Biochemical compounds
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Biochemical compounds found in living things include saccharides like glucose and maltose, proteins like insulin and hemoglobin, lipids like fats and cholesterol, and nucleic acids like DNA and RNA.
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Chemistry of lipids
This document discusses lipids and fatty acids. It defines lipids and lists their main functions. Lipids are classified as simple, complex, or derived, and as saponifiable or non-saponifiable. Fatty acids are described, including their chemistry, classification as saturated or unsaturated, nomenclature, and examples of biologically important fatty acids. Essential fatty acids are discussed along with their importance.
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The document provides information on proteins, including:
- Proteins are the most abundant organic molecules and constitute about 50% of cellular dry weight. They perform structural and dynamic functions in the cell.
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- The primary structure of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids as determined by genes. Higher levels of structure include secondary, tertiary and quaternary organization that influence a protein's shape and function.
Carbohydrates Biochemistry
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy compounds that contain a carbonyl group and are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The three main types are monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose exist as both open-chain and ring forms, with the ring forms being more stable. Carbohydrates undergo reactions like isomerization, oxidation, reduction, and acetal formation involving their carbonyl groups. They can exist in several isomeric forms differing in stereoconfiguration and anomeric form.
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The lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds that include fats, oils, steroids, waxes, and related compounds. They share the properties of being relatively insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents. Lipids serve important functions such as energy storage, structural components of cell membranes, and insulation. They can also be classified based on their structure into simple lipids like triglycerides and complex lipids like phospholipids and glycolipids. Phospholipids and glycolipids are amphipathic molecules that form lipid bilayers, which are the basic structure of biological membranes.
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Amino acids are organic compounds that contain an amino group, a carboxyl group, a central carbon atom, and a side chain. There are 20 standard amino acids that are the building blocks of proteins. Amino acids can be classified based on their structure, polarity, nutritional requirements, and metabolic fate. They perform important functions including serving as monomers for protein synthesis, participating in cellular processes, and acting as precursors for other compounds.
Carbohydrates
The document discusses carbohydrates and provides details about their classification and properties. It begins by defining carbohydrates and noting they are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates are then classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monosaccharide units they contain. Important monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose are highlighted. Common disaccharides and polysaccharides are also listed such as sucrose, lactose, starch, and cellulose. In closing, it emphasizes that polysaccharides serve important structural or energy storage functions in plants and animals.
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the slide contain detail note on:
1.Lipids
2.types of Lipids.
3.Function of Lipids
4.Chemical Composition of Lipids
etc etc
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Lipids are a broad group of organic compounds that includes fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins, and others. They are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents and contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and sometimes nitrogen or phosphorus. Lipids serve as a food source and include fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, and other compounds important to plant and animal metabolism. Fatty acids are the main constituents of lipids and can be saturated or unsaturated, affecting their melting points.
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The document provides information on proteins, including:
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- The primary structure of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids as determined by genes. Higher levels of structure include secondary, tertiary and quaternary organization that influence a protein's shape and function.
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Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy compounds that contain a carbonyl group and are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The three main types are monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose exist as both open-chain and ring forms, with the ring forms being more stable. Carbohydrates undergo reactions like isomerization, oxidation, reduction, and acetal formation involving their carbonyl groups. They can exist in several isomeric forms differing in stereoconfiguration and anomeric form.
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The lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds that include fats, oils, steroids, waxes, and related compounds. They share the properties of being relatively insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents. Lipids serve important functions such as energy storage, structural components of cell membranes, and insulation. They can also be classified based on their structure into simple lipids like triglycerides and complex lipids like phospholipids and glycolipids. Phospholipids and glycolipids are amphipathic molecules that form lipid bilayers, which are the basic structure of biological membranes.
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Amino acids are organic compounds that contain an amino group, a carboxyl group, a central carbon atom, and a side chain. There are 20 standard amino acids that are the building blocks of proteins. Amino acids can be classified based on their structure, polarity, nutritional requirements, and metabolic fate. They perform important functions including serving as monomers for protein synthesis, participating in cellular processes, and acting as precursors for other compounds.
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The document discusses carbohydrates and provides details about their classification and properties. It begins by defining carbohydrates and noting they are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates are then classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monosaccharide units they contain. Important monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose are highlighted. Common disaccharides and polysaccharides are also listed such as sucrose, lactose, starch, and cellulose. In closing, it emphasizes that polysaccharides serve important structural or energy storage functions in plants and animals.
Lipids Notes
the slide contain detail note on:
1.Lipids
2.types of Lipids.
