This chapter discusses several major theories of child development including psychoanalytic, learning, and cognitive theories. Psychoanalytic theories proposed by Freud and Erikson focus on internal drives and resolving psychosocial crises. Learning theories such as classical and operant conditioning examine how behaviors are influenced through reinforcement. Cognitive theories proposed by Piaget and Vygotsky consider how children acquire and construct knowledge through social interactions and experiences. Biological and ecological theories also influence understanding of child development. The chapter emphasizes evaluating theories based on their usefulness rather than labeling them as right or wrong.

1. Chapter 2:
Theories of Development

2. In this chapter

3. An Overview
Major families of theoretical perspectives
 Psychoanalytic
 Learning
 Cognitive
Other theoretical trends
 Biological
 Ecological

4. Psychoanalytic Theories
Sigmund Freud
Psychosexual theory: Internal drives and
emotions influence behavior.
Patient memories used as primary source
material
Three personality types: id, ego, superego
Sexual feelings are part of personality
development.

5. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

6. Psychosocial Theory
Erik Erikson (Neo-Freudian)
Psychosocial theory: Development influenced
by common cultural demands and internal
drives
 Each psychosocial stage requires solution of
a crisis.
 Healthy development requires a favorable
ratio of positive to negative experiences.

7. Psychosocial Theory
Erik Erikson (Neo-Freudian)
Stages
 First four stages form adult personality
foundation
 Childhood-adulthood transition influential
Ages
 Adult stages not strongly tied to age

8. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

9. Learning Theories
Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov
Classical Conditioning: Learning process that
occurs through associations between
environmental stimulus and naturally
occurring stimulus
Reflex: Stimulus–response connection
Learned: Conditioned stimulus elicits
conditioned response.

10. Learning Theories
Operant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner
Operant conditioning: Deals with modification
of voluntary behavior
 Behaviors dependent on reinforcement
• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
 Punishment
 Extinction

11. Learning Theories
Hints for Parents and Caregivers
 Positive and negative reinforcement interact
in complex ways in real life.
 The best chance for behavioral change
exists when an appropriate consequence
administered first after the behavior occurs.

12. Learning Theories
Social Cognitive Theory: Albert Bandura
Observational learning or modeling: Learning
results from seeing a model reinforced or
punished for behavior.
Dependent on four factors:
 Attention
 Memory
 Physical capabilities
 Motivation

13. Learning Theories
Social Cognitive Theory: Self-Efficacy
Perceived self-efficacy: People's beliefs about
their capabilities to produce effects
Learning
 Influenced by perceived similarity to
model
 Not limited to overt behavior
 Comes also from ideas, expectations,
internal standards, and self-concepts

14. Cognitive Theories
Jean Piaget
Piaget’s cognitive theory: Development
involves processes based upon actions and
later progresses into changes in mental
operations.
 Scheme
 Assimilation
 Accommodation
 Equilibration

15. Cognitive Theories
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Stages
Evolution of
Logical
Thinking
The rate of development differs for individual children.

16. Cognitive Theories
Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
Socio-cultural theory: Complex forms of
thinking have their origins in social
interactions, not private explorations.
Children learn new cognitive skills guided by a
more skilled partner.
 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
 Scaffolding

17. Cognitive Theories
Importance of Assisted Discovery
Assisted discovery: Child integrates results of
independent discoveries with new
knowledge taught in systematic and
structured way.
What are the educational applications of this
kind of learning?

18. Cognitive Theories
Importance of Assisted Discovery
Educational Applications
 Supports active exploration opportunities
 Discovery of what knowledge, skills, and
understandings have not yet surfaced for
learner but are on edge of emergence

19. Cognitive Theories
Information-Processing Theory
Information-processing theory: Computer
used as model to explain how mind
manages information
Three-stage theory of memory
 Sensory memory
 Short-term or working memory
 Long-term memory

20. Figure 2.2 The Information-Processing
System

21. Cognitive Theories
Neo-Piagetian Theories
Piagetian information-processing hybrid
 Uses IP to explain Piaget’s stages
 Expands (not contradicts) Piaget’s theory
 Agrees that children's thinking reflects
developing internal mental structures
 Draws on linguistic theories about content
domain specificity of cognition

22. Give an example each of a positive
reinforcement and a punishment in your
work or academic life.
Looking at ecological systems theory, describe
your personal exosystem, macrosystem, and
microsystem influences.
Questions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To Ponder

23. Biological Theories
Behavioral Genetics
Behavioral genetics: Examines genetic
underpinnings of behavioral phenotypes
Can you think of questions that might be
addressed using this theoretical
perspective?

24. Did you list twin studies in your
response?
Look at these findings from several studies of Dutch
twins. What does this tell you about the influence
of heredity and age?
Figure 2.3 IQs of Fraternal and Identical Twins

25. Other Biological Theories
Ethology and Sociobiology
Ethology: Examines genetically determined
mechanisms that promote survival through
natural selection
 Imprinting
Sociobiology: Application of evolutionary
theory to social behavior
 “Genetic selfishness”

26. Bioecological Theory
Urie Bronfenbrenner
Bioecological theory: Explains development in
terms of relationships between people and
their environments
Contexts
 Macrosystem
 Exosystem
 Microsystem
 Mesosystem
 Biological context

27. Place yourself in the center of the model.
Figure 2.4 Bronfenbrenner’s Contexts of Development
W
ho
orw
hatw
ould
you
placein
each
ring? W
hat prompted your
choices?

28. Why asking which theory is RIGHT
may be wrong!
 Instead of right/wrong, try useful/not useful.
 Evaluation of usefulness of each theory
• Generate predictions that can be tested.
• Heuristic value
• Practical value
• Explanation of basic developmental facts

29. Multiple Theoretical Approaches
Eclecticism
 Interdisciplinary; builds on ideas from
multiple sources
 Avoids rigid adherence to single theory
 Contributes to development of more
comprehensive theories