This document discusses different types of bilingualism and bilingual speakers. It defines bilingualism as using two languages, not necessarily with equal proficiency. There are several types of bilingual acquisition depending on factors like the languages of the parents and community. The document also discusses concepts like early vs late bilinguals, balanced vs dominant bilinguals, simultaneous vs sequential bilinguals, additive vs subtractive bilingualism, elite vs folk bilinguals, and code switching vs code mixing. Key aspects of a bilingual speaker include when they learned their languages, the opportunities and contexts in which they use each language, and their relative proficiency in the different languages.

1. Bilinguals
and Bilingualism
Carol Berdin
Carl Gonzaga
Gustavo Aguilera
Young Bin Lee
Mary Jane Mondigo
Mary Jerica Pelaez
Josie Villareal

2. What is bilingualism?
• using two languages, not necessarily with equal
proficiency.
• In order to understand a bilingual speaker’s
language ability, we need to know:
when they learned their languages,
how proficient they are in the
languages,
and in what contexts (and with whom)
they use the languages.

3. • Bilingual speakers learn their languages either simultaneously,
as they grow up, or sequentially, learning the second language
after the first
A bilingual person may be able to:
speak, read, and write fluently in two languages – that is, they
are biliterate.
speak, read, and write in one language, but only speak
another
speak, read, and write in one language, but understand to some
extent what is said in another language – that is, they can
understand what a speaker of their second language is saying,
even though they may not be confident about speaking that
language. This is termed passive bilingualism.

6. Three key questions to find out about how the
person is bilingual:
1. When did the person learn their language(s)?
2. Do they have opportunities to listen, speak,
read, and/or write in their language(s)?
3. In what contexts do they use their language(s)?

7. When did they learn their
language(s)?
• at the same time, usually in early childhood and as a
result of family bilingualism. – called simultaneous
bilinguals.
• learning one language later than the other – perhaps
as the result of living in a new country or formally
learning a second language at a school or university –
are called sequential bilinguals or consecutive
bilinguals

8. According to Romaine (1995), there are
six ways of acquiring bilingualism:

9. Type 1. One person - one
language
• Parents: Each parent has a different native language and each one
has a degree of competence in the language of the other.
• Community: The language of one parent is the dominant language
of the community.
• Strategy: Each parent speaks their own native language to the child
from birth.
Author Mother
language
Father
language
Communi
ty
language
Strategy
Ronjar (1913) German French French German/French
Leopold (1939-
1949)
English German German English/German
Taeschner German Italian Italian German/Italian

10.
Type 2. Non-dominant home language
• Parents: Parents have different native languages.
• Community: The language of one parent is the dominant
language of the community.
• Strategy: Both parents speak the non-dominant language to
the child and the child is fully exposed to the dominant
language only when outside home.
Author Mother
language
Father
language
Communit
y language
Strategy
Fantini
(1985)
Spanish English English Spanish

11. Type 3. Non-dominant home language without
community support
• Parents: Parents share the same native language.
• Community: The dominant language is not of his
parents.
• Strategy: The parents speak their own language to the
child.
Author Mother
language
Father
language
Community
language
Strategy
Haugen
(1953)
Norwegian Norwegian English Norwegian
Ruke-
Dravina
(1967)
Latvian Latvian Swedish Latvian
Pavlovitch Servian Servian French Servian

12. Type 4. Double non-dominant home
language without community support
• Parents: Parents do not share the same native
language.
• Community: The dominant language is different
from either of the parent’s languages.
• Strategy: The parents speak their own language to
the child.
Author Mother
language
Father
language
Communit
y language
Strategy
Elwrt
(1959)
English German Italian English/German

13. Type 5. Non-native parents
• Parents: Parents share the same native language.
• Community: The dominant language is the same as that
of the parents.
• Strategy: One of the parents always addresses the child in
a language which is not his/her native language
Author Mother
language
Father
language
Community
language
Strategy
Saunders
(1982)
English English
(German)
English German