3.Function of Lipids
4.Chemical Composition of Lipids
etc etc
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Lipids are a broad group of organic compounds that includes fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins, and others. They are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents and contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and sometimes nitrogen or phosphorus. Lipids serve as a food source and include fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, and other compounds important to plant and animal metabolism. Fatty acids are the main constituents of lipids and can be saturated or unsaturated, affecting their melting points.
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Carbohydrates
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I. Lipids provide stored energy in the form of triacylglycerols and participate in cell membranes as phospholipids. They are hydrophobic and insoluble in water.
II. The main types of lipids include fatty acids, triacylglycerols, phospholipids, sterols, and derived lipids produced from hydrolysis.
III. Phospholipids are important structural components of cell membranes and contain a phosphate group. Sterols include cholesterol and are amphipathic with a polar hydroxyl group.
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1. Digestion breaks down carbohydrates into monosaccharides like glucose and fructose. Salivary amylase and enzymes in the small intestine like maltase, lactase, and sucrase aid in this process.
2. Monosaccharides are absorbed into the bloodstream via active transport against concentration gradients or facilitated diffusion. Glucose is transported to tissues like the liver and brain, while pentoses are excreted by the kidneys.
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This document discusses dietary fiber, including its types, sources, and health benefits. It defines fiber as non-digestible carbohydrates found in plants. Dietary fiber is classified into soluble and insoluble types. Sources of fiber include beans, corn, prunes, and high-fiber cereals. Fiber promotes heart health, regulates blood sugar, and aids in weight control. The document recommends gradually increasing fiber intake with extra water to reduce gas and bloating.
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This document discusses proteins and their importance for the human body. It notes that proteins are fundamental to cell structure and function, and serve as enzymes, hormones, and other important molecules. It also describes positive and negative nitrogen balance, which refers to the balance between nitrogen intake and output in the body. Positive nitrogen balance occurs during growth and recovery from illness, while negative nitrogen balance can lead to health issues and wasting of tissues. The document also evaluates different protein quality measures and provides protein content information for various foods.
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Proper nutrition provides the essential nutrients needed for normal body functions like tissue growth and repair. A diet high in saturated fat, trans fat and cholesterol can increase risks for diseases like heart disease, while high salt intake is linked to high blood pressure. The essential nutrients are carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals and water. Nutritionists classify nutrients as macronutrients which are needed in large amounts daily, or micronutrients which are needed in small amounts. Foods can be high or low in nutrient density depending on their nutrient and calorie content. The document goes on to describe the main types and functions of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals and water.
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Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth and are produced through photosynthesis. They exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides include common sugars like glucose and fructose and exist as both open-chain and cyclic forms. Cyclic forms can be furanoses or pyranoses with alpha or beta anomers. Monosaccharides undergo various reactions including oxidation, reduction, and reactions with reagents like Benedict's solution or Tollens' reagent. They form the building blocks of more complex carbohydrates.
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Amino acids are organic compounds that contain amine, carboxyl, and side chain groups. There are over 500 known amino acids, though only 20 are used in proteins. Amino acids can be classified in several ways, including by their side chain properties, polarity, distribution in proteins, and nutritional requirements. Some key classifications include nonpolar amino acids with aliphatic or aromatic side chains, polar but uncharged amino acids, and negatively or positively charged amino acids. Essential amino acids cannot be synthesized by the human body and must come from dietary sources, while nonessential amino acids can be synthesized. Amino acid classification provides a framework for understanding their structures and properties.
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The document discusses carbohydrates and their role in the human body. It states that carbohydrates are the chief source of energy, providing 60-70% of the body's daily caloric needs. Carbohydrates are grouped into those that are utilized by the body (like glucose and glycogen) and those that are not (like cellulose). The document also outlines carbohydrates' role in fueling muscle work, synthesizing other compounds, and regulating blood glucose levels. It provides a table comparing the glycemic index of different foods.
Lipids : classification and types
I. Lipids provide stored energy in the form of triacylglycerols and participate in cell membranes as phospholipids. They are hydrophobic and insoluble in water.
II. The main types of lipids include fatty acids, triacylglycerols, phospholipids, sterols, and derived lipids produced from hydrolysis.
III. Phospholipids are important structural components of cell membranes and contain a phosphate group. Sterols include cholesterol and are amphipathic with a polar hydroxyl group.
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1. Digestion breaks down carbohydrates into monosaccharides like glucose and fructose. Salivary amylase and enzymes in the small intestine like maltase, lactase, and sucrase aid in this process.
2. Monosaccharides are absorbed into the bloodstream via active transport against concentration gradients or facilitated diffusion. Glucose is transported to tissues like the liver and brain, while pentoses are excreted by the kidneys.
3. Lactose intolerance occurs when lactase enzyme is deficient, causing undigested lactose to pass to the colon and cause gas, bloating, and diarrhea.
