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Bee & Boyd, Lifespan Development, Chapter 13
- 1. Chapter 13: Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood
- 3. Physical Functioning Types of Aging Definitions Primary aging: Gradual and inevitable process of bodily deterioration throughout life Secondary aging: Preventable processes from disease and poor health practices
- 4. Physical Functioning Aging and Health Health difference Income-related variations in social environments and individual behavior Many of the same factors contribute to economic differences and health habits Links between social class and secondary aging complex
- 5. The Brain and Nervous System Early Adulthood Growth spurts in brain Response inhibition cortex control of limbic system New neuronal production
- 6. The Brain and Nervous System Early Adulthood Speed Gradual loss of speed Every bodily function affected Gradual changes at neuronal level
- 7. The Brain and Nervous System Early Adulthood Sex Differences Men: lower proportion of white matter in left brain hemisphere than in right Women: equal portions of gray matter in each brain hemisphere
- 8. The Brain and Nervous System Early Adulthood ____________________ is associated with individual differences in performance on verbal tasks for males, but not for females. Do you know?
- 9. The Brain and Nervous System Early Adulthood General Physical Skills Better physical skills on all measures when compared to older adults Can you hypothesize what some of these measures might be?
- 10. Other Body Systems Early Adulthood Declines Physical Functioning Changes are balanced between physical demand and physical capacity Losses that appear later in life start in early adulthood
- 11. Other Body Systems Early Adulthood Heart and Lungs Systematic decline with age of Maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) Reflects cumulative effects of sedentary lifestyle Aerobic exercise can improve VO2max at nearly any age
- 12. Other Body Systems Early Adulthood Physical Functioning Strength and Speed Strength peaks in the 20s and early 30s Active lifestyles affect functioning Reproductive Capacity Women’s reproductive capacity begins to drop in mid-20s Men’s capacity diminishes but remains intact
- 13. Figure 13.1 Changes in Grip Strength UPDATE TO COME
- 14. Physical Functioning Early Adulthood Immune System Functioning Thymus gland and bone marrow produce B cells and T cells B cells produce antibodies to fight off external threats T cells defend against internal threats, such as transplanted organs, cancer cells, and viruses
- 15. True or False? One of the key physical changes over the years of adulthood is increasing susceptibility to disease.
- 16. Physical Functioning Early Adulthood Thymus gland: Glandular organ at base of the neck that produces lymphocytes and aids in producing immunity; atrophies with age Central to aging process Declines in immune system may be in response to stress or depression
- 17. Health and Wellness Health Habits and Personal Factors Healthy Habits
- 18. Health and Wellness Healthy Habits and Risk of Death Only five habits on the previous slide are independently related to risk of death. Can you guess which two habits were unrelated to mortality?
- 19. Health and Wellness Health Habits and Personal Factors Unhealthy Habits Poorer health habits lead to higher risk Lack of physical exercise linked to higher risk of death Higher BMI in women associated with higher risks of death
- 20. Health Habits and Personal Factors Social Support Positive Effects Adequate amounts of social support lower risk of disease, death, and depression Effects found across diverse age groups May boost immune system functioning
- 21. Health Habits and Personal Factors A Sense of Control: Perceived Control Perceived Control Self-efficacy: Belief in ability to perform some action or to control behavior or environment to reach some goal Internal locus of control: Attribute cause of many consequences to self, not external factors
- 22. Health and Wellness Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) Bacterial STDs: Caused by microorganisms that can be eradicated with antibiotics Chlamydia Gonorrhea Syphilis
- 23. Health and Wellness Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) Viral STDs: Caused by viruses and considered incurable Genital herpes Genital warts HIV/AIDS
- 24. Health and Wellness Check Your Knowledge! Take the Mayo Clinic’s STD Quiz on page 344. Were you surprised by your score?
- 25. Health and Wellness Sexually Transmitted Diseases Prevention Prevention: Behavioral changes Less risky sexual behavior Use of condoms
- 26. Health and Wellness Intimate Partner Abuse: Prevalence Physical abuse: Physical or other behavior designed to intimidate or harm an intimate partner or former partner Prevalence What is the rate of female physical abuse? Let’s find out.
