This document discusses cognitive development in infancy based on Piaget's views. It covers Piaget's sensorimotor stage of development and key milestones like object permanence. It also discusses challenges to Piaget's views from modern studies showing infants have more cognitive abilities earlier than he proposed. The document then covers language development milestones and theories, including behaviorist, nativist, and interactionist views. It concludes with sections on measuring intelligence in infancy.
This chapter discusses the biological foundations of human development from an evolutionary perspective. It covers topics like natural selection, genes, chromosomes, heredity, and the interaction between genetics and environment. Key points include: how evolution has shaped human behavior for survival and reproduction; the roles of DNA, genes and chromosomes in development; methods for detecting genetic abnormalities pre-birth; and how nature and nurture work together in complex ways to influence development.
This document discusses physical, sensory, and perceptual development in infancy. It covers several topics:
- Rapid brain development occurs in the first two years, with the cortex being the least developed at birth.
- Reflexes help with survival and indicate neurological development; primitive reflexes should disappear by 6-8 months.
- The five states of sleep and wakefulness stabilize with age, and crying patterns change as infants grow.
- Physical growth is substantial in the first year as infants triple their birth weight and grow 10-12 inches.
- Sensory skills like vision, hearing, and touch develop rapidly in the first months of life.
- Perceptual skills like depth perception, visual scanning of faces
This document provides an overview of socioemotional development in infancy. It discusses emotions that emerge in the first year of life, including primary emotions in the first 6 months and self-conscious emotions between 6 months and 2 years. Temperament styles like easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up are described. Attachment theory and styles like secure, avoidant, and resistant are summarized. The document also briefly outlines social contexts like the family and maternal/paternal caregiving roles.
This chapter discusses several major theories of child development including psychoanalytic, learning, and cognitive theories. Psychoanalytic theories proposed by Freud and Erikson focus on internal drives and resolving psychosocial crises. Learning theories such as classical and operant conditioning examine how behaviors are influenced through reinforcement. Cognitive theories proposed by Piaget and Vygotsky consider how children acquire and construct knowledge through social interactions and experiences. Biological and ecological theories also influence understanding of child development. The chapter emphasizes evaluating theories based on their usefulness rather than labeling them as right or wrong.
This chapter discusses theories of social and personality development in infancy. It covers psychoanalytic perspectives from Freud and Erikson, attachment theories from Bowlby and Ainsworth, and the development of temperament and self-concept. Key points include Freud's oral stage and Erikson's trust vs mistrust stage. Bowlby identified 4 phases of attachment and Ainsworth described secure and insecure attachments. Temperament is influenced by both heredity and environment. The effects of nonparental care depend on the quality of care and can impact cognitive and social development, especially if started before age 1.
This chapter discusses theories of social and personality development in early childhood. It covers psychoanalytic perspectives from Freud and Erikson, and social-cognitive perspectives on person perception, understanding rules and intentions. Gender development is examined through psychoanalytic, social-cognitive and information processing lenses. Parenting styles including authoritative, authoritarian, permissive and uninvolved are defined. The impacts of family structure such as single parenting, divorce and ethnicity on development are also explored, along with peer relationships, aggression, prosocial behavior and friendships.
1. This chapter discusses physical, cognitive, and language development in early childhood. It covers topics like motor skill development, brain lateralization, Piaget's stages of cognitive development, and theories of mind.
2. The chapter also examines differences in intelligence, including measuring IQ, the normal distribution of IQ scores, and factors that influence individual differences in intelligence like heredity, family environment, and preschool education programs.
3. Language development milestones are discussed, including fast mapping of words, the grammar explosion period, and phonological awareness, as well as how language supports cognitive changes.
This chapter discusses prenatal development from conception through birth. It covers genetics and inheritance, the stages of prenatal development from embryo to fetus, potential problems during pregnancy like genetic disorders and teratogens, and assessing the neonate at birth. Factors like maternal health, age, diet, and environment can all influence prenatal development. The chapter also examines the physical process of birth and potential complications.
This chapter discusses the biological foundations of human development from an evolutionary perspective. It covers topics like natural selection, genes, chromosomes, heredity, and the interaction between genetics and environment. Key points include: how evolution has shaped human behavior for survival and reproduction; the roles of DNA, genes and chromosomes in development; methods for detecting genetic abnormalities pre-birth; and how nature and nurture work together in complex ways to influence development.
This document discusses physical, sensory, and perceptual development in infancy. It covers several topics:
- Rapid brain development occurs in the first two years, with the cortex being the least developed at birth.
- Reflexes help with survival and indicate neurological development; primitive reflexes should disappear by 6-8 months.
- The five states of sleep and wakefulness stabilize with age, and crying patterns change as infants grow.
- Physical growth is substantial in the first year as infants triple their birth weight and grow 10-12 inches.
- Sensory skills like vision, hearing, and touch develop rapidly in the first months of life.
- Perceptual skills like depth perception, visual scanning of faces
This document provides an overview of socioemotional development in infancy. It discusses emotions that emerge in the first year of life, including primary emotions in the first 6 months and self-conscious emotions between 6 months and 2 years. Temperament styles like easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up are described. Attachment theory and styles like secure, avoidant, and resistant are summarized. The document also briefly outlines social contexts like the family and maternal/paternal caregiving roles.
This chapter discusses several major theories of child development including psychoanalytic, learning, and cognitive theories. Psychoanalytic theories proposed by Freud and Erikson focus on internal drives and resolving psychosocial crises. Learning theories such as classical and operant conditioning examine how behaviors are influenced through reinforcement. Cognitive theories proposed by Piaget and Vygotsky consider how children acquire and construct knowledge through social interactions and experiences. Biological and ecological theories also influence understanding of child development. The chapter emphasizes evaluating theories based on their usefulness rather than labeling them as right or wrong.
This chapter discusses theories of social and personality development in infancy. It covers psychoanalytic perspectives from Freud and Erikson, attachment theories from Bowlby and Ainsworth, and the development of temperament and self-concept. Key points include Freud's oral stage and Erikson's trust vs mistrust stage. Bowlby identified 4 phases of attachment and Ainsworth described secure and insecure attachments. Temperament is influenced by both heredity and environment. The effects of nonparental care depend on the quality of care and can impact cognitive and social development, especially if started before age 1.
This chapter discusses theories of social and personality development in early childhood. It covers psychoanalytic perspectives from Freud and Erikson, and social-cognitive perspectives on person perception, understanding rules and intentions. Gender development is examined through psychoanalytic, social-cognitive and information processing lenses. Parenting styles including authoritative, authoritarian, permissive and uninvolved are defined. The impacts of family structure such as single parenting, divorce and ethnicity on development are also explored, along with peer relationships, aggression, prosocial behavior and friendships.
1. This chapter discusses physical, cognitive, and language development in early childhood. It covers topics like motor skill development, brain lateralization, Piaget's stages of cognitive development, and theories of mind.
2. The chapter also examines differences in intelligence, including measuring IQ, the normal distribution of IQ scores, and factors that influence individual differences in intelligence like heredity, family environment, and preschool education programs.
