The document provides an overview of key concepts in introductory biology and chemistry. It covers the structure and properties of the four main macromolecules that make up living things: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. For each topic, it defines important terms and concepts, describes the structure and functions of the macromolecule, and provides take-home messages that summarize the key learning points. The level of detail and examples included make it suitable as course material for an introductory biology or chemistry class.
This document discusses the four main types of organic molecules that make up living cells: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It explains that carbohydrates like sugars are a major source of fuel for cells and are made up of monomers like glucose. Lipids including fats and steroids function in energy storage, insulation, and as chemical messengers. Proteins are made through linking amino acid monomers and perform most functions in cells, such as structure, storage, defense. Enzymes, a type of protein, act as catalysts to speed up chemical reactions by lowering their activation energy. The document provides details on the structures, functions, and reactions of these essential biomolecules that make up living organisms.
The document discusses the key macromolecules found in living things: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It describes their basic chemical composition and roles. Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, and cellulose and are used for energy storage and structure. Lipids are made of carbon, hydrogen and fatty acids, and are used for energy storage and cell membranes. Proteins are made of amino acids and have diverse functions like cell structure and transport. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA contain genetic information and some help with energy transfer.
The document discusses the four major classes of biological macromolecules - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It describes the monomers, polymers, and functions of each macromolecule class. It also discusses nutrition and interpreting food labels, noting health effects of obesity like diabetes and heart disease.
The document provides an overview of important biological molecules including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It discusses the composition and functions of these macromolecules. Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, and fibers that serve as energy sources. Lipids such as fats and oils provide energy storage and insulation. Proteins are made of amino acids and perform structural and functional roles in the body. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA carry genetic information and aid cellular functions. The document emphasizes the significance of these molecules for life.
This document provides an overview of the four main types of macromolecules that are essential for life: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It describes the basic composition and functions of each macromolecule. Carbohydrates include sugars and starches and serve as energy stores. Lipids are fats, waxes, and steroids that are not water soluble and also store energy. Proteins are made of amino acids and perform important roles as enzymes and structural components. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA contain the genetic code and direct protein synthesis. These four macromolecule types are essential building blocks and functional units of all living organisms.
The document discusses the key biomolecules that make up living organisms. It explains that carbon is uniquely suited to forming the complex organic molecules necessary for life due to its ability to form four covalent bonds. The four main categories of biological macromolecules are then introduced as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. These macromolecules are formed through dehydration reactions linking simple monomers into long polymer chains.
This document provides an overview of basic biochemistry concepts. It discusses that all matter is composed of elements, which form compounds and molecules through bonding. The six most important elements that make up 98% of organisms are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur. It then focuses on organic chemistry, explaining that carbon can form many combinations with other atoms. The four main classes of organic molecules that make up living things are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It provides details on the structure and functions of these molecules, including monomers, polymers, and important examples. Secondary metabolites are also discussed.
Chapter 3 - Section 2 - Molecules of Lifecavalierem
This document provides an overview of the key biomolecules including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. It describes how carbohydrates are made of monosaccharides that join to form disaccharides and polysaccharides. Proteins are made of amino acids that join in chains, and lipids include fatty acids, triglycerides, and phospholipids. The document also compares DNA and RNA as the two main types of nucleic acids.
This document discusses the four main types of organic molecules that make up living cells: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It explains that carbohydrates like sugars are a major source of fuel for cells and are made up of monomers like glucose. Lipids including fats and steroids function in energy storage, insulation, and as chemical messengers. Proteins are made through linking amino acid monomers and perform most functions in cells, such as structure, storage, defense. Enzymes, a type of protein, act as catalysts to speed up chemical reactions by lowering their activation energy. The document provides details on the structures, functions, and reactions of these essential biomolecules that make up living organisms.
The document discusses the key macromolecules found in living things: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It describes their basic chemical composition and roles. Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, and cellulose and are used for energy storage and structure. Lipids are made of carbon, hydrogen and fatty acids, and are used for energy storage and cell membranes. Proteins are made of amino acids and have diverse functions like cell structure and transport. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA contain genetic information and some help with energy transfer.
The document discusses the four major classes of biological macromolecules - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It describes the monomers, polymers, and functions of each macromolecule class. It also discusses nutrition and interpreting food labels, noting health effects of obesity like diabetes and heart disease.
The document provides an overview of important biological molecules including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It discusses the composition and functions of these macromolecules. Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, and fibers that serve as energy sources. Lipids such as fats and oils provide energy storage and insulation. Proteins are made of amino acids and perform structural and functional roles in the body. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA carry genetic information and aid cellular functions. The document emphasizes the significance of these molecules for life.
This document provides an overview of the four main types of macromolecules that are essential for life: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It describes the basic composition and functions of each macromolecule. Carbohydrates include sugars and starches and serve as energy stores. Lipids are fats, waxes, and steroids that are not water soluble and also store energy. Proteins are made of amino acids and perform important roles as enzymes and structural components. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA contain the genetic code and direct protein synthesis. These four macromolecule types are essential building blocks and functional units of all living organisms.
The document discusses the key biomolecules that make up living organisms. It explains that carbon is uniquely suited to forming the complex organic molecules necessary for life due to its ability to form four covalent bonds. The four main categories of biological macromolecules are then introduced as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. These macromolecules are formed through dehydration reactions linking simple monomers into long polymer chains.
This document provides an overview of basic biochemistry concepts. It discusses that all matter is composed of elements, which form compounds and molecules through bonding. The six most important elements that make up 98% of organisms are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur. It then focuses on organic chemistry, explaining that carbon can form many combinations with other atoms. The four main classes of organic molecules that make up living things are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It provides details on the structure and functions of these molecules, including monomers, polymers, and important examples. Secondary metabolites are also discussed.