14. Type 6. Mixed languages
• Parents: Parents are bilinguals.
• Community: Sector of community may also be
bilingual.
• Strategy: Parents code-switch and mix languages.
Author Mother
language
Father
language
Community
language
Strategy
Tabouret-
Keller
(1962)
French/
German
French/
German
French/
German
French/
German
Ellul (1978) Maltese/
English
Maltese/
English
Maltese/
English
Maltese/
English

15. Do they have opportunities to
listen, speak, read, and/or write
in their language(s)?
• The degree of proficiency depends largely on the
opportunities
• If they are able to speak both languages extensively,
then they will become fluent in both. However, if they
have less opportunity to speak one language, their level
of fluency in that language may be less.
• bilingual people may also have different levels of
proficiency in the key language modes of listening,
speaking, reading, and writing for each language.

16. In what contexts do they use
their language(s)?
• Language use is also often dependent on wider
societal attitudes to the particular languages they speak.
• If both of the languages that bilingual people speak are
valued in the wider society, then it is likely they will use
both their languages in a wide variety of contexts. –
balanced bilinguals

17. • For example, a bilingual person may speak one
language with their immediate family and another
language with their friends or at school.
• The different contexts of language use are called
language domains
• Even if they have comparable levels of fluency, they
may use one language more than the other, or may use
one language in certain contexts (or with certain
people), and the other language in other contexts (or
with other people).

18. Compound vs. Coordinate
Bilinguals
• For compound bilinguals, words and phrases in different
languages are the same concepts.
• For example: a ‘perro' and a 'dog' are two words for the same
concept: things just naturally have two names.
• These speakers posses the skills necessary for communication in
both languages. They are fluent, but have certain errors in L2 that
have become fossilized.
Compound Bilinguals
Fossilization: When an error becomes a habit of speech in L2
learner; common when error does not interfere with
communication, and therefore, speaker does not get corrective
feedback.

19. Coordinate Bilingual
• can easily switch from one language to the other and has a
larger linguistic “confidence area”.
• For coordinate bilinguals, words and phrases in the speaker's
mind are all related to their own unique concepts.
• Fore example: a bilingual speaker of this type has different
associations for “perro” and for “dog”.
• In these individuals, one language, usually the first language, is
more dominant than the other, and the first language may be
used to think through the second language.
Coordinate and compound bilinguals
demonstrate higher cognitive proficiency then
monolinguals

20. Early vs. Late Bilinguals
• Both co-ordinated bilingualism and compound bilingualism
develop in early childhood and are classified as forms of early
bilingualism.
Early Bilingual
• someone who has acquired two languages early in childhood
(usually received systematic training/learning of a second
language before age 6).
Late
Bilingual
• develops when a second language is learned after age 12.

21. Balanced vs. Dominant
Bilinguals
• A person being more proficient in one of the two languages
(in most cases native-like).
• Someone who is more or less equally proficient in both
languages, but will not necessarily pass for a native speaker
in both languages.
Balanced Bilingual
Dominant Bilingual
• someone with greater proficiency in one of his or her
languages and uses it significantly more than the other
language

22. Simultaneous vs.
Sequential Bilinguals
• Learning two languages as "first languages".
• Simultaneous bilinguals learn both of their languages
from childhood, rather than learning one language before
starting to learn the other
• for example when they are raised by parents speaking
more than one language.
Simultaneous
Bilingual

23. Sequential Bilingual
• Also known as consecutive bilinguals
• when the child acquires the second language(s) after
having considerably learnt the first language
• for example when the parental tongue is different
than the main language of the community or
education system.