3. Language development milestones are discussed, including fast mapping of words, the grammar explosion period, and phonological awareness, as well as how language supports cognitive changes.
This chapter discusses prenatal development from conception through birth. It covers genetics and inheritance, the stages of prenatal development from embryo to fetus, potential problems during pregnancy like genetic disorders and teratogens, and assessing the neonate at birth. Factors like maternal health, age, diet, and environment can all influence prenatal development. The chapter also examines the physical process of birth and potential complications.
This chapter discusses theories of social and personality development in middle childhood. It covers psychoanalytic theories from Freud and Erikson, trait approaches, and social-cognitive perspectives from Bandura. Key concepts discussed include self-concept, self-efficacy, self-esteem, moral reasoning, friendships, gender differences, aggression, social status, and influences of poverty, media, and schools. The social world of children is explored including family relationships, peers, and factors beyond the home.
This document discusses physical, sensory, and perceptual development in infancy. It covers several topics:
- Rapid brain development occurs in the first two years, with the cortex being the least developed at birth.
- Reflexes help with survival and indicate neurological development; primitive reflexes should disappear by 6-8 months.
- The five states of sleep and wakefulness stabilize with age, and crying patterns change as infants grow.
- Physical growth is substantial in the first year as infants triple their birth weight and grow 10-12 inches.
- Sensory skills like vision, hearing, and touch develop rapidly in the first months of life.
- Perceptual skills like depth perception, visual scanning of faces
This chapter discusses physical and cognitive development in middle childhood from ages 6 to 12. During this period, children experience growth in areas like overall size, muscle coordination, and fine motor skills. Their brains also develop significantly, with growth in areas related to sensory processing and the frontal lobes. Cognitively, children progress from concrete to more abstract thought and develop stronger language, problem-solving, and memory skills. Formal schooling also begins influencing development through literacy education and other learning.
This document provides an overview of life-span development and the key concepts involved in studying it. It discusses the life-span perspective, the importance of studying development across the entire human lifespan from conception to late adulthood. Several major theories of development are also summarized, including psychoanalytic, cognitive, behavioral, and ecological approaches. Research methods used to study development such as observation, surveys, and experiments are also briefly outlined.
This document summarizes key aspects of physical and cognitive development in late adulthood. It discusses variability in the elderly population and changes that commonly occur, such as declines in senses, motor functions, and memory. Diseases like Alzheimer's and dementia are also addressed. While physical and mental abilities tend to decline with age, creativity and wisdom are believed to remain or even increase into late adulthood. Centenarians represent the fastest growing segment of the population.
This chapter discusses prenatal development from conception through birth. It covers genetics and inheritance, the stages of prenatal development from embryo to fetus, potential problems during pregnancy like maternal diseases and environmental hazards, and assessing the health of the neonate at birth. Factors that influence development include genes, environment, maternal health, nutrition, and exposure to teratogens. The chapter also examines the physical process of birth and potential complications.
This document summarizes physical and cognitive development during adolescence. It discusses the growth of the brain, skeletal system, muscles and other body systems during puberty. It also addresses sexual development and behavior, including trends in sexual activity, pregnancy and sexuality. The document also summarizes Piaget's theory of formal operational thought and changes in thinking, memory and information processing during adolescence. Finally, it discusses challenges of school transitions, the impact of ability grouping, gender differences in achievement and risks of dropping out of high school.
The document discusses health, illness, and nutrition across the lifespan. It covers key topics like children's health issues like poverty and recommended immunizations. For adolescents, it discusses rising health risks from behaviors like substance use. Health challenges increase with age, such as disabilities, dementia, and nutrition issues in adulthood and aging. Maintaining exercise and a healthy lifestyle is important for physical and mental well-being at all stages of life.
This document summarizes theories of social and personality development in adolescence. It discusses psychoanalytic perspectives including Freud's stages of psychosexual development and Erikson's stages of psychosocial development focusing on identity versus role confusion. It also discusses Marcia's identity statuses and components of self-understanding like self-concept, self-esteem, gender identity, ethnic identity, and moral development theories like Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning. It examines relationships with parents, peers, and romantic relationships as well as causes of moral development and criticisms of theories.
This document discusses emotional and psychological development from infancy through middle childhood. It covers key theorists like Erik Erikson and describes developmental milestones at each stage, including the development of emotions, social skills, autonomy and self-concept. Cultural influences and gender differences are also addressed. Challenges like aggression, fears, bullying and family crises are explored, emphasizing the importance of supportive caregivers in fostering healthy development.
The document summarizes brain development from conception through adulthood. It notes that brain development begins at conception and continues throughout life, and may be affected by sensory experiences. Early childhood sees rapid changes in brain size and structure as the brain prepares to learn. Neglect and abuse can impact the development of areas like the frontal lobe. During adolescence, the brain undergoes pruning and continued myelination, while the amygdala develops emotional processing before the frontal lobe. Both genetics and the environment influence how genes express themselves in the developing brain.
Lifespan Development Lesson 2: Developmental TheoriesLumen Learning
This document provides an overview of several developmental theories and theorists. It discusses Freud's psychosexual theory of development and Erikson's psychosocial stages. It also covers learning theories like classical and operant conditioning proposed by Pavlov and Skinner. Additionally, it summarizes Piaget's stages of cognitive development and his principles of schema and assimilation/accommodation. Finally, it briefly introduces Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems model of development.
The document discusses emotional development during adolescence, noting that emotions often define this period of life and that most teenagers cope with changes in emotionally positive ways. It explores common emotional patterns among adolescents, like differing responses to stimuli compared to children, and factors that can cause emotional tension such as school, peer pressure, and family issues. The document also examines the expression of emotions like love, happiness, curiosity, anger, and envy during adolescence as well as signs of emotional maturity.
Child development theorists have proposed various theories to explain how children develop. Key theories include:
1. Maturation theory which sees development occurring in predictable stages due to biological/genetic factors.
2. Psychosocial theory (Erikson) which views personality developing through eight stages as children interact with their environment.
3. Cognitive theory (Piaget) which proposes children learn through qualitative stages as they actively explore their world. Children progress from sensory thinking to more abstract thought.
1. The document discusses physical, motor, sensory, cognitive, and social-emotional development in infancy. It covers topics like brain growth, motor milestones, visual perception, object permanence, learning and memory.
2. Key aspects of development include rapid physical growth, emergence of reflexes and motor skills like grasping and sitting, developing senses like vision and hearing, cognitive stages in Piaget's theory, and learning through interaction and exploration.
3. The development of skills and understanding in these domains from birth to age 2 is influenced by both biological maturation and environmental experiences with caregivers.
Lifespan Psychology Power Point Lecture, Chapter 1, Module 1.1kclancy
Lifespan development examines patterns of growth, change, and stability from conception to death. It takes a scientific, developmental approach and recognizes that both heredity and environment influence development. There are three major areas of study: physical, cognitive, and social/personality development. Several theoretical perspectives aim to explain lifespan development, including psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, contextual, and evolutionary theories. Theories are tested through scientific research methods like experiments and correlations to determine causes, relationships, and changes over time.