Chapter 3 - Section 2 - Molecules of Lifecavalierem
This document provides an overview of the key biomolecules including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. It describes how carbohydrates are made of monosaccharides that join to form disaccharides and polysaccharides. Proteins are made of amino acids that join in chains, and lipids include fatty acids, triglycerides, and phospholipids. The document also compares DNA and RNA as the two main types of nucleic acids.
This document provides an overview of organic compounds and macromolecules. It discusses the four major classes of macromolecules - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. For each class, it describes the monomer units, examples, functions, and how the monomers polymerize to form larger molecules through condensation reactions. It also covers topics like DNA replication, protein structure and folding, and the roles of these macromolecules in biological processes.
Organic macromolecules are giant molecules composed of many smaller subunits. The four main types of organic macromolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates are used for energy storage and are made of monosaccharides like glucose. Lipids provide long-term energy storage and act as cushions, and are made of glycerol and fatty acids. Proteins perform most functions in the body as enzymes, hormones, and structures, and are composed of amino acids. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA hold genetic information and are made of nucleotides.
B.sc. biochemistry sem 1 introduction to biochemistry unit 2 biomoleculesRai University
Proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids are the three main types of biomolecules. Proteins are made of amino acid chains and perform most bodily functions. Carbohydrates are the main energy source and come in simple and complex forms. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, and other fatty substances that serve as energy stores and membrane components. Nucleic acids DNA and RNA carry genetic information and aid in protein synthesis. Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions and have various roles in industrial and biological processes.
The document summarizes the key macromolecules that make up living things: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It describes how each is made of monomers that polymerize through condensation reactions, and how their structures determine their functions. Carbohydrates include sugars and starches used for energy storage. Lipids include fats and phospholipids that store energy and make up cell membranes. Proteins have complex 4-level structures (primary to quaternary) that allow for their diverse functions like transport and muscle movement. Nucleic acids DNA and RNA contain nucleotides and code or aid in protein synthesis to pass on traits.
The document provides an overview of basic biology concepts including:
1. Atoms and elements are the building blocks of all living things, with carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen being the most abundant elements in living organisms.
2. Molecules and compounds are formed through chemical bonds between atoms, including covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds.
3. Key biomolecules include water, carbohydrates like sugars and starches, lipids, and proteins which are made of amino acids and have unique structures and functions.
The chemical_basis_for_life---organic_compoundsAnny Montano
This document discusses the four major types of organic compounds found in living things: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It describes the structure and functions of each compound. Carbohydrates such as glucose provide energy, while lipids store energy and form cell membranes. Proteins have a variety of functions including maintaining cell shape and catalyzing reactions. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA pass on traits by coding for amino acids and assembling proteins. Carbon is essential to life because it can form the large complex molecules that make up living organisms.
Biological compounds include polymers, nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and steroids. Polymers are large molecules composed of smaller repeating units called monomers. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA contain sugars, phosphates, and nucleotides. Proteins are formed from amino acid monomers linked by peptide bonds. Carbohydrates like glucose are made of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Lipids include fats and oils composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen without a 1:2:1 ratio. Steroids contain cholesterol, hormones, and vitamin D.
Biological molecules (Water and Proteins) and Transport in plants recap AS Bi...Jorge Pinto
Aim: To explore the structures and functions of different macromolecules
Objectives by the end of this lesson SSBAT:
List the properties of water that make it essential to life.
Explain how the atomic structure of water affects its biological interactions.
Describe the properties of proteins and its structures
- Carbon atoms can form chains and complex structures, allowing for the creation of macromolecules in living things. The four main types of macromolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins.
- Carbohydrates and lipids are used to store energy, while nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information in the forms of RNA and DNA. Proteins have a variety of functions including catalyzing reactions, forming structures, and transporting materials.
- All macromolecules are polymers formed via polymerization reactions that link smaller monomer units together. They provide structure, energy storage, heredity, and catalysis essential for life.
This document summarizes key chemistry concepts related to the building blocks of life. It covers the elements, atoms, and molecules that make up living organisms. It also describes the four main types of organic compounds - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids - and provides examples of each. Water is highlighted for its importance as a solvent and in biological processes and reactions.
Proteins - Edexcel A-Level Biology B Topic 1.2Olivia Gearing
This document discusses proteins and their structure. It notes that proteins make up 18% of the human body and are essential components of things like hair, skin, nails, enzymes, hormones, muscles and more. Proteins are composed of long chains of amino acids that join together via condensation reactions. There are 20 naturally occurring amino acids that can combine in various ways to form different proteins. The chains of amino acids fold into complex 3D structures held together by bonds like peptide bonds, hydrogen bonds, disulfide bonds, and ionic bonds. This intricate 3D structure allows proteins to perform their many vital functions in the body.
This document discusses various types of macromolecules including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It begins by defining biochemistry and explaining that it studies the chemical reactions that occur in living organisms, focusing on substances like enzymes, hormones, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, DNA and RNA. It then discusses the importance of biochemistry in pharmacy and nursing, explaining how it helps understand drug constitution, metabolism, storage and biochemical tests. The document proceeds to discuss carbohydrates in depth, explaining their classification into mono-, di-, oligo- and polysaccharides. It provides examples and functions of important carbohydrates like glucose, fructose, starch and cellulose. Finally, it briefly introduces lipids and
This document discusses biological molecules, including their classification, structure, and functions. It covers the main types of biological molecules:
1) Inorganic molecules like water, acids, bases, electrolytes, and carbon dioxide which are essential for life processes. Water acts as a solvent and is crucial for chemical reactions in the body.
2) Organic macromolecules including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids which are polymers formed from smaller organic subunits. Carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids are synthesized through dehydration reactions between monomers.