- 27. Figure 13.2 Worldwide Rates of Female Physical Abuse
- 28. Health and Wellness Intimate Partner Abuse: Causes Characteristics of abusers and victims associated with intimate partner abuse Cultural attitudes Gender-role prescriptions Personality traits Gender differences
- 29. Health and Wellness Intimate Partner Abuse: Victims Abuse victims’ characteristics
- 30. Health and Wellness Intimate Partner Abuse: Effects Effects of abuse Women may develop anxiety, depression, shame, and low self- esteem Witnessing abuse influences negative developmental outcomes in children
- 31. Health and Wellness Intimate Partner Abuse: Prevention Prevention Vigorous law enforcement of abuse Temporary shelters Training programs for victims stressing problem-solving skills to provide opportunities Community-wide and school-based approaches to educate about abuse
- 32. Stop and Think Some experts have proposed that date rape may be more traumatic than rapes perpetrated by strangers. Do you know why?
- 33. Health and Wellness Intimate Partner Abuse: Sexual Violence Sexual violence: Episodes of partner abuse in which an individual uses force to coerce another into engaging in sexual acts Context Victim gender Consequences
- 34. Health and Wellness Mental Health Problems: Causes Causes of mental health problems Age Expectations and role conflicts Biological causes Interaction of biology and environment
- 35. Health and Wellness Anxiety and Mood Disorders Top Two! Most common mental disorder are those associated with fear and anxiety Second most common types are problems associated with moods Disorders Anxiety Depression
- 36. Health and Wellness Personality Disorders Personality disorders: Inflexible pattern of behavior that leads to difficulties in social, educational, and occupational functioning Behaviors start in mid- or late adolescence but can remain problematic throughout life See Table 13.4
- 37. Health and Wellness Personality Disorders Schizophrenia: Mental disorder that makes it difficult to tell the difference between real and unreal experiences, to think logically, to have normal emotional responses, and to behave normally in social situations Characterized by false beliefs (delusions) and false sensory experiences (hallucinations)
- 38. Health and Wellness Substance Use and Abuse Overview Quick Facts Peak between 18 and 40 Gender differences Binge drinking common among college students Physical and psychological dependence and physical tolerance may occur
- 39. Health and Wellness Substance Use and Abuse Factors Influencing Addictive Potential of Drugs
- 40. Cognitive Changes Post-Format Thought Post-formal thought: Thinking characterized by an understanding of the relative, nonabsolute nature of knowledge Labouvie-Vief, Kohlberg, William Perry Dialectical thought: Ability to think logically and critically in order to assess and evaluate propositions Basseches
- 41. Cognitive Changes Post-Format Thought Reflective Judgment Model: Stage model characterized by seven distinct but developmentally related sets of assumptions about process of knowing and its acquisition King and Kitchener Analyze arguments and underlying assumptions
- 42. Cognitive Changes Formal Operations and Beyond Intelligence
- 43. Figure 13.3 Seattle Data on IQ Scores Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Data on IQ Scores
- 44. Post-Secondary Education Impact Post-secondary education: Any kind of formal schooling following high school Developmental impact Social impact
- 45. Figure 13.4 U.S. College Completion Rates
- 46. Post-Secondary Education Traditional and Nontraditional Students Let’s list the ways in which traditional and non-traditional students are alike— and different. TraditionalTraditional
- 47. And so? Imagine you are assigned to complete a group project in this class. There are 4 traditional and 2 non-traditional students in your group. What are your expectations for each of these categories of students? What contributed most to your expectations?
- 48. Post-Secondary Education Students with Disabilities Requirement Post-secondary education now required to serve all people with disabilities (IDEA) Incidence Performance and perception
- 49. Gender and the College Experience Female college students Higher graduation rates Study more Lower entrance exam scores Lower entrance into prestigious programs Party less and influenced less by peer pressure
- 50. Race and the College Experience Graduation rates vary across U.S. ethnic groups White or Asian American African American Hispanic American students
- 51. Think of elite athletes. When are they in their prime: gymnastics, swimming, weight-lifting, baseball, football, golf, and tennis? What does this tell us about aging? How aggressively do you protect yourself from an STD? How would you handle a partner that balks at using protection or your use of protection? Questions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To Ponder
- 52. Are there indications of bias against students with disabilities in your college classrooms? Questions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To Ponder
Editor's Notes
- See Figure 13. Social class differences appear to be primary aging, but developmental psychologists consider them to be secondary aging. Senescence/primary aging Basic underlying inevitable aging process Gray hair, changes in visual acuity Secondary aging Products of environmental influences, health habits, or disease; neither inevitable nor experienced by all adults May interact with social class
- See Figure 13.1 For benefits of lifestyle changes Social class differences appear to be primary aging, but developmental psychologists consider them to be secondary aging. Senescence/primary aging Basic underlying inevitable aging process Gray hair, changes in visual acuity Secondary aging Products of environmental influences, health habits, or disease; neither inevitable nor experienced by all adults May interact with social class
- Response inhibition helps us to weigh choices more carefully by slowing down and regulating the limbic system – the emotional part of the brain. Some parts of the brain produce new neurons Enriched environments seem to help Growth spurts in the brain Frontal lobe growth from ages 17 – 22 Response inhibition cortex control of the limbic system from the mid-to late 20s, e.g., impulse control
- Gradual changes at neuronal level Loss of dendrites Slowing of the firing rate of nerves
- Sex Differences Men have a lower proportion of white matter in the left brain hemisphere than in the right brain May produce superior spatial perception Women have equal portions of gray matter in each brain hemisphere May explain gender differences in emotions Ratio of gray to white matter is associated with individual differences in performance on verbal tasks for males, but not for females Gray matter – made up of cell bodies and axon terminals. White matter contains myelinated axons that connect one neuron to another. Other differences: Some listening tasks activate the left hemisphere in men and the right hemisphere in women. Men and women use different areas of the brain to determine location of sound.