The document summarizes key aspects of emotional development across the lifespan. It discusses emotions and regulation in infancy, emotional expression and social relationships in early childhood, increased understanding and coping skills in middle childhood, emotional turmoil in adolescence, and improved regulation in adulthood. Attachment styles also influence social relationships throughout development.
Emotions develop throughout the lifespan beginning in infancy with basic emotions and increasing in complexity, especially during childhood as self-conscious emotions emerge and coping skills improve. During adolescence, emotions experience turmoil due to hormonal changes combined with environmental experiences, though moodiness is a normal part of development. The ability to understand and regulate emotions continues advancing into adulthood.
Kohlberg's theory of moral development proposes six stages through which individuals progress in their moral reasoning. The stages move from self-interest to universal ethical principles. Kohlberg used moral dilemmas like the Heinz dilemma to investigate individuals' justifications at each stage. While studies support progression through the early stages, few reach the later stages and cultural and gender differences exist in moral reasoning.
This informational slideshow covers all important aspects of cognitive development in infancy, ranging from how a child learns to make sense of the world to how a child learns to produce language.
The document discusses various philosophical and scientific perspectives on human development including innate goodness, blank slate, and evolutionary theories. It then covers research methods such as observations, surveys, correlations and experimental designs that are used to study development across the lifespan. Key issues include the interplay between nature and nurture, continuity versus discontinuity of changes, and factors like gender, resilience and timing that influence development.
Orthoptic evaluation examines eye alignment, eye movement, and binocularity using various tools. It involves assessing convergence, accommodation, and binocular single vision. Clinical signs of convergence and accommodation dysfunction include diplopia, headaches, and blurred vision. Treatment may include prism exercises, accommodative therapy, and vision therapy. The orthoptist plays a key role in diagnosing and providing non-surgical treatment for conditions like amblyopia and strabismus.
This chapter discusses theories of social and personality development in middle childhood. It covers psychoanalytic theories from Freud and Erikson, trait approaches, and social-cognitive perspectives from Bandura. Key concepts discussed include self-concept, self-efficacy, self-esteem, moral reasoning, friendships, gender differences, aggression, social status, and influences of poverty, media, and schools. The social world of children is explored including family relationships, peers, and factors beyond the home.
This document discusses physical, sensory, and perceptual development in infancy. It covers several topics:
- Rapid brain development occurs in the first two years, with the cortex being the least developed at birth.
- Reflexes help with survival and indicate neurological development; primitive reflexes should disappear by 6-8 months.
- The five states of sleep and wakefulness stabilize with age, and crying patterns change as infants grow.
- Physical growth is substantial in the first year as infants triple their birth weight and grow 10-12 inches.
- Sensory skills like vision, hearing, and touch develop rapidly in the first months of life.
- Perceptual skills like depth perception, visual scanning of faces
This chapter discusses physical and cognitive development in middle childhood from ages 6 to 12. During this period, children experience growth in areas like overall size, muscle coordination, and fine motor skills. Their brains also develop significantly, with growth in areas related to sensory processing and the frontal lobes. Cognitively, children progress from concrete to more abstract thought and develop stronger language, problem-solving, and memory skills. Formal schooling also begins influencing development through literacy education and other learning.
This document provides an overview of life-span development and the key concepts involved in studying it. It discusses the life-span perspective, the importance of studying development across the entire human lifespan from conception to late adulthood. Several major theories of development are also summarized, including psychoanalytic, cognitive, behavioral, and ecological approaches. Research methods used to study development such as observation, surveys, and experiments are also briefly outlined.
This document summarizes key aspects of physical and cognitive development in late adulthood. It discusses variability in the elderly population and changes that commonly occur, such as declines in senses, motor functions, and memory. Diseases like Alzheimer's and dementia are also addressed. While physical and mental abilities tend to decline with age, creativity and wisdom are believed to remain or even increase into late adulthood. Centenarians represent the fastest growing segment of the population.
This chapter discusses prenatal development from conception through birth. It covers genetics and inheritance, the stages of prenatal development from embryo to fetus, potential problems during pregnancy like maternal diseases and environmental hazards, and assessing the health of the neonate at birth. Factors that influence development include genes, environment, maternal health, nutrition, and exposure to teratogens. The chapter also examines the physical process of birth and potential complications.
This document summarizes physical and cognitive development during adolescence. It discusses the growth of the brain, skeletal system, muscles and other body systems during puberty. It also addresses sexual development and behavior, including trends in sexual activity, pregnancy and sexuality. The document also summarizes Piaget's theory of formal operational thought and changes in thinking, memory and information processing during adolescence. Finally, it discusses challenges of school transitions, the impact of ability grouping, gender differences in achievement and risks of dropping out of high school.
The document discusses health, illness, and nutrition across the lifespan. It covers key topics like children's health issues like poverty and recommended immunizations. For adolescents, it discusses rising health risks from behaviors like substance use. Health challenges increase with age, such as disabilities, dementia, and nutrition issues in adulthood and aging. Maintaining exercise and a healthy lifestyle is important for physical and mental well-being at all stages of life.
This document summarizes theories of social and personality development in adolescence. It discusses psychoanalytic perspectives including Freud's stages of psychosexual development and Erikson's stages of psychosocial development focusing on identity versus role confusion. It also discusses Marcia's identity statuses and components of self-understanding like self-concept, self-esteem, gender identity, ethnic identity, and moral development theories like Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning. It examines relationships with parents, peers, and romantic relationships as well as causes of moral development and criticisms of theories.
This document discusses emotional and psychological development from infancy through middle childhood. It covers key theorists like Erik Erikson and describes developmental milestones at each stage, including the development of emotions, social skills, autonomy and self-concept. Cultural influences and gender differences are also addressed. Challenges like aggression, fears, bullying and family crises are explored, emphasizing the importance of supportive caregivers in fostering healthy development.
The document summarizes brain development from conception through adulthood. It notes that brain development begins at conception and continues throughout life, and may be affected by sensory experiences. Early childhood sees rapid changes in brain size and structure as the brain prepares to learn. Neglect and abuse can impact the development of areas like the frontal lobe. During adolescence, the brain undergoes pruning and continued myelination, while the amygdala develops emotional processing before the frontal lobe. Both genetics and the environment influence how genes express themselves in the developing brain.
Lifespan Development Lesson 2: Developmental TheoriesLumen Learning
This document provides an overview of several developmental theories and theorists. It discusses Freud's psychosexual theory of development and Erikson's psychosocial stages. It also covers learning theories like classical and operant conditioning proposed by Pavlov and Skinner. Additionally, it summarizes Piaget's stages of cognitive development and his principles of schema and assimilation/accommodation. Finally, it briefly introduces Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems model of development.
The document discusses emotional development during adolescence, noting that emotions often define this period of life and that most teenagers cope with changes in emotionally positive ways. It explores common emotional patterns among adolescents, like differing responses to stimuli compared to children, and factors that can cause emotional tension such as school, peer pressure, and family issues. The document also examines the expression of emotions like love, happiness, curiosity, anger, and envy during adolescence as well as signs of emotional maturity.