3) The four main classes of biological macromolecules each have distinct monomeric subunits and play critical structural or functional
The document discusses the differences between organic and inorganic compounds, with organic compounds containing carbon chains and bonds and including substances found in living things like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. It explains that carbon is well-suited to form these organic compounds because carbon atoms can form four covalent bonds, including with other carbon atoms, allowing long chains to form. The document also introduces polymers as macromolecules made of repeating monomer units, provides examples of starch being made of many glucose monomers and proteins being made of amino acids, and describes how water is involved in the synthesis and decomposition of polymers through dehydration synthesis, where water is lost during polymer formation, and hydrolysis, where water is added to
Water, carbon dioxide, acids, bases, salts, and organic compounds like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are the basic chemical components of life. Water makes up 80% of living matter, provides solvent properties, and transports substances. Carbon dioxide provides carbon and oxygen for organic compounds. Changes in acidity and salt concentrations can impair cell function and cause death. Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are organic polymers that serve vital structural and metabolic roles within cells. DNA contains the genetic code and is replicated for inheritance, while RNA aids in protein synthesis.
This document summarizes key concepts in chemistry that are relevant to understanding the chemical basis of life. It defines matter and its composition of elements and atoms. It describes the structure of atoms including protons, neutrons, electrons and electron shells. It explains the formation of molecules, compounds, and different types of chemical bonds. It discusses the unique properties of water and its role in biological systems. It also summarizes the main macromolecules that make up living things - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids - and describes their structure and functions.
Carbon-based molecules are the foundation of life and come in three main structures: straight chains, branched chains, and rings. The four main types of carbon-based molecules in living things are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and include sugars and starches. Lipids include fats, oils, and cholesterol and have many functions like energy storage. Proteins are polymers of amino acids and have different shapes that influence their functions. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA are made of nucleotides and perform roles like storing genetic information.
The document provides information about macromolecules and enzymes. It describes the four main macromolecules - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids - including their monomer units, structures, and functions. It also explains how enzymes lower the activation energy of biochemical reactions and how environmental factors like pH and temperature affect enzyme activity.
Biomolecules include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides like glucose that join to form disaccharides like sucrose or polysaccharides like starch for storage. Lipids are insoluble in water, made of fatty acid esters, and serve as energy stores. Proteins are made of amino acid chains and perform important functions like catalysis and transport.
This document defines and describes biomolecules, which are molecules found in living organisms. Biomolecules are divided into macromolecules and micromolecules. Macromolecules have a molecular weight over 1000 and include polysaccharides, nucleic acids, and proteins. Micromolecules have a molecular weight under 1000 and include amino acids, sugars, nucleotides, and lipids. The document then provides examples and further descriptions of these classes of biomolecules, including their structures, functions, and examples.
Day 3 September 2nd 2014 Chapters 1 and 2 Chemistry and Water and Carbs, oh my!Amy Hollingsworth
This document provides an overview of a biology lecture covering key macromolecules including water, carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. The lecture discusses the atomic structure of elements and how atoms bond together to form molecules. It describes the unique properties of water that support life, and explains the structures and functions of carbohydrates like glucose and glycogen as an energy source. Lipids such as fats and phospholipids are covered as a means of long-term energy storage and membrane formation. The role of proteins and nucleic acids is also briefly mentioned.
This document discusses biochemical molecules. It begins by explaining that all living organisms require biomolecules like organic and inorganic compounds. The four most common elements in living organisms are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Biomolecules can be grouped as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, water, and minerals. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Lipids function as storage, structure, signaling, and pigments. Proteins are made of amino acids linked by peptide bonds that can fold into complex structures.
This document provides an overview of organic compounds and macromolecules. It discusses the four major classes of macromolecules - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. For each class, it describes the monomer units, examples, functions, and how the monomers polymerize to form larger molecules through condensation reactions. It also covers topics like DNA replication, protein structure and folding, and the roles of these macromolecules in biological processes.
Organic macromolecules are giant molecules composed of many smaller subunits. The four main types of organic macromolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates are used for energy storage and are made of monosaccharides like glucose. Lipids provide long-term energy storage and act as cushions, and are made of glycerol and fatty acids. Proteins perform most functions in the body as enzymes, hormones, and structures, and are composed of amino acids. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA hold genetic information and are made of nucleotides.
B.sc. biochemistry sem 1 introduction to biochemistry unit 2 biomoleculesRai University
Proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids are the three main types of biomolecules. Proteins are made of amino acid chains and perform most bodily functions. Carbohydrates are the main energy source and come in simple and complex forms. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, and other fatty substances that serve as energy stores and membrane components. Nucleic acids DNA and RNA carry genetic information and aid in protein synthesis. Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions and have various roles in industrial and biological processes.
The document summarizes the key macromolecules that make up living things: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It describes how each is made of monomers that polymerize through condensation reactions, and how their structures determine their functions. Carbohydrates include sugars and starches used for energy storage. Lipids include fats and phospholipids that store energy and make up cell membranes. Proteins have complex 4-level structures (primary to quaternary) that allow for their diverse functions like transport and muscle movement. Nucleic acids DNA and RNA contain nucleotides and code or aid in protein synthesis to pass on traits.
The document provides an overview of basic biology concepts including:
1. Atoms and elements are the building blocks of all living things, with carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen being the most abundant elements in living organisms.
2. Molecules and compounds are formed through chemical bonds between atoms, including covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds.
3. Key biomolecules include water, carbohydrates like sugars and starches, lipids, and proteins which are made of amino acids and have unique structures and functions.
The chemical_basis_for_life---organic_compoundsAnny Montano
This document discusses the four major types of organic compounds found in living things: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It describes the structure and functions of each compound. Carbohydrates such as glucose provide energy, while lipids store energy and form cell membranes. Proteins have a variety of functions including maintaining cell shape and catalyzing reactions. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA pass on traits by coding for amino acids and assembling proteins. Carbon is essential to life because it can form the large complex molecules that make up living organisms.
