This document provides an overview of taxonomy and the characteristics of living organisms. It discusses the levels of biological organization from atomic to biosphere levels. Key topics covered include the characteristics of living things, metabolic reactions, diversity in the living world, classification systems, and the various taxonomic categories such as species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, and kingdom. The document also examines modern taxonomy approaches and the importance and scope of taxonomy.

1. THE LIVING
WORLD
BY: DR. PRITIMA GUPTA

2. WHAT IS LIVING?
• We say living organisms – grow,
reproduce etc.
#CHARACTERISTICS OF
LIVING-
1. Shape and size
2. Growth
3. Reproduction?
4. Metabolism.
5. Cellular organisation
6. Consciousness
7. Definite life cycle
8. Movements
9. Protoplasm
10. Self – regulation
11. Co-ordination
12. Genetic material
13. Adaptations
14. Morphogenesis

3. BRIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING
BEINGS
• Highly ordered.
• Organised into units called CELLS.
• Use energy.
• Respond to stimuli.
• Shows metabolism.
• DNA present.
• Reproduce?

4. METABOLIC REACTIONS
CHARACTERISTIC ANABOLIC CATABOLIC
DEFINITION
Sum of total constructive
processes.
Sum of total destructive
processes.
ENERGY CHANGE
Kinetic energy is converted
into potential energy.
Potential energy is converted
into kinetic energy.
SUBSTANCES
Complex substances formed
from simple one.
Simple substances are formed
from complex ones.
ENERGY
Stored Released
PROCESSES
Required for growth,
maintenance.
Required for performance of
activities.

5. LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL
ORGANISATION
#LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION COMMON IN LIVING AND NON LIVING
BOTH
1. Atomic level.
2. Molecular level.
#LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION FOUND IN ONLY IN LIVING
ORGANISMS
1. Cellular level.
#LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION BEYOND THE INDIVIDUAL ORGANISM
1. Population level.
2. Community level.
3. Ecosystem level.
4. Biosphere level.

6. DIVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD
• The term biological diversity or biodiversity as defined by UNEP (1992)
(UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME) as –
“ The variety and variability of all animals, plants and micro-
organisms and the ecological complexes of which they are part.”
• The term biodiversity was coined by W.G. ROSEN (1985).
• Biodiversity includes diversity within species, b/w species of an ecosystem.

7. SYSTEMATICS, TAXONOMY, TAXONOMIC
CATEGORIES
TAXONOMY SYSTEMATICS TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES
Derived from Gk word taxis +
nomos meaning classification
and law.
Term coined by de
CANDOLLE.
Word was first used by
LINNAEUS in his book
“SYSTEMA NATURAL”.
Its basically a level & that level
is called as TAXA.
It is a branch of science which
deals with identification,
nomenclature & classification
of d/f kinds of organisms all
over the world.
It means taxonomy &
evolutionary relationship b/w
the organisms in various
categories

8. PHYLOGENY
• It is the evolutionary history or lineage of one or more groups of organisms.
• BASIS – study of fossils, anatomy, genetics, developmental biology,
biochemistry, physiology etc.
#BASIS OF TAXONOMY –
1. Characterization
2. Identification
3. Classification
4. Nomenclature

9. CLASSIFICATION
• It is a mode of arranging organisms or group of organisms into categories according to a systematic
plan as per nomenclature system.
• While classifying, d/f & similarities among the following features/ fields must be considered –
1. Morphology
2. Anatomy
3. Cytology
4. Physiology
5. Ontogeny
6. Reproduction
7. Behaviour
8. Biochemistry

10. CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
1. ARTIFICIAL SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION –
• Proposed by LINNAEUS.
In this, habit, habitat & a few morphological characters are used for
grouping of organisms.
2. NATURAL SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION –
• Proposed by JOHN RAY.
• In this organisms are arranged to their natural affinities through the use
of all important permanent characteristics particularly structural,
cytological, reproductive & biochemical.