Child development theorists have proposed various theories to explain how children develop. Key theories include:
1. Maturation theory which sees development occurring in predictable stages due to biological/genetic factors.
2. Psychosocial theory (Erikson) which views personality developing through eight stages as children interact with their environment.
3. Cognitive theory (Piaget) which proposes children learn through qualitative stages as they actively explore their world. Children progress from sensory thinking to more abstract thought.
1. The document discusses physical, motor, sensory, cognitive, and social-emotional development in infancy. It covers topics like brain growth, motor milestones, visual perception, object permanence, learning and memory.
2. Key aspects of development include rapid physical growth, emergence of reflexes and motor skills like grasping and sitting, developing senses like vision and hearing, cognitive stages in Piaget's theory, and learning through interaction and exploration.
3. The development of skills and understanding in these domains from birth to age 2 is influenced by both biological maturation and environmental experiences with caregivers.
Lifespan Psychology Power Point Lecture, Chapter 1, Module 1.1kclancy
Lifespan development examines patterns of growth, change, and stability from conception to death. It takes a scientific, developmental approach and recognizes that both heredity and environment influence development. There are three major areas of study: physical, cognitive, and social/personality development. Several theoretical perspectives aim to explain lifespan development, including psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, contextual, and evolutionary theories. Theories are tested through scientific research methods like experiments and correlations to determine causes, relationships, and changes over time.
The document summarizes key aspects of emotional development across the lifespan. It discusses emotions and regulation in infancy, emotional expression and social relationships in early childhood, increased understanding and coping skills in middle childhood, emotional turmoil in adolescence, and improved regulation in adulthood. Attachment styles also influence social relationships throughout development.
Emotions develop throughout the lifespan beginning in infancy with basic emotions and increasing in complexity, especially during childhood as self-conscious emotions emerge and coping skills improve. During adolescence, emotions experience turmoil due to hormonal changes combined with environmental experiences, though moodiness is a normal part of development. The ability to understand and regulate emotions continues advancing into adulthood.
Kohlberg's theory of moral development proposes six stages through which individuals progress in their moral reasoning. The stages move from self-interest to universal ethical principles. Kohlberg used moral dilemmas like the Heinz dilemma to investigate individuals' justifications at each stage. While studies support progression through the early stages, few reach the later stages and cultural and gender differences exist in moral reasoning.
This informational slideshow covers all important aspects of cognitive development in infancy, ranging from how a child learns to make sense of the world to how a child learns to produce language.
The document discusses various philosophical and scientific perspectives on human development including innate goodness, blank slate, and evolutionary theories. It then covers research methods such as observations, surveys, correlations and experimental designs that are used to study development across the lifespan. Key issues include the interplay between nature and nurture, continuity versus discontinuity of changes, and factors like gender, resilience and timing that influence development.
Orthoptic evaluation examines eye alignment, eye movement, and binocularity using various tools. It involves assessing convergence, accommodation, and binocular single vision. Clinical signs of convergence and accommodation dysfunction include diplopia, headaches, and blurred vision. Treatment may include prism exercises, accommodative therapy, and vision therapy. The orthoptist plays a key role in diagnosing and providing non-surgical treatment for conditions like amblyopia and strabismus.
Vision therapy is an individualized treatment program designed to correct visual and perceptual deficiencies and improve vision skills through activities like eye tracking and coordination exercises. It can help with conditions like amblyopia, strabismus, and convergence insufficiency by strengthening the visual system and improving connections in the brain. Research studies have found vision therapy to be an effective treatment for improving visual acuity and stereopsis in patients with refractive amblyopia and for establishing sensory fusion in patients with strabismus.
Binocular vision requires two clear eyes that can coordinate focusing on the same object. This allows the brain to fuse the two slightly different retinal images into a single image. There are grades of binocular vision including fusion and stereopsis, which is the ability to perceive depth. For binocular vision to develop, the eyes must maintain proper retinal correspondence and suppression. Tests like the Titmus fly test evaluate stereopsis. Understanding binocular vision and stereopsis is important for diagnosing and treating eye alignment disorders.
This document discusses vision and its importance in sports. It covers the history of sports vision, the role of optometrists, elements of visual processing, vision requirements in different sports, tests of visual functions like binocular vision, stereopsis, accommodation, eye movements, and more. It also discusses vision enhancement programs and protective eyewear in sports.
This document discusses binocular single vision, including:
1. Anatomical aspects of binocular vision development from the prenatal period through childhood, and factors like genetics that affect development.
2. Physiological aspects like binocular fusion, stereopsis, and depth perception, which allow for three-dimensional vision through the integration of the two eyes.
3. The development of binocular single vision involves both anatomical and physiological changes from infancy through adulthood to achieve fusion, stereopsis, and depth perception through binocular integration.
Binocular single vision refers to simultaneous vision with two eyes that occurs when an individual fixates on an object. There are three grades of binocular vision: simultaneous perception, fusion, and stereopsis. Fusion is the ability to see a composite picture from two similar images, while stereopsis provides the impression of depth by superimposing images from slightly different angles. Tests for binocular vision include those for simultaneous perception, fusion, and stereopsis using instruments like the synaptophore. Binocular vision develops through infancy and childhood as the visual axes become coordinated to direct each fovea at the object of regard.
This chapter discusses cognitive development in infancy according to Piaget's theory of stages. It covers schemes, assimilation, accommodation, equilibration, and the sensorimotor stage. Key cognitive abilities that emerge in infancy include object permanence, conditioning, attention, memory, concept formation, and early language development through babbling, first words, and two-word utterances. Both biological and environmental factors influence language acquisition.
This chapter discusses cognitive development in infancy according to Piaget's theory of stages. It covers schemes, assimilation, accommodation, equilibration, and the sensorimotor stage. Key cognitive abilities that emerge in infancy include object permanence, conditioning, attention, memory, concept formation, and early language development through babbling, first words, and combining words. Both biological and environmental factors influence language acquisition.
Chapter 9 discusses lifespan development from a psychological perspective. It focuses on how biological, social, cognitive, and personality development change over time from infancy to late adulthood. Key issues discussed include nature vs nurture influences, continuity vs stage theories of development, and critical periods of development. Piaget's stages of cognitive development and Erikson's psychosocial stages are also summarized.
The document summarizes key aspects of cognitive development in preschool-aged children according to Piaget's theory. It discusses that preschoolers are in the preoperational stage, characterized by symbolic thinking but inability to perform logical operations. Some concepts covered include centration, conservation, egocentrism, intuitive thought, memory development, private speech, and theories of Vygotsky and information processing approaches to cognitive development.
The document summarizes key topics in human development from prenatal stages through adulthood. It discusses hereditary and environmental influences on development. Prenatal development can be impacted by factors like alcohol, tobacco, and illness. Child development involves progressing through stages of physical, cognitive, language, and social-emotional growth. Theories from Piaget, Vygotsky, Erikson, and others are summarized that explain developmental milestones and influences. Adolescence brings physical changes and identity formation. Adulthood involves additional developmental stages and factors for well-being.