Biological compounds include polymers, nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and steroids. Polymers are large molecules composed of smaller repeating units called monomers. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA contain sugars, phosphates, and nucleotides. Proteins are formed from amino acid monomers linked by peptide bonds. Carbohydrates like glucose are made of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Lipids include fats and oils composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen without a 1:2:1 ratio. Steroids contain cholesterol, hormones, and vitamin D.
Biological molecules (Water and Proteins) and Transport in plants recap AS Bi...Jorge Pinto
Aim: To explore the structures and functions of different macromolecules
Objectives by the end of this lesson SSBAT:
List the properties of water that make it essential to life.
Explain how the atomic structure of water affects its biological interactions.
Describe the properties of proteins and its structures
- Carbon atoms can form chains and complex structures, allowing for the creation of macromolecules in living things. The four main types of macromolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins.
- Carbohydrates and lipids are used to store energy, while nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information in the forms of RNA and DNA. Proteins have a variety of functions including catalyzing reactions, forming structures, and transporting materials.
- All macromolecules are polymers formed via polymerization reactions that link smaller monomer units together. They provide structure, energy storage, heredity, and catalysis essential for life.
This document summarizes key chemistry concepts related to the building blocks of life. It covers the elements, atoms, and molecules that make up living organisms. It also describes the four main types of organic compounds - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids - and provides examples of each. Water is highlighted for its importance as a solvent and in biological processes and reactions.
Proteins - Edexcel A-Level Biology B Topic 1.2Olivia Gearing
This document discusses proteins and their structure. It notes that proteins make up 18% of the human body and are essential components of things like hair, skin, nails, enzymes, hormones, muscles and more. Proteins are composed of long chains of amino acids that join together via condensation reactions. There are 20 naturally occurring amino acids that can combine in various ways to form different proteins. The chains of amino acids fold into complex 3D structures held together by bonds like peptide bonds, hydrogen bonds, disulfide bonds, and ionic bonds. This intricate 3D structure allows proteins to perform their many vital functions in the body.
This document discusses various types of macromolecules including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It begins by defining biochemistry and explaining that it studies the chemical reactions that occur in living organisms, focusing on substances like enzymes, hormones, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, DNA and RNA. It then discusses the importance of biochemistry in pharmacy and nursing, explaining how it helps understand drug constitution, metabolism, storage and biochemical tests. The document proceeds to discuss carbohydrates in depth, explaining their classification into mono-, di-, oligo- and polysaccharides. It provides examples and functions of important carbohydrates like glucose, fructose, starch and cellulose. Finally, it briefly introduces lipids and
This document discusses biological molecules, including their classification, structure, and functions. It covers the main types of biological molecules:
1) Inorganic molecules like water, acids, bases, electrolytes, and carbon dioxide which are essential for life processes. Water acts as a solvent and is crucial for chemical reactions in the body.
2) Organic macromolecules including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids which are polymers formed from smaller organic subunits. Carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids are synthesized through dehydration reactions between monomers.
3) The four main classes of biological macromolecules each have distinct monomeric subunits and play critical structural or functional
The document discusses the differences between organic and inorganic compounds, with organic compounds containing carbon chains and bonds and including substances found in living things like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. It explains that carbon is well-suited to form these organic compounds because carbon atoms can form four covalent bonds, including with other carbon atoms, allowing long chains to form. The document also introduces polymers as macromolecules made of repeating monomer units, provides examples of starch being made of many glucose monomers and proteins being made of amino acids, and describes how water is involved in the synthesis and decomposition of polymers through dehydration synthesis, where water is lost during polymer formation, and hydrolysis, where water is added to
Water, carbon dioxide, acids, bases, salts, and organic compounds like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are the basic chemical components of life. Water makes up 80% of living matter, provides solvent properties, and transports substances. Carbon dioxide provides carbon and oxygen for organic compounds. Changes in acidity and salt concentrations can impair cell function and cause death. Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are organic polymers that serve vital structural and metabolic roles within cells. DNA contains the genetic code and is replicated for inheritance, while RNA aids in protein synthesis.
This document summarizes key concepts in chemistry that are relevant to understanding the chemical basis of life. It defines matter and its composition of elements and atoms. It describes the structure of atoms including protons, neutrons, electrons and electron shells. It explains the formation of molecules, compounds, and different types of chemical bonds. It discusses the unique properties of water and its role in biological systems. It also summarizes the main macromolecules that make up living things - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids - and describes their structure and functions.
Carbon-based molecules are the foundation of life and come in three main structures: straight chains, branched chains, and rings. The four main types of carbon-based molecules in living things are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and include sugars and starches. Lipids include fats, oils, and cholesterol and have many functions like energy storage. Proteins are polymers of amino acids and have different shapes that influence their functions. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA are made of nucleotides and perform roles like storing genetic information.
The document provides information about macromolecules and enzymes. It describes the four main macromolecules - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids - including their monomer units, structures, and functions. It also explains how enzymes lower the activation energy of biochemical reactions and how environmental factors like pH and temperature affect enzyme activity.
Biomolecules include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides like glucose that join to form disaccharides like sucrose or polysaccharides like starch for storage. Lipids are insoluble in water, made of fatty acid esters, and serve as energy stores. Proteins are made of amino acid chains and perform important functions like catalysis and transport.
This document defines and describes biomolecules, which are molecules found in living organisms. Biomolecules are divided into macromolecules and micromolecules. Macromolecules have a molecular weight over 1000 and include polysaccharides, nucleic acids, and proteins. Micromolecules have a molecular weight under 1000 and include amino acids, sugars, nucleotides, and lipids. The document then provides examples and further descriptions of these classes of biomolecules, including their structures, functions, and examples.