Biochemistry: A Brief History of Biochemsitry
The document provides a summary of the history of biochemistry from the origin of life on Earth approximately 5 billion years ago to modern developments. It describes early theories on how life began, the emergence of cells and eukaryotes, the rise of oxygen in the atmosphere, and the origin of human species. Two major breakthroughs are highlighted: the discovery of enzymes as catalysts in the 1890s, and the establishment of DNA as the genetic material in the 1940s-1960s. The document concludes by explaining that biochemistry studies all molecular processes within living cells to understand health and disease.
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This document summarizes key points from Chapter 2 of a biochemistry textbook about the properties and importance of water. It discusses how water is a polar molecule that can form hydrogen bonds. It has unusual properties like being a universal solvent, having high heat capacity and surface tension, and existing as a solid, liquid and gas. These properties are crucial for life and allow biomolecules to dissolve and biological reactions to occur. The document also covers acid-base chemistry in water and how pH is used to measure acidity. Water plays many important roles in biology from hydrating biomolecules to participating in enzymatic reactions.
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Carbohydrates introduction, classification and properties
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There are 20 standard amino acids that are the building blocks of proteins. They contain a central carbon atom bonded to an amino group, carboxyl group, hydrogen, and side chain. Proline differs in that its amino group forms a ring with its side chain. The amino acids can form peptides through condensation reactions between amino and carboxyl groups. Cysteine residues can form disulfide bridges through oxidation reactions. In addition to forming proteins, some amino acids act as neurotransmitters, hormones, or are precursors to other important biological molecules.
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This document provides an overview of basic biochemistry concepts for nurses. It defines biochemistry as the study of the structure, composition, and chemical reactions of substances in living systems. It then describes some of the basic building blocks of the human body, including atoms, molecules, and macromolecules. The document notes that the human body is composed of around 65% water, 20% proteins, 12% lipids, and smaller percentages of other molecules. It also outlines the hierarchical organization of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems that make up the human body.
Protein ch6
- Proteins are made up of amino acids, with 20 types found in foods but only 9 being essential amino acids that must be obtained through diet.
- Amino acids are linked through peptide bonds to form proteins. Protein digestion begins in the stomach and is completed in the small intestine.
- Proteins serve many important functions in the body including structure, enzyme production, immune defense, and energy production when carbohydrates are limited. A balanced intake of complete proteins is important.
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Carbohydrates play several important biochemical roles in the body. They serve as the body's instant source of energy, being converted into ATP faster than fats or proteins. Carbohydrates are also the primary storage form of energy in the body as glycogen stored in the liver and muscles. Additionally, carbohydrates form important conjugated molecules by combining with proteins and lipids, such as glycoproteins and glycolipids which are important for cell structure and communication. Maintaining normal blood glucose levels and consuming the proper amount of carbohydrates is important for health, as deficiencies or excesses can lead to diseases.
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Carbohydrate 2nd lecture Biochemistry
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones that can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their structure. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose cannot be broken down further, while disaccharides like sucrose are made of two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond. Carbohydrates may undergo isomerism due to asymmetric carbon atoms, existing as optical isomers like D-glucose and L-glucose that differ in their spatial arrangement.
The nature of carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They serve as an important energy source and structural component. There are three main types of carbohydrates: monosaccharides (simple sugars), disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Glucose is a common monosaccharide that exists as both an open chain and ring structure. Carbohydrates undergo chemical reactions like oxidation, reduction, and esterification. They also exhibit mutarotation when dissolved in water.
The lipids
Lipids are fatty substances that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They serve important structural and energy storage functions in the body. There are three main classes of lipids: simple lipids like fatty acids and triglycerides, compound lipids including phospholipids, and steroids such as cholesterol. Cholesterol is an important component of cell membranes and a precursor for bile acids, vitamin D, and steroid hormones. Cholesterol is transported through the bloodstream within lipoproteins, with LDL cholesterol increasing risk of atherosclerosis and HDL cholesterol protecting against it through reverse cholesterol transport.
Polysaccharides
This document summarizes polysaccharides and glycans. It discusses homopolysaccharides including fructosan, galactosan, and glucosans such as starch and glycogen. Starch is made of amylose and amylopectin and forms helical structures with iodine. Cellulose is composed of beta-glucose units linked by beta-1,4 bonds, forming long straight chains strengthened by hydrogen bonds. Glycosaminoglycans discussed include hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, keratin sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and heparan sulfate. Proteoglycans are composed of core proteins with covalently linked glycosaminoglycan side chains. They
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that serve as a major source of energy. They are classified based on their structure as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Important disaccharides are sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Starch and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides. Carbohydrates can be identified using chemical tests such as Molisch, Fehling's, Benedict's, Barfoed, and iodine tests. These tests identify carbohydrates based on properties such as being reducing or non-reducing sugars.