This document summarizes Piaget's theory of cognitive development in infancy and key aspects of language development according to developmental psychology. It describes Piaget's sensorimotor stage from birth to age 2 where infants coordinate sensory and motor skills to understand the world. The development of object permanence and other cognitive processes during this stage are also outlined. The document then discusses theories of language development including babbling, recognition of sounds, first words, and environmental/biological influences on language acquisition according to Piaget and Chomsky.
The document discusses cognitive development in infancy based on Piaget's theory and the information-processing approach. According to Piaget's theory, infants progress through sensorimotor stages from birth to age 2, developing object permanence and basic symbolic thought. The information-processing approach views cognitive growth as improvements in encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Both approaches provide insights into infant cognition, though each has limitations. Language development begins with babbling and comprehending words before producing words starting around age 1.
CHAPTER 5 BRIEF CHAPTER SUMMARYAccording to Piaget, by acting .docxchristinemaritza
CHAPTER 5 BRIEF CHAPTER SUMMARY
According to Piaget, by acting on the environment, children move through four stages of cognitive development in which psychological structures, or schemes, achieve a better fit with external reality. In the sensorimotor stage, these spans the first two years of life, infants make strides in intentional behavior and understanding of object permanence. By the end of the second year, they become capable of mental representation, as seen in their sudden solutions to problems, mastery of object permanence, deferred imitation, and make-believe play. Displaced reference—the realization that words can be used to cue mental images of things not physically present—emerges around the first birthday and greatly expands toddlers’ capacity to learn about the world through communicating with others. Follow-up research on Piaget’s sensorimotor stage yields broad agreement that many cognitive changes of infancy are gradual and continuous and that various aspects of infant cognition change unevenly. However, many studies suggest that infants display a wide array of understandings earlier than Piaget believed. Secondary circular reactions, understanding of object properties, first signs of object permanence, deferred imitation, problem solving by analogy, and displaced reference of words emerge earlier than Piaget expected. Whereas Piaget thought that young babies constructed all mental representations out of sensorimotor activity, the core knowledge perspective maintains that babies are born with a set of innate knowledge systems, or core domains of thought. These permit a ready grasp of new, related information and therefore support early, rapid development. Information-processing theorists want to determine exactly what individuals of different ages do when faced with a task or problem. They assume that we use mental strategies to operate on information as it flows through three parts of the mental system: the sensory register, the short-term memory store, and the long-term memory store. The central executive, the conscious, reflective part of our mental system, ensures that we think purposefully, to attain our goals. Research indicates that several aspects of the cognitive system improve during childhood and adolescence: (1) the basic capacity of its memory stores, especially working memory; (2) the speed with which information is worked on; and (3) the functioning of the central executive, which directs the flow of information and engages in more sophisticated activities that enable complex, flexible thinking. Gains in executive function—including controlling attention, suppressing impulses, coordinating information in working memory, and flexibly directing and monitoring thought and behavior—are under way in the first two years. By the second half of the first year, infants are capable of recognition as well as recall, and both recognition and recall improve teadily with age. During toddlerhood, categorization gradually ...
The document summarizes Piaget's theory of cognitive development in infants and key aspects of infant learning and memory. It describes Piaget's sensorimotor stages from birth to age 2 and how infants develop schemes and the processes of assimilation and accommodation. It then discusses infant memory capabilities, explicit and implicit memory systems, and factors that influence infant memory like interference. Finally, it outlines approaches to assessing infant intelligence and language development, including first words and sentences, as well as theories of how infants acquire language skills.
The document summarizes Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development. It describes Piaget's four stages of development: sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2), preoperational stage (ages 2 to 7), concrete operational stage (ages 7 to 11), and formal operational stage (ages 11 and up). It provides examples of cognitive skills developed at each stage, such as object permanence, symbolic thought, conservation, and hypothetical-deductive reasoning. The document also discusses Piaget's concepts of schemas, assimilation, and accommodation in cognitive development.
The document summarizes Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development. It describes Piaget's four stages of development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. The sensorimotor stage involves developing object permanence and imitation abilities from birth to age 2. The preoperational stage from ages 2 to 7 involves egocentrism, centration, and the development of symbolic thought and language. The concrete operational stage from ages 7 to 11 involves gaining the ability for logical and mathematical thought. The formal operational stage from ages 11+ involves abstract reasoning and hypothetical deductive thought.
The document discusses cognitive development in infancy based on Piaget's theories. It covers Piaget's stages of cognitive development from the sensorimotor period to the beginnings of symbolic thought. Additionally, it examines information processing approaches to understanding infant intelligence and language development from early sounds and babbling to two-word sentences.
The document discusses cognitive development in infancy based on Piaget's theories. It covers Piaget's stages of cognitive development from the sensorimotor period to the beginnings of symbolic thought. Several approaches to measuring infant intelligence are also examined, including developmental scales, information processing, and the fundamentals of early language development from babbling to first words and sentences.
Piaget's stages of cognitive development include the sensorimotor stage from birth to age 2 where infants learn about the world through senses and motor skills. During this stage infants develop object permanence. Piaget's stages have been confirmed but also criticized for underestimating infant competence and not accounting for social influences. Infant intelligence shows individual differences and instability in the first year but can predict later development. Language develops through stages from prelinguistic sounds to telegraphic speech to combining words. Theories propose both innate and learned aspects of language guided by an inborn language acquisition device interacting with the environment during a sensitive period in early childhood.
S. Sherrill - General Psychology - Chapter 9 (M1) sjbrabham
This document provides an overview of key concepts in developmental psychology, including nature vs nurture, Jean Piaget's stages of cognitive development, attachment theory, and parenting styles. Some of the main points covered are:
- Development is influenced by both genetic (nature) and environmental (nurture) factors.
- Piaget identified 4 stages of cognitive development from infancy to adulthood.
- Attachment theory describes different types of infant attachment to caregivers.
- Baumrind identified 4 parenting styles - permissive, authoritarian, neglectful/rejecting, and authoritative - that influence child development.
This document summarizes key concepts from developmental psychology, including Jean Piaget's stages of cognitive development, Erik Erikson's psychosocial stages, attachment theory, parenting styles, and theories of adult development including Daniel Levinson's stages of adulthood. It discusses the nature vs nurture debate and how both genetics and environment influence development. Piaget's stages, Erikson's psychosocial tasks, and Levinson's periods of transition and commitment are described in 3 sentences or less.
Here are some guidelines my partner and I developed after discussing our answers:
1. Use concrete, familiar examples from students' lives when introducing new concepts.
2. Provide hands-on activities for students to explore symbols before abstract discussion.
3. Check for understanding throughout by asking open-ended questions.
4. Be flexible - adjust lesson based on students' responses and developmental levels.
5. Assess each student individually to ensure readiness before moving to more complex ideas.
The most important things are getting to know your students, adapting to their thinking, and providing concrete experiences before abstract concepts. Flexibility and ongoing assessment are also key.
