is called dikaryophase
of fungus. Later, the parental nuclei fuse and the cells become diploid. The fungi
form fruiting bodies in which reduction division occurs, leading to formation of
haploid spores.
10. Classification of Fungi
The morphology of the mycelium, mode of spore formation and fruiting bodies form
the basis for the division of the kingdom into various classes.
Phycomycetes
❖ Phycomycetes are found in aquatic habitats and on decaying wood in moist
and damp places or as obligate parasites on plants.
❖ The mycelium is aseptate and
coenocytic.
❖ Asexual reproduction takes
place by zoospores (motile) or
by aplanospores (non-motile).
These spores are endogenously
produced in sporangium. A
zygospore is formed by fusion of
two gametes. These gametes are
similar in morphology
(isogamous) or dissimilar
(anisogamous or oogamous).
❖ Some common examples are
Mucor (Figure 2.5a), Rhizopus
(the bread mould mentioned earlier) and Albugo (the parasitic fungi on
mustard).
Ascomycetes
❖ Commonly known as sac-fungi, the ascomycetes are mostly multicellular,
e.g., Penicillium, or rarely unicellular, e.g., yeast (Saccharomyces).
❖ They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous (growing on
dung).
❖ Mycelium is branched and septate.
❖ The asexual spores are conidia
produced exogenously on the
special mycelium called
conidiophores. Conidia on
germination produce
mycelium.
❖ Sexual spores are called
ascospores which are
produced endogenously in sac
like asci (singular ascus).
❖ These asci are arranged in
different types of fruiting bodies called ascocarps.
❖ Some examples are Aspergillus, Claviceps and Neurospora. Neurospora is
used extensively in biochemical and genetic work.
❖ Many members like morels and truffles are edible and are considered
delicacies.
11. Basidiomycetes
• Commonly known forms of basidiomycetes are mushrooms, bracket fungi or
puffballs.
• They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living plant bodies as
parasites, e.g., rusts and smuts.
• The mycelium is branched and septate.
• The asexual spores are generally not
found, but vegetative reproduction
by fragmentation is common. The
sex organs are absent, but
plasmogamy is brought about by
fusion of two vegetative or somatic
cells of different strains or
genotypes. The resultant structure
is dikaryotic which ultimately gives
rise to basidium. Karyogamy and
meiosis take place in the basidium
producing four basidiospores. The
basidiospores are exogenously
produced on the basidium (pl.:
basidia). The basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies called basidiocarps.
• Some common members are Agaricus (mushroom) (Figure 2.5c), Ustilago
(smut) and Puccinia (rust fungus).
Deuteromycetes
• Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only the asexual or vegetative
phases of these fungi are known.
• When the sexual forms of these fungi were discovered, they were moved into
classes they rightly belong to.
• It is also possible that the asexual and vegetative stage have been given one
name (and placed under deuteromycetes) and the sexual stage another (and
placed under another class). Later when the linkages were established, the
fungi were correctly identified and moved out of deuteromycetes.
• Once perfect (sexual) stages of members of deuteromycetes were discovered
they were often moved to ascomycetes and basidiomycetes.
• The deuteromycetes reproduce only by asexual spores known as conidia.
• The mycelium is septate and branched.
• Some members are saprophytes or parasites while a large number of them
are decomposers of litter and help in mineral cycling.
• Some examples are Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.
Kingdom Plantae
❖ Kingdom Plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms
commonly called plants.
❖ A few members are partially heterotrophic such as the insectivorous plants
or parasites.
❖ Bladderwort and Venus fly trap are examples of insectivorous plants and
Cuscuta is a parasite.
12. ❖ The plant cells have a eukaryotic structure with prominent chloroplasts and
cell wall mainly made of cellulose.
❖ You will study the eukaryotic cell structure in detail in Chapter 8.
❖ Plantae includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and
angiosperms. Life cycle of plants has two distinct phases – the diploid
sporophytic and the haploid gametophytic – that alternate with each other.
❖ The lengths of the haploid and diploid phases, and whether these phases are
free– living or dependent on others, vary among different groups in plants.
❖ This phenomenon is called alternation of generation.
❖ You will study further details of this kingdom in Chapter 3.
Kingdom Animalia
• This kingdom is characterised by heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that
are multicellular and their cells lack cell walls.
• They directly or indirectly depend on plants for food.
• They digest their food in an internal cavity and store food reserves as
glycogen or fat.
• Their mode of nutrition is holozoic – by ingestion of food.
• They follow a definite growth pattern and grow into adults that have a definite
shape and size.
• Higher forms show elaborate sensory and neuromotor mechanism.
• Most of them are capable of locomotion.
• The sexual reproduction is by copulation of male and female followed by
embryological development.
• Salient features of various phyla are described in Chapter 4.
Viruses, viroids, prion and lichen
• In the five-kingdom classification of Whittaker there is no mention of lichens
and some acellular organisms like viruses, viroids and prions.
• Viruses did not find a place in classification since they are not considered
truly ‘living’.
• The viruses are
non-cellular
organisms that are
characterised by
having an inert
crystalline
structure outside
the living cell.
• Once they infect a
cell, they take over
the machinery of the host cell to replicate themselves, killing the host.
• The name virus that means venom or poisonous fluid was given by Dmitri
Ivanowsky (1892) recognised certain microbes as causal organism of the
mosaic disease of tobacco.
• These were found to be smaller than bacteria because they passed through
bacteria-proof filters. M.W. Beijerinek (1898) demonstrated that the extract
of the infected plants of tobacco could cause infection in healthy plants and
called the fluid as Contagium vivum fluidum (infectious living fluid).
13. • W.M. Stanley (1935) showed that viruses could be crystallised and crystals
consist largely of proteins.
• They are inert outside their specific host cell.
• Viruses are obligate parasites.
• In addition to proteins, viruses also contain genetic material, that could be
either RNA or DNA.
• No virus contains both RNA and DNA. A virus is a nucleoprotein and the
genetic material is infectious.
• In general, viruses that infect plants have single stranded RNA and viruses
that infect animals have either single or double stranded RNA or double
stranded DNA.
• Bacterial viruses or bacteriophages (viruses that infect the bacteria) are
usually double stranded DNA viruses.
• The protein coat called capsid made of small subunits called capsomeres,
protects the nucleic acid.
• These capsomeres are arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric forms.
Viruses cause diseases like mumps, small pox, herpes and influenza.
• AIDS in humans is also caused by a virus.
• In plants, the symptoms can be mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling,
yellowing and vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth.
Viroids:
• In 1971, T.O. Diener discovered a new infectious agent that was smaller than
viruses and caused potato spindle tuber disease.
• It was found to be a free RNA; it lacked the protein coat that is found in
viruses, hence the name viroid. The RNA of the viroid was of low molecular
weight.
Prions:
• In modern medicine certain infectious neurological diseases were found to
be transmitted by an agent consisting of abnormally folded protein.
• The agent was similar in size to viruses.
• These agents were called prions.
• The most notable diseases caused by prions are bovine spongiform
encephalopathy (BSE) commonly called mad cow disease in cattle and its
analogous variant Cr–Jacob disease (CJD) in humans.
Lichens:
• Lichens are symbiotic associations i.e., mutually useful associations,
between algae and fungi.
• The algal component is known as phycobiont and fungal component as
mycobiont, which are autotrophic and heterotrophic, respectively.
• Algae prepare food for fungi and fungi provide shelter and absorb mineral
nutrients and water for its partner.
• So close is their association that if one saw a lichen in nature, one would
never imagine that they had two different organisms within them.
• Lichens are very good pollution indicators – they do not grow in polluted
areas.
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