- The ratio of gray to white matter is associated with individual differences in performance on verbal tasks for males, but not for females.
- Better physical skills on all measures when compared to older adults Stronger Faster Better immune systems Better eyesight Quicker adaptation
- Table 13.2 represents primary aging summary of changes in physical functioning However, losses may not be discernable for several years
- See Figure 13.2 Heart and Lungs Maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max): reflects the ability of the body to take in and transport oxygen to body organs Maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) 1% per year decline while exercising beginning between 35 and 40. Decline in heart function may reflect the cumulative effects of a sedentary lifestyle.
- Strength and Speed Longitudinal study of men showed a loss of grip strength over a 9 year period Strength peaks in the 20’s and early 30’s However, younger adults are also more active, affecting strength and speed Fertility problems in women are seen as part of the normal aging process. Because men have the capacity to be fertile throughout life, fertility problems in men are associated with disease or abnormal developmental process.
- These data from Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging show both cross sectional data (dots) and longitudinal (line) for grip strength among men. Once again there is striking agreement between two sets of data.
- B cells Produce antibodies to fight off external threats T cells Defend against internal threats, such as transplanted organs, cancer cells, and viruses Decline in number and efficiency with age
- True
- Central to aging process Largest in adolescence, then shrinks Lower functioning leads to less-effective T cells Declines in immune system may be primary aging or may be secondary aging in response to stress or depression.
- 7 healthy habits initially identified by longitudinal research (1965-1983) Alameda County Study – major longitudinal study of health habits. Data collected in 1965, 1974, and 1983.
- Snacking and eating breakfast
- Alameda County Study – major longitudinal study of health habits. Data collected in 1965, 1974 and 1983. BMI – Poorer health habits lead to higher risk of mortality, disease, and disability body mass index. Additional research links lack of physical exercise and lower risk of death Higher BMI (Body Mass Index: weight to height ratio) numbers in women associated with lower risks of death
- Used data from social network index link between social connections and physical hardiness
- Optimism versus pessimism Internal locus of control: attribute cause of many consequences to self, not external factors Optimism may also boost the immune system Pessimism appears especially problematic over age 45 Ability to make realistic attributions important to health
- About equally distribution among men and women, but women more susceptible to long-term damage from infection Significant decline in prevalence increased dramatically since 2002, largely confined to men Chlamydia—transmitted through intimate genital contact Women three times as likely as men to suffer from it but can remain symptom-free Unfortunately undiagnosed chlamydia can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease and infertility Gonorrhea Declined in recent years But new strains more resistant to antibiotics Causes long-term damage to reproductive systems Syphilis Can lead to serious mental disorders and death African American rates remain high
- Genital Herpes Acquired through intercourse or oral sex 20-30% of adults affected Periodic attacks Genital Warts Caused by human papillomavirus Visible symptoms are warts New vaccine may be effective HIV/AIDS Over one million cases in U.S. Over 20 million cases in sub-Saharan Africa Transmitted through exchange of bodily fluids Male homosexual rates remain high
- STDs more common among 15-24 year olds than any other group Risky sexual behaviors include multiple partners and lack of protection.