Jean Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development in children: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. During the preoperational stage from ages 2 to 7, children develop language but cannot yet comprehend rules, operations, or conservation. They also experience egocentrism and centration. Lev Vygotsky emphasized the role of social learning and proposed the concept of the zone of proximal development.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development proposes that children progress through four distinct stages as they interact with their environment. The stages are sensorimotor (birth to age 2), preoperational (ages 2 to 7), concrete operational (ages 7 to 11), and formal operational (age 12 and up). At each stage, children demonstrate qualitatively different ways of thinking and reasoning. While influential, Piaget's theory has some limitations, such as underestimating children's early cognitive skills and not fully accounting for social and cultural influences on development.
The document discusses different learning styles and elements that affect how students learn. It defines learning styles as how students concentrate, process, internalize, and remember new information. Learning styles involve physiological, cognitive, and affective elements. Physiological elements include environmental factors like sound, light, temperature, and classroom design. Emotional elements involve motivation, persistence, responsibility, and preference for structure. Sociological elements consider whether students learn best alone, in pairs, teams, or varied groups. Cognitive elements include brain dominance, conceptual tempo, mindstyles, psychological differentiation, modality, and multiple intelligences.
Similar to Bee & Boyd, Lifespan Development, Chapter 5 (20)
This chapter discusses death, dying, and bereavement. It covers where death typically occurs, an overview of hospice care philosophy and types, comparisons of hospital and home-based hospice care, developmental understanding of death, theoretical perspectives on dying and grieving, factors that influence the grieving process, and preventing long-term problems from grief. Key aspects of hospice care are that it views death as normal and involves families in patient care with the goal of palliative rather than curative medical care. Theoretical models of grieving suggest it occurs in stages or involves alternating between loss-oriented and restoration-oriented processes.
This document summarizes theories and research on social and personality development in late adulthood. It discusses Erikson's theory of ego integrity versus despair and the importance of reminiscence. Other theories addressed include disengagement versus continuity theory and activity theory. Research findings presented include that older adults become more reflective and respond to thwarted goals with sadness. The document also covers factors influencing social relationships, living arrangements, partnerships, and issues surrounding retirement.
This chapter discusses social and personality development in middle adulthood. It covers Erikson's theory of generativity versus stagnation, where generativity involves establishing the next generation and stagnation involves a sense of personal impoverishment. Research shows that generativity is associated with positive outcomes like successful relationships and mental health. The chapter also discusses theories of childlessness, relationship changes like empty nesting and grandparenting, career issues including unemployment, and preparing for retirement.
This document summarizes physical and cognitive changes that occur in middle adulthood, including:
- Physical changes like declining vision, hearing, bone density and reproductive ability. Hormone therapy for menopause has risks.
- Cognitive functioning tends to peak around age 30 and then declines, though lifestyle factors like exercise and mental stimulation can help offset declines. Memory and processing speed may weaken.
- Health risks like cancer and cardiovascular disease increase, affected by genetics, behaviors and socioeconomic factors. Maintaining healthy habits is important for risk reduction.
Here are three potential responses to consider:
1. This statement was likely true in the past as traditional gender roles encouraged men to be breadwinners and women to focus on homemaking. However, attitudes are changing as more women work and take on multiple roles. Greater acceptance of shared parenting and dual-career families suggests views will continue evolving.
2. While progress has been made, vestiges of traditional thinking remain for some. Balancing work and family remains a challenge even though many see men and women equally capable of being workers, parents and spouses. Continued social and legal support for policies like paid family leave and flexible work arrangements could help solidify a culture where all adults can thrive in multiple roles.
3
This chapter discusses physical and cognitive development in early adulthood. Key points include:
- Physical functioning peaks in the 20s and 30s with strength and speed declining gradually thereafter. The brain continues developing with new neuronal production and improved response inhibition.
- Health habits strongly influence physical functioning and disease risk. Engaging in healthy habits like exercise, nutrition, and social support can offset some effects of aging.
- Mental health issues like anxiety, depression and substance abuse are common during this period due to life changes and role transitions. Higher education benefits development but graduation rates vary between ethnic and gender groups.
This document discusses cognitive development in infancy based on Piaget's views. It covers topics like Piaget's sensorimotor stage of development, object permanence, imitation, challenges to Piaget's views, modern studies on object permanence, and differences between Piaget and recent research approaches. It also discusses cognitive changes in infancy, learning and memory development, theoretical perspectives on the beginnings of language, early language milestones, variations in language development, and measuring infant intelligence.
This chapter discusses major theories of child development including psychoanalytic, learning, cognitive, biological, and ecological perspectives. Freud's psychosexual stages and Erikson's psychosocial stages are described as foundational psychoanalytic theories. Learning theories covered include classical and operant conditioning. Cognitive theories include those of Piaget on cognitive development stages and Vygotsky on socio-cultural influences. Biological theories examine genetics and environment. Bronfenbrenner's bioecological systems theory views development in terms of relationships within different environmental systems. The chapter emphasizes using multiple theories for a comprehensive understanding of development.
The document discusses various philosophical and scientific perspectives on human development including innate goodness, blank slate, and evolutionary theories. It then covers research methods such as observations, surveys, correlations and experimental designs that are used to study development across the lifespan. Key issues include the interplay between nature and nurture, continuity versus discontinuity of changes, and factors like gender, resilience and timing that influence development.
How to Manage Reception Report in Odoo 17Celine George
A business may deal with both sales and purchases occasionally. They buy things from vendors and then sell them to their customers. Such dealings can be confusing at times. Because multiple clients may inquire about the same product at the same time, after purchasing those products, customers must be assigned to them. Odoo has a tool called Reception Report that can be used to complete this assignment. By enabling this, a reception report comes automatically after confirming a receipt, from which we can assign products to orders.
A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
Andreas Schleicher presents PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Thinking - 18 Jun...EduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher, Director of Education and Skills at the OECD presents at the launch of PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Minds, Creative Schools on 18 June 2024.
How to Download & Install Module From the Odoo App Store in Odoo 17Celine George
Custom modules offer the flexibility to extend Odoo's capabilities, address unique requirements, and optimize workflows to align seamlessly with your organization's processes. By leveraging custom modules, businesses can unlock greater efficiency, productivity, and innovation, empowering them to stay competitive in today's dynamic market landscape. In this tutorial, we'll guide you step by step on how to easily download and install modules from the Odoo App Store.
A Free 200-Page eBook ~ Brain and Mind Exercise.pptxOH TEIK BIN
(A Free eBook comprising 3 Sets of Presentation of a selection of Puzzles, Brain Teasers and Thinking Problems to exercise both the mind and the Right and Left Brain. To help keep the mind and brain fit and healthy. Good for both the young and old alike.
Answers are given for all the puzzles and problems.)
With Metta,
Bro. Oh Teik Bin 🙏🤓🤔🥰
Brand Guideline of Bashundhara A4 Paper - 2024khabri85
It outlines the basic identity elements such as symbol, logotype, colors, and typefaces. It provides examples of applying the identity to materials like letterhead, business cards, reports, folders, and websites.