24. Additive vs. Subtractive
Bilinguals
• When learning a second language does not interfere with
the learning of a first language. Both languages are
developed.
Additive bilingualism
• When learning a second language interferes with the
learning of a first language. The second language replaces
the first language.
• This is commonly found in children who emigrate to a
foreign country when they are young, especially in cases of
orphans who are deprived of their first language input
Subtractive bilingualism

25. Elite vs. Folk Bilinguals
• Individuals who choose to have a bilingual home, often in
order to enhance social status.
• include intermarried couples and those who are living abroad,
temporarily or permanently, for business or educational
reasons.
Elite Bilingual
• are minority areas (including so-called "guest workers") who
have not to the same degree chosen to be surrounded by
another language but who feel they must be bilingual in order to
preserve their heritage.
• Although this may look like a choice to us, it feels less like a
choice to those who make it.
Folk Bilingual

26. Code Switching
and
Code Mixing

27. Code Switching
• Often present in those people who is a bilingual
user, they often switch between their two
languages in the middle of a conversation.
• It can take place between or even within
sentences, involving phrases or words or even
parts of words
• It often occurs in conversation rather than in
writing

28. • "Code-switching performs several functions
(Zentella, 1985). First, people may use code-
switching to hide fluency or memory problems
in the second language (but this accounts for
about only 10 percent of code switches).
• Second, code-switching is used to mark
switching from informal situations (using native
languages) to formal situations (using second
language).

29. • Third, code-switching is used to exert control,
especially between parents and children.
• Fourth, code-switching is used to align speakers with
others in specific situations (e.g., defining oneself as
a member of an ethnic group). Code-switching also
'functions to announce specific identities, create
certain meanings, and facilitate particular
interpersonal relationships'
(Johnson, 2000, p. 184)."
(William B. Gudykunst, Bridging Differences:
Effective Intergroup Communication, 4th ed. Sage,
2004)

30. Three Kinds of Codes
Switching
• Situational Code Switching – the
situation determines the choice of language
• Conversational Code Switching – the
topic of the conversation dictates the choice
of the language
• Metaphorical Code Switching – the
choice of language determines the situation

31. Types of Code Switching
• Borrowing – a word from another language that has been
adapted for use in another. Adaptation of its pronunciation
and morphological functions in the sentences.
• Calque - is literally translating a phrase without a regard to
proper context (Hughes et al., 2006).
• Inter-sentential – is switching at the sentence level. May
serve to emphasize at point made in the other language
– is inserting an entire phrase from the secondary
language into a conversation using the other language
(Hughes et al., 2006)
• Intra-sentential – switching is the clause, phrase level, or
a word level if no morphophonological adaptation occurs

32. Code Mixing/Mixed Code
• Refers to linguistic behaviour of a bilingual speaker
who imports words or phrases from one of his/her
languages into the other one.
• Numan and Carter define code mixing as, a
“phenomenon of switching from one language to
another in the same discourse.”
• According to Berthold, Mangubhai and Bartorowiez
1997, code mixing occurs when speakers shift from
one language to the other in the midst of their
conversation. Thus this definition accommodates inter-
sentential switching and intra-sentential mixing both
under the term code switching.

33. Types of Code Mixing
• Intra-lexical Mixing – The insertion of well-
defined chunks of language B into a sentence that
otherwise belongs to language A. Insertion of words
from one language into a structure of another
language
• Involving a change of Pronunciation – This
kind of code mixing occurs at the phonological level
as when people in language A say an English word,
but modify it to its own Language phonological
structure
• Intra-sentential – The succession of fragments in

34. Studies conducted
on Bilingualism

35. Word Order Of A Bilingual
Child’s Clauses
In Each Language: A Case Study
Word Order Of A Bilingual
Child’s Clauses
In Each Language: A Case Study
A Research Paper by:
Carol Ann Berdin
Julius Cesar Cudera
Mia Larainne Dueñas
A Research Paper by:
Carol Ann Berdin
Julius Cesar Cudera
Mia Larainne Dueñas