Day 3 September 2nd 2014 Chapters 1 and 2 Chemistry and Water and Carbs, oh my!Amy Hollingsworth
This document provides an overview of a biology lecture covering key macromolecules including water, carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. The lecture discusses the atomic structure of elements and how atoms bond together to form molecules. It describes the unique properties of water that support life, and explains the structures and functions of carbohydrates like glucose and glycogen as an energy source. Lipids such as fats and phospholipids are covered as a means of long-term energy storage and membrane formation. The role of proteins and nucleic acids is also briefly mentioned.
This document discusses biochemical molecules. It begins by explaining that all living organisms require biomolecules like organic and inorganic compounds. The four most common elements in living organisms are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Biomolecules can be grouped as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, water, and minerals. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Lipids function as storage, structure, signaling, and pigments. Proteins are made of amino acids linked by peptide bonds that can fold into complex structures.
1. Organic compounds are made up of carbon along with hydrogen, oxygen, and sometimes nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. They make up all living things.
2. Carbon can form chains and rings by bonding through single, double, or triple covalent bonds. Very large molecules called macromolecules are formed when many smaller molecules bond together.
3. Polymers are large molecules composed of many repeating smaller molecule units called monomers. They are formed through a process called dehydration synthesis which requires the removal of a water molecule.
The document describes the different levels of organization within organisms, from organelles to cells to tissues to organs to organ systems. It provides examples of structures at each level such as organelles including the nucleus, chloroplasts and mitochondria. Cells include skin cells, muscle cells and neurons. Tissues include muscle, nerves and blood. Organs include the heart, skin and brain. Organ systems include the circulatory, nervous and endocrine systems.
1. The document discusses the basic biological molecules - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It describes how each is made up of smaller monomer units that bond together to form larger polymers.
2. Carbohydrates include sugars, starch and cellulose. Lipids include fats, oils, and phospholipids. Proteins are made of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA are made of nucleotides.
3. These molecules are the building blocks of life and perform important functions in organisms like energy storage, structure, catalysis and information transfer.
The document discusses key biomolecules found in cells including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates include sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) and starches/glycogen (polysaccharides) that serve as energy storage. Lipids such as fats and oils are hydrophobic and energy storage. Proteins are polymers of amino acids that serve structural and enzymatic functions. Nucleic acids DNA and RNA contain genetic information and code for protein synthesis. These macromolecules are essential building blocks and serve critical functions in organisms.
The document discusses macromolecules, which are large complex organic molecules that are essential for life. There are four main classes of macromolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, disaccharides formed from two monosaccharides bonded together like sucrose, and polysaccharides made of long chains of monosaccharides like starch, glycogen, and cellulose. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, and phospholipids, with phospholipids containing a phosphate group allowing them to form cell membranes. The document provides examples and information about specific macromolecules like glucose, starch, and phospholipids, and explains they are
Biology 12 - Chemistry of Carbohydrates - Section 2-5 and 2-6JEmmons
This document outlines the content covered in Unit A of a cell biology course, including chapters on the molecules of cells, cell structure and function, DNA structure and gene expression, and metabolism. Specifically, it provides details on sections 2.5 and 2.6 of chapter 2, which discuss carbohydrates and lipids. Carbohydrates include simple sugars, disaccharides, and complex polysaccharides used for energy storage. Lipids are a diverse group that includes fats, oils, phospholipids that make up cell membranes, and steroids like cholesterol. The key functions and structures of these various biomolecules are described.
This document provides an overview of biomolecules and their functions. It discusses that carbon compounds are the basis of organic molecules in living things. The four main biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins are used primarily as energy sources or building blocks, while nucleic acids like DNA and RNA store and transmit genetic information essential for life.
Biological macromolecules are polymers made up of repeating monomer units joined by dehydration synthesis. The four main types of biological macromolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides and function as energy stores and structural components. Lipids are hydrophobic and function in insulation, energy storage, and as structural components of cell membranes. Proteins are polymers of amino acids and function in structure, enzyme catalysis, transport, defense, hormones, and motion. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA store genetic information as polymers of nucleotides.
IB Biology 2.1 Slides: Molecules to MetabolismJacob Cedarbaum
The document discusses molecular biology and metabolism. It begins by explaining that molecular biology views living processes in terms of chemical substances. It then discusses DNA and genes, and the central idea that DNA makes RNA makes protein. The document outlines the reductionist approach of molecular biologists in breaking down metabolic pathways. It provides examples of anabolism through condensation reactions and catabolism through hydrolysis reactions. Throughout, it gives examples of key biomolecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. In summary, the document covers foundational concepts in molecular biology and metabolism, from genes and proteins to anabolic and catabolic pathways.
1) Living things are made up of carbon-containing molecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. These molecules are made through metabolic pathways that involve breaking down (catabolism) and building up (anabolism) smaller molecules.
2) Water is essential for life due to its unique properties. It is polar and can form hydrogen bonds between molecules. It also has a high heat capacity and heat of vaporization, allowing it to absorb and release large amounts of heat without major temperature changes.
3) Metabolism involves both anabolic and catabolic pathways. Anabolism uses energy to synthesize larger molecules from smaller ones through condensation reactions. Catabolism breaks down larger
Concepts in BiochemistryChapter 2Wendy Herndon, BIS, RDH, CDAlleneMcclendon878
Concepts in Biochemistry
Chapter 2
Wendy Herndon, BIS, RDH, CDA
Introduction
Dental professionals need to have a basic understanding of biochemistry
It is the foundation for understanding and applying the concepts of nutrition
What is Biochemistry?
It is the study of life at the molecular level
A molecule is:
The smallest particle of a substance that retains all the properties of the substance
A biomolecule is
Any molecule that is produced by a living cell or organism
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YO244P1e9QM
Metabolism involves
Production and use of energy which can come from dietary carbs, proteins, and lipids
Bioinformation involves
The transfer of biological information from DNA to RNA to protein which carries out all of the processes of life
DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid
RNA is Ribonucleic acid
3
Fundamentals
Atoms are:
Made of three tiny particles called:
Protons
Neutrons
Electrons
An atom itself is made up of three tiny kinds of particles called subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. The protons and the neutrons make up the center of the atom called the nucleus and the electrons fly around above the nucleus in a small cloud. All matter is made up of atoms.