6. Object permanence: Realization that objects
still exist when hidden from sight
• 2 months: surprise when an object
disappears
• 6–8 months: looking for missing object
• 8–12 months: reaching for or searching for
completely hidden toy
Cognitive Changes
Piaget: Object Permanence
8. Cognitive Changes
Challenges to Piaget’s Views
Underestimation of infant cognitive capacity
Inaccurate equation of infant’s lack of
physical ability with lack of cognitive
understanding
Underestimation of object permanence
appearance beginning
9. Cognitive Changes
Modern Studies of Object Permanence
Recent theories
Developing object permanence a process
of elaboration rather than discovery
Baillargeon
Babies as young as 4 months show signs
of object permanence but may be tied to
experimental situations
Around 1 year can use sufficiently across
situations
10. Cognitive Changes
Summary of Differences
Piaget’s early research
Baby comes with repertoire of sensorimotor
scheme by construction—world
understanding via experiences.
Recent research
Newborns have considerable awareness of
objects as separate entities that follow
certain rules.
12. Cognitive Changes
Spelke’s Alternative Approach
Assumption: Babies have inborn assumptions
about objects and their movement.
Method: Violation of expectations method
Researchers move an object the opposite
way from that which the infant comes to
expect.
Let’s look at the next slide for an example.
14. Cognitive Changes
Baillargeon’s Alternative Approach
Assumption: Knowledge about objects is not
built in, but strategies for learning are innate.
Method: Study of object stability perception
Researchers stack smiling-face blocks in
stable and unstable positions.
Let’s look at the next slide for an example.
16. Stop and Think!
After reviewing the information we have just
covered, how would you explain an infant’s
habit of throwing things out of her crib to a
parent who viewed it as a misbehavior that
needed to be corrected?
18. Learning, Categorizing, and
Remembering
Schematic Learning
Schematic learning: Organization of
experiences into expectancies or “known”
combinations (schemas)
7 months: Infants actively use categories,
but not levels, to process information.
2 years: Hierarchical or superordinate
categories appear.
19. What do data from sequential learning
studies suggest?
Infancy: respond to superordinate before basic
level categories
12 months: understand basic and
superordinate categories
2 years: partially understand smaller
categories nested in larger categories
5 years: fully understand categories
20. Learning, Categorizing, and
Remembering
Memory
Carolyn Rovee-Collier’s research
Babies as young as 3 months old can
remember specific objects and their own
actions for as long as a week.
Young infants are more cognitively
sophisticated than was previously assumed.
23. The Beginnings of Language
Theoretical Perspectives
Let’s consider each!
24. The Beginnings of Language
The Behaviorist View: B. F. Skinner
Parent-reinforced babbling and grammar
use
Correct grammar reinforced, becomes more
frequent
Non-grammatical words not reinforced
Is this what you observe when parents
interact with very young children?
25. The Beginnings of Language
The Nativist View Noam Chomsky
Grammar rules acquired before exception
mastery
Rule-governed errors made (overregulation)
Comprehension and production guided by
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
26. The Beginnings of Language
More about the LAD
Language Acquisition Device
Basic grammatical structure for all human
language
Tells babies there are 2 types of sounds
(consonants and vowels)
Enables infants to divide, analyze, and learn
sounds of the specific language they are
learning
27. The Beginnings of Language
Slobin
Importance of “soundness”
Infants are preprogrammed to attend to
beginnings and endings of sounds and to
stressed sounds.
Programming is not attached to verbs or
nouns, but to attention to sounds.
28. The Beginnings of Language
The Interactionist View
Four key ideas
1. Language follows rules as part of cognition.
2. Language includes internal and external factors.
3. Infants are born with biological preparedness to
pay more attention to language than other
information.
4. The infant brain has generalized tools used
across all cognitive domains—NOT language-
specific neurological model.
29. The Beginnings of Language
Bowerman and Bloom
Language does not initially introduce new
meaning, but expresses meaning already
formulated, independent of language.
Children attempt to communicate and learn
new words when these aid in the
communication of thoughts and ideas.
30. The Beginnings of Language
Influences on Language Development
Infant-directed speech
Higher pitch
Repetitions with variations
Infant preferred
31. Which language theory appears to be right to
you? Why?
What are 3 effective strategies parents may use
to help stimulate language development in
their children?
Questions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To Ponder
33. Word Recognition
Receptive Language
Receptive language: Ability to understand
words
8 months: begin to store words in
memory
9–10 months: understands 20–30 words
13 months: 100 words
34. The Beginnings of Language
Expressive Language
Expressive language: Ability to produce words
12-13 months: Babies begin to say first
words.
Words learned slowly in context with
specific situations and cues
35. The Beginnings of Language
First Words
Now let’s take a look at vocabulary growth
during the toddler years.
37. The Beginnings of Language
First Sentences
Short, simple sentences appear at 18–24
months.
Threshold vocabulary reaches around 100–
200 words.
Sentences: Following rules created
38. The Beginning of Language
Individual Differences in Language
Development: Rate
Differences in rate of language development
A wide range of normal variations exists in
sentence structures.
Most children catch up.
Those who don’t catch up have poor
receptive language.
39. The Beginning of Language
Individual Differences in Language
Development: Style
Differences in style
Expressive style
Early vocabulary linked to social
relationships rather than objects
Referential style
Early vocabulary made up of names of
things or people
41. The Beginning of Language Language
Development across Cultures
Cooing, babbling, holophrases, and
telegraphic speech typically found in all
languages
Use of specific word order in early
sentences is not the same.
Particular inflections are learned in highly
varying and specific orders.
42. Measuring Intelligence in Infancy
What Is Intelligence?
Intelligence: Ability to take in information and
use it to adapt to environment
Although each infant develops at a different
pace, both genetic and environmental factors
influence infant intelligence.
So how can infant intelligence be measured?
43. Measuring Intelligence in Infancy
Bailey Scales of Infant Development
Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence
Assimilation Process of fusing incoming information to existing schemes to make sense of experiences
Accommodation
Changing a scheme to incorporate new information
Sensorimotor intelligence
Refinement of innate schemes by experiences of the senses and motor actions
Primary circular reaction: simple repetitive actions organized around the infant’s own body
Secondary circular reaction: baby repeatedly exhibits behavior to produce a desired outcome.
Means-end behavior: purposeful behavior to achieve a goal
Tertiary circular reaction: experiment with different behaviors to ascertain the outcomes.
Basic Reflexes
The first schemes are inborn reflexes.
EXAMPLES: Rooting, sucking, grasping reflexes
2. Primary Circular Reactions
Infants discover actions involving their own bodies by accident, then learn by trial and error to repeat them
until they become habits (schemes).
EXAMPLES: At first, thumb comes to mouth by accident. Through trial and error, infants learn to reproduce the event until a thumb-sucking scheme becomes established.
3. Secondary Circular Reactions
Infants discover actions involving objects in the environment by accident, then learn by trial and error to repeat them until they become habits (schemes).
EXAMPLES: Holding a rattle, an infant may accidentally shake the rattle and enjoy the noise. Through trial and error, the infant learns to reproduce the event until a shaking scheme becomes established.
4. Coordination of Secondary Schemes
Infants intentionally put two schemes together to solve a problem or reach a goal. Intentionality is a new feature—these new behaviors are no longer discovered by accident.
EXAMPLES: An infant sees a toy behind a box, pushes the box aside, then reaches for the toy. The infant intentionally combined pushing and reaching
schemes to reach the goal (the toy).