11. 3. PHYLOGENETIC SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION –
• Proposed by ENGLER AND PRANTL.
• Evolutionary relationships of organisms are brought out.
4. NUMERICAL TAXONOMY (PHENETICS)/ ADANSONIAN
TAXONOMY –
• Based on the number of shared characters.

12. #CLASSICAL TAXONOMY/ OLD
SYSTEMATICS/ α - TAXONOMY
• Believes that individuals are mere expression of same type in terms of
morphological variations.
OR
• Organisms are classified using both morphology and phylogeny.
• Small sample size was considered.
• Originated with PLATO.
• Supported by – ARISTOTLE (FATHER OF ZOOLOGY)
• THEOPHRASTUS (FATHER OF BOTANY)
• LINNAEUS (FATHER OF TAXONOMY) and
others.

13. FEATURES OF CLASSICAL
TAXONOMY
1. Based on few characters
2. Species delimited on morphological characteristics
3. Species are basic static or immutable units
4. Sub units of species were not considered important
5. Few individuals of species or their preserved specimens are used for
study. This is called TOPOLOGICAL CONCEPT.

14. #CYTOTAXONOMY
• Classification and relationships of organisms using detail studies of
chromosomes.
# CHEMOTAXONOMY –
• Classification of organisms based on the distribution of certain characteristic
chemical constituents.
#MODERN TAXONOMY/ NEW SYSTEMATICS/ NEOSYSTEMATICS/
BIOSYSTEMATICS/ OMEGA TAXONOMY –
• Classification based upon cytology, genetics, morphology, anatomy,
physiology, biochemistry etc.
• JULIAN HUXLEY (1940) initiated this view.
• Large sample size was taken.

15. BASIS FOR NEOSYSTEMATICS
• Many individuals – studied.
• Species – biological delimitation
• Species considered – dynamic
• Sub species, species, varieties, races, population all studied. Because
of this modern taxonomy is also k/as POPULATION
SYSTEMATICS.

16. NOMENCLATURE
• Nomenclature has to be universal.
• System of naming plants, animals and other objects is a nomenclature.
1. BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE –
• Two word name system.
• Given by CAROLUS LINNAEUS in 1753.
• CANDOLLE (1813) in his “Theorie elementaire dela botanique” gave
significant work after Linnaeus.

17. #CAROLUS LINNAEUS – FATHER OF
MODERN BOTANY.
1. First word – Generic name – Capital initial
Second word – Species – Lower case
2. Words taken for nomenclature are from Latin or Greek language.
3. Name if typed should be in italics and if handwritten, then it must be
underlined.
4. The name must possess more than 3 alphabets but less than 12.
5. The name of the author is described after the name of the species.
EX: Solanum tuberosum Linn
Homo sapiens Linn

18. INTERNATIONAL CODE OF BOTANICAL
AND ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE
(ICBZN)
• In 1948 ICZ (INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF ZOOLOGY) &
in 1950 IBZ (INTERNATIONAL BOTANICAL CONGRESS) set
varies rules for nomenclature.
• 12th International Congress at Leningrad in 1975, laid down certain
general principles of nomenclature which were published in 1978 in
the form of INTERNATIONAL CODE OF BOTANICAL
NOMENCLATURE (ICBN)& INTERNATIONAL CODE OF
ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE (ICZN).

19. PRINCIPLES FOR CLASSIFYING
PLANTS -
• Given by LANJOUW.
• Difficult & long generic names should be avoided.
• Size shouldn’t be the criterion for identifying the species.
• Colour shouldn’t be the criterion for difference.
• Species should have smaller name.
• The name of the author should be written after the specific name of species in
Roman type & w/o comma b/w them.
• Easy pronunciation.
• The name should refer to some imp character of the plant.
• The name should not contain less than 3 & more than 12-20.

20. ADVANTAGES OF THE SYSYTEM
1. Biological names are small all over the world.
2. Binomial uniformly.
3. They are definite & accepted universally.
4. They are descriptive.
5. They indicate the general relationship.
6. Biological names have been derived mostly from Latin or Greek language. Both
of these are dead languages.

21. TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES
• Plants & animals are ranked in an arrangement of known categories.
• In hierarchy, many steps are involved where each step represents a RANK
or CATEGORY.
• Taxonomic category – categories together forms taxonomic hierarchy.
• Each category basically represents a RANK & usually called as TAXON.
• A taxon with common ancestral species is called MONOPHYLECTIC
TAXON/ CLADE.
• Taxa bearing organisms evolved from many sources but not common
ancestor, k/as POLYPHYLECTIC/GRADE.
• Ex: Mammalia.

22. • Various taxonomic categories are as follows –
KINGDOM
PHYLUM/ DIVISION
CLASS
ORDER
FAMILY
GENUS
SPECIES
ASCENDINGORDER
DESCENDINGORDER

23. SPECIES
• Term given by JOHN RAY.
• Basic unit of evolution.
• Biological concept of species was given by ERNEST MAYR.
• Species is a group of individuals in plants & animals which resemble closely in
structure as well as in function.
OR
• Species include a group of closely related organisms which can interbreed in nature
and produce fertile offspring.
• Except : Mule
• Hinny
• Tigon
• Liger
• Ex: Panthera tigris, Homo sapiens, Mangifera indica.

24. GENUS
• It is a group of closely related species.
• Ex: dog, jackal and wolf belongs to Canis genera.
OR
• It is a category or group which has similar species.
• Ex: Panthera tigris – Tiger
• Panthera leo – Lion
• Panthera pardous – Leopard
• Solanum tuberosum – Potato
• Solanum nigrum – Blackberry night shade
• Solanum melongena – Brinjal
• Groups of common characters in species of a genus are called CORRELATED
CHARACTERS.

25. FAMILY
• A no. of genera having several common characters forms a family.
OR
Similar groups are kept in a family.
Ex: Panthera – genus
Felis – small domestic cat and smaller cat genus placed in Felidae
family.

26. ORDER
• Similar families are kept in an order.
• Ex: Felidae – cat family
• Canidae – dog family
• Ursidae – bear family
}Placed under
CARNIVORA
order

27. CLASS
• Similar orders are placed in a class.
• Ex: Carnivora
• Primata
• Rodentia
• They all are placed under a common class Mammalia.

28. PHYLUM
• Similar classes are placed in phylum.
• Mammalia
• Aves
• Reptilia
• Amphibia
• Fishes
• Placed under a phylum Chordata.

29. KINGDOM
• All phylums are placed in a kingdom.
• Highest category of taxonomy.
• Ex: Plantae
• Animalia

30. NEED AND SCOPE OF TAXONOMY
• Diversity
• Relationship with other branches
• Applied biology
• Role in plant breeding
• Human health
• Horticulture or floriculture
• Preservation of wild life
• Indicator organism etc.

31. TAXONOMICALAIDS
I. HERBARIUM – it is a collection of well dried and nicely preserved
plants which are correctly identified and arranged according to an approved
system of classification.
• Dried, preserved and mounted on the sheets of paper k/as HERBARIUM
SHEETS.
• Plants which are not suitable for pressing and mounting, like fruits,
succulents and seeds of plants are either preserved in 2.5% formalin and
FAA or dried and stored in large containers.

32. PURPOSE
• Reference material for modern taxonomical research.
• Provide scientific information on plants for training or through exhibition etc.
• To serve as national plant wealth repositories.
• For the training of graduate students in botanical studies.
#MAKING OF HERBARIUM –
1. COLLECTION OF PLANTS –
• Must possess leaves, inflorescence, flowers, fruits and roots.
• Woody plants – flowering and leafy twigs of proper length.
• All the info habit, habitat, locality, season altitude, colour of flowers etc.
• At least 5-6 specimens per species should be collected.