4
Fundamentals
Molecules are:
A group of atoms bonded together
An example is when two atoms of hydrogen bond with one atom of oxygen, it forms a water molecule
A molecule is a group of atoms bonded together
5
Fundamentals
The mass of the human body is made of atoms which form molecules (groups of atoms)
Molecules form cells (made up of billions of molecules)
Cells form tissues
Tissues form organs
Organs work together to form systems
Systems form organisms such as a human
Atomic Bonds
Ionic
Ionic bonds form between a positively charged metal and a negatively charged non-metal
An example of an ionic bond is the hydroxyapatite in enamel which is composed of ionic bonds between calcium and phosphate
Atomic Bonds
Covalent
-A covalent bond occurs when two non-metal atoms equally share electrons
-An example of this would be when nitrogen and oxygen bond together to form nitrous oxide
-Laughing gas
Carbon
Element
Carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the universe and is the building block of life on earth
Cells are made of many complex molecules called macromolecules
These include proteins, nucleic acids (RNA and DNA), carbohydrates, and lipids
The carbon atom has unique properties that allow it to form covalent bonds to as many as four different atoms, making this versatile element ideal to serve as the basic structural component, or “backbone,” of the macromolecules (many complex molecules)
Main Biomolecules in Nutrition
(any molecule formed by a living cell or organism)
The four major biomolecules are:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids
These biomolecules are characterized by the type of polymer or monomer they contain and by their function
A polymer is a large molecule containing repeating units kn ...
This document provides an overview of key biological molecules including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It discusses their structure and functions. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides like glucose that can form disaccharides (e.g. sucrose) and polysaccharides (e.g. starch, glycogen). Lipids are made of glycerol and fatty acids and include fats, phospholipids, and steroids. Proteins consist of amino acid polymers that form complex structures. Nucleic acids DNA and RNA store and transmit genetic information as polynucleotides made of nucleotides. Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts for many functions. The document examines these molecules in depth across multiple chapters.
This document provides an overview of organic and inorganic compounds, categories of organic compounds including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. It describes the basic structures and functions of these biomolecules, such as carbohydrates being the primary energy source and made up of sugars/starches with a carbon, hydrogen, oxygen ratio of 1:2:1. Proteins are made of amino acids that form peptide bonds, and enzymes are protein catalysts. Lipids include fats/oils and have energy storage and membrane roles. Nucleic acids DNA and RNA are made of nucleotides containing sugars, phosphates, and nitrogen bases that form base pairs.
The document provides an overview of cells and cell organelles. It discusses the key components of the cell theory and describes the main structures and functions of organelles including the nucleus, nucleolus, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, centrioles, cytoskeleton, mitochondria, vacuoles, and macromolecules like nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. It explains that cells are the basic unit of life and composed of organelles that carry out specific functions necessary for cellular processes.
This document provides an overview of large biological molecules including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It discusses the structure and functions of these macromolecules. For carbohydrates, it describes monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. For lipids, it explains triglyceride structure and fatty acid variations. The four levels of protein structure are defined. For nucleic acids, it outlines DNA and RNA structure and their role in protein synthesis.
This document provides an overview of Module 7 which discusses biological macromolecules including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. The objectives are to summarize the characteristics of each biomolecule, identify sources of each in the body, and understand their importance. It defines key terms like monosaccharide, peptide, amino acids, enzymes, and nucleotides. Examples of foods rich in different macromolecules are given. The roles of macromolecules are described along with disorders linked to imbalances like diabetes, Kwashiorkor, and heart attacks. Students are assigned to study the molecular structures of each macromolecule.
1. The document discusses the key nutrients required by the human body, including carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, water, and dietary fiber.
2. These nutrients are obtained from foods and are needed by the body for energy, growth, repair, health maintenance, and various metabolic functions.
3. A balanced diet containing foods from all the major groups in the right proportions is important for obtaining all the necessary nutrients and maintaining overall well-being.
This document provides an overview of biochemistry basics including:
- The main parts of an atom and differences between ionic and covalent bonding.
- Representation of covalent bonds through electron dot structures and molecular formulas.
- Key properties of water including its polarity, hydrogen bonding, and role as a universal solvent.
- That carbon is found in all organic molecules and examples of hydrocarbons, functional groups, and macromolecules.
- The building blocks and roles of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
- How monomers link together through dehydration synthesis to form polymers like glycogen, cellulose, triglycerides, proteins, DNA, and RNA.
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This document discusses suffixes and terminology used in medicine. It begins by listing common combining forms used to build medical terms and their meanings. It then defines several noun, adjective, and shorter suffixes and provides their meanings. Examples are given of medical terms built using combining forms and suffixes. The document also examines specific medical concepts in more depth, such as hernias, blood cells, acromegaly, splenomegaly, and laparoscopy.
The document is a chapter from a medical textbook that discusses anatomical terminology pertaining to the body as a whole. It defines the structural organization of the body from cells to tissues to organs to systems. It also describes the body cavities and identifies the major organs contained within each cavity, as well as anatomical divisions of the abdomen and back.
This document is from a textbook on medical terminology. It discusses the basic structure of medical words and how they are built from prefixes, suffixes, and combining forms. Some key points:
- Medical terms are made up of elements including roots, suffixes, prefixes, and combining vowels. Understanding these elements is important for analyzing terms.
- Common prefixes include hypo-, epi-, and cis-. Common suffixes include -itis, -algia, and -ectomy.
- Dozens of combining forms are provided, such as gastro- meaning stomach, cardi- meaning heart, and aden- meaning gland.