- Intimate Partner Abuse – physical acts or other behaviors intended to intimidate or harm an intimate partner. Intimates are couples who date, cohabitate, or are engaged, married, or former partners. When men and women equally likely to push, slap, or kick partner, women are more likely to be injured See Figure 13.4 Prevalence 4-5:1000 women; 1:1000 men injured Hispanic women have higher rates of abuse Critical factor may be poverty, not race Rates for gay men and lesbian women probably about 25% but may be underreported
- Data on physical abuse are based WHO International Survey of medical records
- Cultural attitudes Women are regarded as property Gender-role prescriptions High in Japanese women, based on belief that men are absolute authorities over wives and children Personality traits Same cluster of traits in heterosexual and homosexual abusers Tendency toward irrational jealousy Control of relationship Sudden mood swings Quick temper Aggressive men and unemployed men are frequent abusers Characteristics of abusers and victims associated with intimate partner abuse
- More likely to have been abused as children Young women between 16 and 24 more likely to be abused than older women May reflect less ability of young women to act independently of the abuser May be more likely to be caring for young infants May be undereducated Alcohol and drug problems common with abusers and victims.
- Feelings intensify if the victim believes they are trapped in the situation.
- Feelings intensify if the victim believes they are trapped in the situation.
- Victims often believe they should have been able to prevent the assault
- ¾ of incidents occur in context of some kind of relationship 14-25% of women affected; 3% of men are victims Date rape often premeditated Can cause sexual dysfunctions and post-traumatic stress disorder
- Young adulthood high incidence Highest expectations and highest levels of role conflict and role strain may occur then May lead to anxiety and depression Researchers are focusing on biological causes Mental illness runs in families Disturbances in specific brain functions occur Interaction of biology and the environment Roles have to be learned – spouse, worker, parent.
- Anxiety Phobias – irrational fear of an object, person, place, or situation Learned through association Therapeutic interventions involve unlearning the association May be “free-floating” Depression Rates higher in early adulthood than in adolescence or middle age May result from intimacy issues and loneliness Can be a recurrent problem
- May relate to stressful breakups Surveys suggest as many as 50% of college students engage in binge drinking.
- Characterized by false beliefs (delusions) and false sensory experiences (hallucinations) Delusions of grandeur Delusions of persecution Auditory hallucinations, such as hearing voices Often debilitating but may be helped by antipsychotic medications May be helped by antipsychotic medications
- See Table 13.2
- See Table 13.2
- Post-Formal Thought: relativistic thinking characterized by an understanding of the relative, nonabsolute nature of knowledge Labouvie-Vief , Kohlberg, William Perry Later thinking reflects thinking skills that are more relative and reflect complex thought Contextual validity – learning how to solve problems associated with social roles and occupations Dialectical Thought: Basseches – dialectical thought Attempts to describe fundamental process of change and the dynamic relationships through which change occurs Different kind of thinking than formal operations proposes
- Theories on post-formal thought still speculative with little current empirical research
- Continuity and change characterize intelligence in early adulthood Werner Shaie – Seattle Longitudinal Study. See Figure 13.5 IQ scores Remain stable across early adulthood Seattle Longitudinal study suggests that intelligence test scores rise slightly in adulthood before dropping as adults reach age 60 Crystallized Intelligence Ability to do daily tasks, such as read a newspaper Depends heavily on education and experience Remains steady throughout early and middle adulthood Fluid Intelligence Speed measures of abstract reasoning Steady decline throughout lifespan
- Results from Seattle Longitudinal Study show both cross-sectional and longitudinal data for a measure of overall intellectual skill (average score = 50)
- See Figure 13.6 Developmental Impact More promotions Less unemployment Professional field openings Vocational aspiration increases Enhanced internal locus of control Social impact More socialization opportunities Advances in moral and social reasoning Increased capacity for empathy
- College completion rates vary considerably from one racial group to another. These figures represent percentage of students who complete a degree within six years of taking their first course as a degree-seeking student.
- Traditional Enroll in school full-time directly after graduation Now only one-quarter of enrollees Half obtain a degree within 6 years Traditional students more often pursue bachelor degrees Non-traditional students more often enroll in two-year colleges Less often complete degrees than traditional students Non-traditional students tend to have less of a social network on campus, thus support from the institution is critical for successful management of the conflicting demands of school, family, and work Non-traditional May delay entry into college Independent from parents Employed full time Enrolled part time Have children Possess a GED rather than a high school diploma
- College must provide modifications to facilities and special education services Now about 9% of college population Receive lower course grades than their peers Perceive college faculty to be inhospitable
- 60% of college students are now female Men party more and may be more influenced by peer pressure and behavior
- White or Asian-American students have higher rates of college completion within six years For African- and Hispanic American students Strong sense of ethnic identity is associated with persistence and academic performance May help by providing belonging to the college community Cognitive and social development for African-American students appears higher in historically black colleges than in predominantly white schools