5. Tertiary Circular Reactions
Babies are curious about objects in the world and explore them in a trial-and-error fashion, trying to produce novel reactions.
EXAMPLES: A baby drops a ball from shoulder height and watches what happens. The baby then explores the “dropping scheme” by dropping the ball from hip height, then from head height, then from knee height, observing each new result.
6. Transition to Symbolic Thought
Toddlers begin to form symbolic representations of events, showing the beginnings of mental thought. Representations still tend to be physical (rather than purely mental), as when toddlers use their own body movements to represent movements of objects in the world.
EXAMPLES: An eighteen-month-old girl would like to open the lid of a box, and to think about this she opens and closes her hand repeatedly. Rather than work directly on the box, she first uses her hand motion as a way to “think” about how to open it. She is thinking about the box using a symbolic representation (her hand).
two months: rudimentary expectations shown by surprise when an object disappears
six to eight months: looking for missing object for a brief period of time
Eight to twelve months reaching for or searching for toy that is completely hidden
Biallargeon and others used possible/impossible events and habituation methods to study object permanence.
Biallargeon and others used possible/impossible events and habituation methods to study object permanence.
Seminal research agrees that an infant will imitate gesture of tongue protrusion but disagree as to how much an infant will imitate.
Ask: What do the data convey?
Three conditions on top
Actual results below
Babies habituated and stopped looking at expected result but showed surprise when results were inconsistent.
Two- to three-month-olds think smiling blocks will not fall under either condition.
Five-month-olds recognize stable condition.
Classical conditioning research
Gunther and breastfeeding: babies who felt smothered by the left breast learned to refuse the left breast.
Operant conditioning—reinforcements—sounds of mother’s voice or heartbeat, sweet liquids: the mother’s voice is an effective reinforcer for virtually all babies.
Classical conditioning
Learning of emotional responses as early as the first week of life
Stimulus-response connection
Operant conditioning
Both sucking responses and head-turning have been increased using reinforcement.
Learning from models too
Schematic learning—often called schemas—is built up over many exposures to a particular experience; help baby to distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar.
Categories By seven months, infants actively use categories to process information.
Cannot process levels of categories
Babies respond differently to animals versus furniture but not to dogs versus birds.
Hierarchical or superordinate categories appear by age two.
Superordinates: a higher-level category that includes lower-level categories; animal is a superordinate that contains dogs.
Full understanding linked to language development and using words as category labels
Newborns appear to be able to remember auditory stimuli to which they are exposed while sleeping.
Rovee-Collier hangs an attractive mobile over a baby’s crib, attaches a ribbon to the baby’s leg, records leg kicks. Her research supports the idea that the young infant is more developmentally sophisticated than developmentalists and Piaget had supposed.
Infant memory is tied strongly to the context in which learning takes place. Change the mobile or the bunting even slightly and the memory will not be recalled.
Babies as young as three months old can remember specific objects and their own actions for as long as a week.
Young infants are more cognitively sophisticated than previously assumed.
“Lost” memories can be reactivated.
With age, infant memories become less and less tied to specific cues or context.
Babies as young as three months old can remember specific objects and their own actions for as long as a week.
Young infants more are cognitively sophisticated than previously assumed.
“Lost” memories can be reactivated.
With age, infant memories become less and less tied to specific cues or context.
Begins with babbling, which parents reinforce
Respond to grammatical use of words with reinforcement
Withhold reinforcement for nongrammatical words
Correct grammar reinforced, becomes more frequent
BUT apparently NOT what happens—parents respond to all vocalizations.
Theory makes sense on surface and can explain some variations but does not completely tell the story of language acquisition.
LAD = An innate language processor which contains the basic grammatical structure of all human language
Rule-governed grammatical errors: almost all three-year olds overregularize the past tense of verbs.
“Yesterday we goed to the store,” or, “I breaked my cookie.”
LAD separates sounds into vowels and consonants. All human languages have the same form, according to Chomsky.
Lois Bloom & Melissa Bowerman: “When language starts to come in, it does not introduce new meanings to the child. Rather, it is used to express only those meanings the child has already formulated.”
Lois Bloom: from the beginning, the child’s attempt is to communicate, and he learns new words when they help him to communicate his thoughts and ideas.
Speech in a higher pitch
Adults repeat often, introduce minor variations, and use slightly more elongated sentences.
Babies prefer infant-directed speech to adult speech.
A baby more easily imitates a correct grammatical form “recast” from his own sentences by an adult.
Children whose parents talk to them a lot develop richer vocabularies and more complex sentences.
Initially, babbling contains all kinds of sounds; by nine or ten months, babies typically begin to babble closer and closer to the language they hear.
Babbling is also linked to gestures for demanding or asking for something. Parents encourage gestures at this age as well.
Receptive language: the ability to understand words
Expressive language: the ability to produce words
Repetition provides the mechanism for word production.
Young children learn and express more frequently used words first and then concentrate on others.
Holophrases
Combining a single word with gestures to make a complete thought
Used between 12 and 18 months
Naming Explosion
Used between 16 and 24 months
16 months old: 50 words in vocabulary
24 months old: 320 words
Vocabulary grows in spurts.
Naming explosion includes names for things or people. Action words tend to appear later.
Goldfield and Reznick’s longitudinal study
Vocabulary growth of six children
Common language pattern: slow initial growth followed by growth spurt
Poor receptive language may lead to poor cognitive development in general.
Expressive style: These children often learn pronouns (you, me) early and use many more personal social words such as no, yes, want, or please; they use multi-word strings such as love you and do it or go away. Expressive language may sound advanced but often has a smaller vocabulary.
According to Bates, referential style children are more cognitively oriented. They are drawn to objects, spend more time in solitary play, and interact with people more than objects. These children are often advanced in understanding adult language.
Some languages: noun/verb common
Others: verb/noun
Inflections: In Japanese, Yo is used at the end of a sentence when the speaker is experiencing some resistance from the listener; the word me is used when the speaker expects approval or agreement.
In Turkish, there is no two-word sentence stage; essentially, all inflections are learned by age two.
Instead of testing school-like skills (skills an infant does not yet have), the items measure primarily sensory and motor skills, such as reaching for a dangling ring (an item for a typical baby at three months), putting cubes in a cup on request (nine months), or building a tower of three cubes (seventeen months).
Some more clearly cognitive items are also included, such as uncovering a toy hidden by a cloth, an item used with eight-month-old infants to measure an aspect of object permanence.
Bailey Scales of Infant Development
Measure sensory and motor skills
Help identify children with serious developmental delays
Not as useful predicting later intelligence
Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence
Standardized test of habituation (novelty preference, visual recognition)
Useful when Bailey test cannot be used
Instead of testing school-like skills (skills an infant does not yet have), the items measure primarily sensory and motor skills, such as reaching for a dangling ring (an item for a typical baby at three months), putting cubes in a cup on request (nine months), or building a tower of three cubes (seventeen months).
Some more clearly cognitive items are also included, such as uncovering a toy hidden by a cloth, an item used with eight-month-old infants to measure an aspect of object permanence.