- Rules are provided for analyzing terms, such as reading from the suffix backward and dropping combining vowels before suffixes starting with vowels
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 25 on Cancer from the 6th edition of the textbook Molecular Cell Biology published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter was authored by a team that includes Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 24 on Immunology from the 6th edition of the textbook Molecular Cell Biology published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter was authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
Nerve cells, also known as neurons, are highly specialized cells that process and transmit information through electrical and chemical signals. This chapter discusses the structure and function of neurons, how they communicate with each other via synapses, and how signals are propagated along neurons through changes in their membrane potentials. Neurons play a vital role in the nervous system by allowing organisms to process information and coordinate their responses.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 22 from the 6th edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "The Molecular Cell Biology of Development" and is authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 21 from the sixth edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Cell Birth, Lineage, and Death" and is authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright page for Chapter 20 from the 6th edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Regulating the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle" and is authored by a group of scientists including Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 19 from the 6th edition textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Integrating Cells into Tissues" and is authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This chapter discusses microtubules and intermediate filaments, which are types of cytoskeletal filaments that help organize and move cellular components. Microtubules are involved in processes like cell division and intracellular transport, while intermediate filaments provide mechanical strength and help integrate the nucleus with the cytoplasm. Together, these filaments play important structural and functional roles in eukaryotic cells.
This chapter discusses microfilaments, which are one of the three main types of cytoskeletal filaments found in eukaryotic cells. Microfilaments are composed of actin filaments and play important roles in cell motility, structure, and intracellular transport. They allow cells to change shape and to move by contracting or extending parts of the cell surface.
This document is the copyright page for Chapter 16 from the 6th edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Signaling Pathways that Control Gene Activity" and is authored by a group of scientists including Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright page for Chapter 15 of the 6th edition textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira. It provides the chapter title "Cell Signaling I: Signal Transduction and Short-Term Cellular Responses" and notes the copyright is held by W. H. Freeman and Company in 2008.
This document is the copyright page for Chapter 14 from the 6th edition textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Vesicular Traffic, Secretion, and Endocytosis" and is authored by a group of scientists including Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh and Matsudaira.
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This document is the copyright information for Chapter 9 from the 6th edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Visualizing, Fractionating, and Culturing Cells" and is authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
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A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
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Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
2. Learning Goals
Describe what
atoms are,
their structure,
& how they
bond.
Understand
water’s
features that
help it support
all life.
Describe the
structure &
function of
carbohydrates.
Describe the
structure &
function of
lipids.
Describe the
structure &
function of
proteins.
Describe the
structure &
function of
nucleic acids.
2
5. 2.1 Everything is
made of atoms.
An element is a
substance that cannot
be broken down
chemically into any
other substances.
An atom is a bit of
matter that cannot be
subdivided any further
without losing its
essential properties.
5
8. Radioactive Atoms
A few atomic nuclei are not stable and break
down spontaneously.
These atoms are radioactive.
They release, at a constant rate, a tiny, high-
speed particle carrying a lot of energy.
8
11. Take-Home Message 2.1
Everything around us,
living or not, is made
from atoms, the
smallest unit into which
material can be divided.
Atoms all have the same
general structure.
They are made up of
protons and neutrons in
the nucleus and
electrons, which circle
far around the nucleus.
11
16. Take-Home Message 2.2
The chemical
characteristics of an
atom depend upon
number of electrons in
their outermost shells.
Atoms are most stable
and least likely to bond
with other atoms when
their outermost
electron shell is full.
16
17. 2.3 Atoms can bond
together to form
molecules or
compounds.
17
25. Take-Home Message 2.3
Atoms can be bound
together in three different
ways.
Covalent bonds, in which
atoms share electrons, are
the strongest.
In ionic bonds, the next
strongest, one atom transfers
its electrons to another and
the two oppositely charged
ions are attracted to each
other, forming a compound.
Hydrogen bonds, the
weakest, involve the
attraction between a
hydrogen atom and another
polar atom or molecule.
25
36. Take-Home Message 2.5
The hydrogen bonds between
water molecules give water
several of its most important
characteristics: cohesiveness,
low density as a solid, the ability
to resist temperature changes, &
broad effectiveness as a solvent
36
37. 2.6 Living systems are highly sensitive
to acidic and basic conditions.
37
38. Hydrogen Ions & Hydroxide Ions
Ionized Hydroxide
Molecule
OH-
Non-Ionized Water
Molecule
H2O
O O
H H H
38
39. pH Scale
The amount of H+
in a solution is a
measure of its
acidity & is called
pH.
Acids
Bases
39
Acidic
[H+] > [OH–]
Neutral
[H+] = [OH–]
Basic
[H+] < [OH–]
7
0
14
41. H+ Ions & Acids
H+ very reactive
Acids can
donate H+ to
other chemicals
41
42. Bases
Low H+ & high
OH-
Antacids, baking
soda, milk of
magnesia
42
43. Buffers
Can quickly absorb
excess H+ ions to keep
a solution from
becoming too acidic
Can also quickly
release H+ ions to
counteract any
increases in OH-
concentration
43
44. Take-Home Message 2.6
The pH of a fluid is a
measure of how acidic or
basic a solution is and
depends on the
concentration of dissolved
H+ ions present.
Acids, such as vinegar, can
donate protons to other
chemicals while bases,
including baking soda, bind
with free protons.
44
49. Take-Home Message 2.7
Carbohydrates are the
primary fuel for running all
cellular machinery and also
form much of the structure
of cells in all life forms.
Carbohydrates contain
carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, and generally have
the same number of carbon
atoms as they do H2O units.
The C-H bonds of
carbohydrates store a great
deal of energy and are
easily broken by organisms.
49
50. 2.8 Simple sugars are the
most effective source of
energy.
Monosaccharides
3-7 carbon atoms
Glucose &
fructose
50
54. Take-Home Message 2.8
The simplest carbohydrates
are called monosaccharides
or simple sugars. They
contain from 3-7 carbon
atoms.