33. 2. PRESSING AND DRYING-
• Pressed before plants gets wilted.
• Pressed in between ordinary newspaper folding alternating with sheets of
bloting paper.
3. POISONING-
• Dipping the specimen in 2% mercuric chloride solution when partially
dehydrated the specimen are again dried.
• Spraying 0.1% mercuric chloride solution on the specimen when they
are fully dried.
• Other chemicals – naphthalene flakes, paradichloro benzene, DDT,
carbon-di-sulphide gas etc.

34. 4. MOUNTING AND LABELLING
• Mounting done on herbarium sheets (29 x 42 cm)
• Mounted by either glue or stitched or held by cellophane tape on the sheets.
• Labelling done at lower right hand corner.
• It must include – common name, genus, species, family, date of collection,
habitat, locality, name of the collector, soil etc.
5. STORING OF HERBARIUM SHEETS –
• Mounted sheets stored in steel or wooden almirah.
• Sheets are kept arranged as per specific and approved system of classification.
• Mostly BENTHAM & HOOKER’S system of classification or ENGLER &
PRANTL followed.
• The arrangement of specimens according to system of classification in herbaria
is k/as FILLING of the specimens.

35. • Important herbaria of India are –
1. Central National Herbarium (Kolkata)
– largest in India.
1. Herbarium of Forest Research Institute
(Dehradun) etc.

36. II. BOTANICAL GARDEN
•Place where assemblage of living plants maintained for botanical
teaching and research purposes.
•In India, first garden was originated in Bombay in 1830 by
agricultural society.
•Then in 1838, another garden was established in Madras.

37. IMPORTANT BOTANICAL GARDENS
1. ROYAL BOTANICAL GARDEN, KEW, ENGLAND –
• Extends over 250 acres of land.
• Important plants of garden are –
Willows, lilacs, tulips, daffodils, Japanese cedar, red wood etc.

38. 2. INDIAN BOTANICAL GARDEN, HOWRAH
• One of the first botanical garden to be established in tropics.
• Founded in 1787 by ROBERT KYD.
• Covers an area of about 273 acres.
• Garden headed by WILLIAM ROXBURGH – FATHER OF
INDIAN BOTANY from 1793-1813.
• Garden possess Central National Herbarium.

39. Other interesting things about the garden-
• The great banyan tree
• Palm house
• Best nurseries of India.
• Victoria amazonica

40. 3. NATIONAL BOTANICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE,
LUCKNOW.
• Foundation of garden was lead by NAWAB SAADAT ALI KHAN (1789-1814)
• Improved later and named as SIKANDER BAGH by NAWAB WAJID ALI
SHAH.
• Existed as Government Horticulture Garden until 1948, when it was approved as
National Botanical Garden (NBG).
• It was taken by CSIR in 1953.

41. III. ZOOLOGICAL PARKS/ZOO
• Man made place where animals are provided with conditions as similar
as possible to their natural habitat.
SIGNIFICANCE –
1. Educate people about wild life
2. Recreation purpose
3. Protecting endangered animals.
4. Scientific study.

42. IV. MUSEUM
• Institutions which have collection of preserved plants and animals.
• Preserved specimen – dry
• Animals specimen like – birds, insects, fishes, reptiles etc. are kept in
jars in 3-7% formalin or FAA
• Large animals stuffed and preserved.

43. SIGNIFICANCE
1. Specimen preserved for longer duration.
2. Here, the plants like algae, fungi, mosses and ferns, parts of
gymnosperms are preserved here.
3. Preserved plants inform about the habitat nature of soil and flora of
the area.
4. Helps in future reference and taxonomical studies.
5. Provide first hand information about the characters, identification,
naming of the classification of the organisms.

44. V. KEY
• Represent the scheme for identification of plants and animals.
• Keys are generally analytical in nature.
OR
• Keys are a set of alternate statements which are arranged in such a manner that
it helps a scientist/ researcher to reach a particular organism.
VI. MONOGRAPH
• Systemic study of organism of one
taxon/ category.
VII. MANUALS
• Information of one species.
VIII. FLORA
Plants of a particular area.
IX FAUNA
Animals of a particular area.

45. THANK
YOU