36. Research QuestionsResearch Questions
• When using each
language, what word
order (Greenberg, 1966,
in Callies, 2009 and
Denzer-King, 2010) in
her clauses does the child
follow?
• Does the word order
employed by the child for
either language follow the
typology of word order
each language belongs to?
• When using each
language, what word
order (Greenberg, 1966,
in Callies, 2009 and
Denzer-King, 2010) in
her clauses does the child
follow?
• Does the word order
employed by the child for
either language follow the
typology of word order
each language belongs to?
• Word Order
(Greenberg, 1966, in
Callies, 2009
&Denzer-King, 2010)
– Siewierska (1998)
– Koda and Zehler (2008)
• Word Order Typology
– Greenberg (1966, in Odlin,
1989)
– Thompson (1978, in Jiang,
2009)
– Randriamasimanana (2000)
• Word Order
(Greenberg, 1966, in
Callies, 2009
&Denzer-King, 2010)
– Siewierska (1998)
– Koda and Zehler (2008)
• Word Order Typology
– Greenberg (1966, in Odlin,
1989)
– Thompson (1978, in Jiang,
2009)
– Randriamasimanana (2000)

37. • Design: Quantitative-qualitative
• Participant: a 4-year old bilingual child
• Tools: video-recorded observation,
questionnaires, and Jefferson’s (2005, in Hutchby
and Wooffitt, 2008) system of transcription
• Procedure
– Gathering of Data: obtaining consent, video-
recording, obtaining participant ‘s profile and
questionnaire for the guardian
– Treatment of Data: Transcription, Tally,
tabulation and textual explanation/interpretation
• Design: Quantitative-qualitative
• Participant: a 4-year old bilingual child
• Tools: video-recorded observation,
questionnaires, and Jefferson’s (2005, in Hutchby
and Wooffitt, 2008) system of transcription
• Procedure
– Gathering of Data: obtaining consent, video-
recording, obtaining participant ‘s profile and
questionnaire for the guardian
– Treatment of Data: Transcription, Tally,
tabulation and textual explanation/interpretation

38. Table 1: Accurate Word Orders for Cebuano and
English
Table 1: Accurate Word Orders for Cebuano and
English
FindingsFindings

39. Table 2: Word Order TypologyTable 2: Word Order Typology
FindingsFindings

40. ConclusionsConclusions
• The child’s grasp of
accurate word order in each
language and it’s match of
word order typology reflects
the level of the child’s
language exposure and
usage
• The levels of language
exposure and usage is also
reflected in the child’s
mixed languages bilingual
acquisition but dominant
bilingualism in Cebuano.
• The child’s grasp of
accurate word order in each
language and it’s match of
word order typology reflects
the level of the child’s
language exposure and
usage
• The levels of language
exposure and usage is also
reflected in the child’s
mixed languages bilingual
acquisition but dominant
bilingualism in Cebuano.
• First, that more than one
child be studied.
• Second, that other word
order frameworks aside
from Greenberg’s (1966)
be used.
• First, that more than one
child be studied.
• Second, that other word
order frameworks aside
from Greenberg’s (1966)
be used.

41. Participant’s ProfileParticipant’s Profile
• Name: Crystal Shane M. Dayday
• Age: 4 years old
• Birth Rank: 2nd
• Gender: Female
• Educational Background: Began Kindergarten 1 this
year
• Child’s Parents or Guardian/s: Evangeline D. Berdin
• Parents’/Guardian’s Occupation: Company worker
• Languages Spoken by the Child: Tagalog, Cebuano,
English
• Languages Spoken by the Parents/Guardian:
Cebuano, Tagalog
• Name: Crystal Shane M. Dayday
• Age: 4 years old
• Birth Rank: 2nd
• Gender: Female
• Educational Background: Began Kindergarten 1 this
year
• Child’s Parents or Guardian/s: Evangeline D. Berdin
• Parents’/Guardian’s Occupation: Company worker
• Languages Spoken by the Child: Tagalog, Cebuano,
English
• Languages Spoken by the Parents/Guardian:
Cebuano, Tagalog

42. Participant’s ProfileParticipant’s Profile

43. Cognitive of Bilingualism starts
as early as 7 months age

44. Frequent of hearing of two
different language lead to acquire
bilingualism easily later on

45. Memory Flexibility

46. Thank you for listening! 

47. Sources
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Word Order Of A Bilingual Child’s Clauses
In Each Language: A Case Study Berdin, et. al