The sugar glucose is the most
important carbohydrate to
living organisms.
Glucose in the bloodstream
can be used as an energy
source, can be stored as
glycogen in the muscles
and liver for later use, or
can be converted to fat.
54
58. Take-Home Message 2. 9
Multiple simple
carbohydrates sometimes
link together into more
complex carbohydrates.
Types of complex
carbohydrates include starch,
the primary form of energy
storage in plants, and
glycogen, a primary form of
energy storage in animals.
58
62. Take-Home Message 2.10
Some complex
carbohydrates, including
chitin and cellulose,
cannot be digested by
most animals.
Such indigestible
carbohydrates in the diet,
called fiber, aid in
digestion and have
numerous health benefits.
62
64. 2.11 Lipids are macromolecules with several functions,
including energy storage.
64
65. Why does a salad
dressing made with
vinegar and oil
separate into two
layers shortly after
you shake it?
Hydrophilic
Hydrophobic
65
66. Take-Home Message 2.11
Lipids are non-soluble in
water and greasy to the
touch.
They are valuable to
organisms in long-term
energy storage and
insulation, membrane
formation, and as
hormones.
66
67. 2.12 Fats are tasty
molecules too
plentiful in our diets.
Glycerol:
“head”
region
Fatty acid
“tails”
Triglycerides
67
75. Take-Home Message 2.12
Fats, including the triglycerides
common in the food we eat, are
one type of lipid.
Characterized by long
hydrocarbon tails, fats effectively
store energy in the bonds
connecting the molecules.
Their caloric density is
responsible for humans’
preferring fats to other
macromolecules in the diet, and
is also responsible for their
association with obesity and
illness in the modern world.
75
78. Cholesterol
Important
component of most
cell membranes.
Can attach to blood
vessel walls and
cause them to
thicken.
Cells in our liver
produce almost 90%
of the circulating
cholesterol.
78
82. Take-Home Message 2.13
Cholesterol and
phospholipids are lipids
that are not fats.
Both are important
components in cell
membranes.
Cholesterol also serves
as a precursor to steroid
hormones, important
regulators of growth
and development.
82
88. Nonpolar Amino Acids
Glycine
(Gly or G)
Alanine
(Ala or A)
Valine
(Val or V)
Leucine
(Leu or L)
Isoleucine
(Ile or I)
Methionine
(Met or M)
Phenylalanine
(Phe or F)
Tryptophan
(Trp or W)
Proline
(Pro or P)
88
89. Take-Home Message 2.14
Unique combinations of 20
amino acids give rise to
proteins, the chief building
blocks of physical structures
that make up all organisms.
Proteins perform myriad
functions, from assisting
chemical reactions to causing
blood clotting to building
bones to fighting
microorganisms.
89
90. 2.15 Proteins are an
essential dietary
component.
Growth
Repair
Replacement
90
93. Take-Home Message 2.15
Twenty amino acids make
up all the proteins
necessary for growth,
repair, and replacement of
tissue in living organisms.
Of these amino acids, about
half are essential for
humans: they cannot be
synthesized by the body so
must be consumed in the
diet.
Complete proteins contain
all essential amino acids,
while incomplete proteins
do not.
93
102. Why do some people have curly hair and others
have straight hair?
102
103. Take-Home Message 2.16
The particular amino
acid sequence of a
protein determines
how it folds into a
particular shape.
This shape determines
many of the protein's
features, such as which
molecules it will
interact with.
When a protein's shape
is deformed, the
protein usually loses its
ability to function.
103
108. Activation Energy
Chemical reactions occurring in organisms
can either release energy or consume
energy.
In either case, the reaction needs a little
“push” in order to initiate the
reaction―called activation energy.
Enzymes act as catalyst by lowering the
activation energy.
108
109. Take-Home Message 2.17
Enzymes are proteins
that help initiate and
speed up chemical
reactions.
They aren't
permanently altered in
the process but rather
can be used again and
again.
109
110. 2-18 Enzymes regulate reactions in
several ways
(but malformed enzymes can cause
problems).
110
118. Take-Home Message 2.18
Enzyme activity is influenced by
physical factors such as
temperature and pH, as well as
chemical factors, including
enzyme and substrate
concentrations.
Inhibitors and activators are
chemicals that bind to enzymes,
and by blocking the active site or
altering the shape or structure of
the enzyme can change the rate
at which the enzyme catalyzes
reactions.
118
121. Two Types of
Nucleic Acids
Ribonucleic acid
(RNA)
Deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA)
Both play central
roles in directing
the production of
proteins.
121
123. Information
Storage
The information in a
molecule of DNA is
determined by its
sequence of bases.
Adenine, Guanine,
Cytosine, &
Thymine
CGATTACCCGAT
123
124. Take-Home Message 2.19
The nucleic acids DNA and
RNA are macromolecules
that store information by
having unique sequences
of molecules.
Both play central roles in
directing protein
production in organisms.
124
126. Base-Pairing
A & T
C & G
What is the
complimentary
strand to this strand:
CCCCTTAGGAACC?
126
127. Take-Home Message 2.20
DNA is like a ladder in which the
long vertical element of the
ladder is made from a sequence
of sugar-phosphate-sugar-
phosphate molecules and rungs
are nucleotide bases.
The sequence of nucleotide
bases contains the information
about how to produce a
particular protein.
127
128. 2.21 RNA is a universal translator, reading DNA
and directing protein production.
128
130. RNA differs from
DNA in three
important ways.
The sugar
molecule of the
sugar-phosphate
backbone
Single-stranded
Uracil (U) replaces
thymine (T)
130
131. Take-Home Message 2.21
RNA acts as a middleman
molecule—taking the instructions
for protein production from DNA
to another part of the cell where,
in accordance with the RNA
instructions, amino acids are
pieced together into proteins.
131