Qualitative tests for carbohydrates
1. The document describes various qualitative tests that can be used to identify different types of carbohydrates, including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
2. Key tests described include the Molisch test, Benedict's test, Barfoed's test, Seliwanoff's test, and the hydrolysis test for sucrose. Each test exploits a unique chemical property of carbohydrates to indicate their presence.
3. The tests allow identification of carbohydrates by the color change produced, crystalline structure of osazones formed, or ability to reduce copper or show color change with reagents like iodine. Taken together, the battery of tests can determine the identity of an unknown carbohydrate sample.
Carbohydrate presentation
Carbohydrates are sugars that provide the body with energy. There are two types - simple carbohydrates like refined sugars and fruits, and complex carbohydrates like grains. Carbohydrates are digested and absorbed for energy, and the best choices are whole grains, vegetables, and fruits. Disorders can result from too few or too many carbohydrates, such as diabetes, hypoglycemia, and lactose intolerance. Hypoglycemia occurs when blood sugar is too low and symptoms include shakiness, dizziness, and mood changes.
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More from Dr Hakim Mehenni
Acid base regulation
The document discusses acid-base regulation in the body. It maintains that the body tightly regulates blood pH between 7.35-7.45 through buffering agents, the respiratory system, and renal system. When patients have damaged respiratory, renal, or metabolic functions, they are prone to acid-base imbalances. Acidosis occurs when blood pH decreases below 7.35 due to accumulation of acids. Alkalosis is when blood pH increases above 7.45 due to loss of acids. The lungs and kidneys work to regulate pH through removal of carbon dioxide and protons respectively.
Regulation of blood glucose
The document discusses alternation between anabolism and catabolism in the human body. Anabolism involves building complex molecules from simpler ones and supports growth, while catabolism breaks down large molecules into smaller ones and produces ATP through cellular respiration. Insulin promotes anabolic activities that store glucose, while glucagon stimulates catabolic activities. The liver plays a key role in maintaining blood glucose levels between meals by breaking down glycogen or converting other substrates into glucose. Insulin and glucagon work to regulate glucose uptake and output from the liver to keep blood glucose within a normal range. Diabetes mellitus occurs when there is insufficient or ineffective insulin to properly regulate blood glucose.
The proteins metabolism
The document summarizes protein metabolism and the urea cycle. It discusses that 1-2% of body proteins are degraded and renewed daily. Ammonia produced is highly toxic, so the liver converts it to urea. Glutamine synthase fixes ammonia as non-toxic glutamine and glutaminase releases it for urea synthesis. The urea cycle uses ammonia, CO2, and aspartate to synthesize urea using 5 enzymes in the liver. Rare metabolic disorders can cause urea synthesis blockage, increasing blood ammonia and risking intoxication and brain damage. Treatments include low-protein diets and frequent small meals to avoid sudden ammonia increases.
The proteins
The document discusses proteins and their structure. It defines proteins as polymers of amino acids, and describes the basic components of amino acids. There are 20 standard amino acids that make up proteins. Proteins are assembled through peptide bonds between amino acid residues. The protein structure is hierarchical, starting with the primary amino acid sequence, then forming secondary and tertiary structures through bonding interactions, and sometimes joining to form quaternary structures. Enzymes are important protein catalysts. Alzheimer's disease involves the abnormal accumulation of tau and amyloid proteins that form plaques and tangles in the brain, destroying neuronal structure and function over time.
Enzymes
The document discusses enzymes and their role in biochemical reactions. It notes that enzymes are biocatalysts that speed up reactions involved in digestion and metabolism. Enzymes are not used up in reactions and can be used over and over again. Enzymes increase the rate of reactions by reducing activation energy. They have strong catalytic power and can accelerate reactions by millions or billions of times compared to reactions without enzymes. The activity of enzymes is affected by factors like pH, temperature, and concentrations of substrates and enzymes. Coenzymes and cofactors are also required for some enzymes to function.
The chemical bonds
There are 4 main types of chemical bonds: nonpolar covalent bonds form between identical atoms and share electrons equally. Polar covalent bonds form between different atoms and electrons are closer to the more electronegative atom. Ionic bonds form when atoms gain or lose electrons to become ions with opposite charges that are attracted to each other. Hydrogen bonds occur when a hydrogen atom bonded to an electronegative atom is attracted to another electronegative atom, and can occur between or within molecules like water and DNA.
More from Dr Hakim Mehenni (6)
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Your Skill Boost Masterclass: Strategies for Effective Upskilling
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The History of Stoke Newington Street Names
Presented at the Stoke Newington Literary Festival on 9th June 2024
www.StokeNewingtonHistory.com
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Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Pollock and Snow "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape, Session One: Setting Expec...
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Presentation required for the master in Education.
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This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
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Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
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