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Bee & Boyd, Lifespan Development, Chapter 18
- 1. Chapter 18: Social and Personality Development in Late Adulthood
- 3. Theories of Social and Personality Development Ego Integrity versus Despair Research findings Little research on adult’s ability to achieve acceptance Older adults do become more reflective and philosophical Older adults respond to thwarted personal goals with sadness
- 4. Theories of Social and Personality Development Erikson’s Final Stage
- 5. Theories of Social and Personality Development Ego Integrity versus Despair Reminiscence: Life review foundation For Erikson, essential to achieve ego integrity and help prepare for death Researchers propose connection between reminiscence and health
- 6. Other Theories of Late-Life Psychosocial Functioning Baltes and Baltes Activity theory: Older adults maintain higher performance by concentrating on strengths Healthiest response is maintain of high level of activities and roles Active adults report greater satisfaction, better health, and higher morale
- 7. Other Theories of Late-Life Psychosocial Functioning Disengagement versus Continuity Disengagement theory: Suggests shrinkage of life space, increasing individuality, and acceptance of these changes Versus Continuity theory: Implies maintenance of consistency in activities and interests
- 8. Individual Differences Successful Aging Paradigm
- 9. Individual Differences Staying Healthy and Able Health benefits Healthy choices made earlier in life Participation in rehabilitation to improve recovery and resume activities Positive response to health crises
- 10. Individual Differences Retaining Cognitive Abilities Cognitive Ability Links Verbal intelligence and education Complex cognitive challenge engagement Cognitive adventurousness Avoidance of ageist self-stereotyping and use of new technologies
- 11. Stop and Think What will you do when you retire?
- 12. Social Relationships Social Engagement What contributes to social engagement? Life satisfaction linked to frequent contact with family and friends Community engagement related to higher physical and emotional functioning Helping others feel contributes to life satisfaction
- 14. Social Engagement Criticisms of the “Successful Aging Paradigm” Questions to consider… Does this provide a new kind of ageism? Can people with physical limitations feel adequate?
- 16. SocialRelationships Religious Coping Tendency to turn to religious beliefs and institutions in times of stress or trouble Primary means of coping for many Ethnic differences Gender differences
- 17. Social Relationships Religious Beliefs Religious beliefs linked to: Less worry Physical and mental health More successful life integration Income effects Social aspect necessary for sustained health Compliance with medical advice
- 18. Social Relationships Social Roles What affects roles in late adulthood? Physical and cognitive changes Ageism Peer prejudice Expectations and duties
- 19. Social Relationships Living Arrangements Most older adults prefer to live in private homes or aging in place Comprehensive home-based care has strong positive effects on elder’s physical and mental health
- 20. Figure 18.1 Older Adults’ Living Arrangement Figure 18.1
- 21. Living Arrangement Living with an Adult Child About 20% of elderly live with relatives, usually adult children. This is influenced by: Health Lower income elders Child gender and marital status Ethnicity
- 22. Living Arrangements Cultural Differences in Living Arrangements Filial piety: To love, honor, obey and respect parents and to advise, teach and care for them as they age In some cultures children have duty to care for elderly parents Common feature of Asian cultures
- 23. Living Arrangements Cultural Differences in Living Arrangements Filial Piety in Western Cultures Based on affection and attachment Motivated by spiritual and religious values Influenced by children’s social and financial resources
- 24. Living Arrangements Residential Options for Older Adults
- 25. Living Arrangements Residential Options for Older Adults Assisted Living Facility About 4% of older adults; average age 80 Most require help Nurses available Less stress and enhanced sense of well- being because help is nearby
- 26. Living Arrangements Residential Options for Older Adults Skilled Nursing Facilities 4% of adults live in nursing homes Help with multiple ADLs About half have dementia Continuing-care retirement communities offer aging in place
- 27. Looking at each of the four components of successful aging, what are some strategies you could employ to keep an elder loved one active and healthy? What are your feelings about filial piety? Will you be ready to care for your elders when it’s time? What would influence your decisions about what living arrangements you choose for elder parents? Questions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To Ponder
- 28. Social Relationships Partnerships Marriages and Partnerships Marriages tend to be based on loyalty, familiarity, companionship, and mutual investment in the relationship Similar effects in gay and lesbian relationships
- 29. Family Relationships Contacts with adult children 86% see at least one child at least once a week 65% live within one hour of at least one child Elders both give and receive social and financial support with children
- 30. Social Relationships Partnerships Influences Death of spouse Gender differences Remarriage Overall Married older adults have higher life satisfaction, better health, and lower rates of institutionalization
- 31. Family Relationships Effects of Relationships with Adult Children Position 1: Warm and close relationships with children are extremely important to elder’s sense of well-being Position 2: These relationships do not enhance happiness or health
- 32. Family Relationships Effects of Relationships with Adult Children More food for thought: Childless older couples are just as happy as those who have children Yes or no?
- 33. Family Relationships Grandchildren and Siblings As grandchildren become adults, contact with elders declines Sibling relationships may become more important with age Why do these relationships change?
- 34. Other Relationships Friendships What role do friendships play?
- 35. Other Relationships Gender and Ethnic Differences in Social Networks Gender differences in disclosure and intimacy Different configurations and network size between genders Ethnic differences
- 36. Career Issues in Late Life Retirement Issues and Impacts Timing and phases of retirement Reasons for retirement Income effects of retirement Poverty effects of retirement
- 37. Figure 18.2 Gender, Ethnicity and Poverty Rates among U.S. Elderly
- 38. Retirement Poverty Links to consider Ethnic group poverty rates Disability status Educational attainment Gender differences
- 39. Retirement Sources of Retirement Income Where’s the Money?
- 40. True or False It appears that retirement is the factor that predicts happiness and not the satisfaction with life in earlier adulthood.
- 41. Retirement Mobility Increased living choices upon retirement Amenity move Compensatory (kinship) migration Institutional migration
- 42. Retirement Decisions Choosing Not to Retire Elderly adults continue to work for many reasons Economic necessity Good health and professional commitment Perception of continued job satisfaction Opportunity to learn new job skills and remain productive
Editor's Notes
- Little research on adult’s ability to achieve acceptance Older adults do become more reflective and philosophical Those who achieve some degree of self-satisfaction less fearful of death Older adults respond to thwarted personal goals with sadness
- Ego Integrity: The sense that one has lived a useful life Must come to terms with Who she is and has been How her life has been lived The opportunities gained and lost Come to terms with death Despair Failure to achieve Ego Integrity can lead to hopelessness because of too little time to make meaningful changes
- Elders who do not have an inter-generational view of reminiscence do not engage in reminiscence as often as older peers. Researchers look at reminiscence and health Way of communicating older adult experiences to younger individuals
- The effects of activity are not large but are always positive. It is positive even for those elders whose interactions come with pain Activity theory Psychologically and physically healthiest response to old age is to maintain greatest possible level of activity and involvement in greatest number of roles Active adults Report slightly greater satisfaction with themselves and life Are healthiest Have highest morale Some socially isolated elders are content if they have an all-consuming hobby
- Disengagement Theory Shrinkage of life space Interact with fewer others and fill fewer social roles Increasing individuality Much less governed by strict rules or expectations Acceptance of these changes Actively disengage from roles and relationships versus Continuity Theory: maintain consistency in activities and interests
- Older adults reap benefits of healthy choices made earlier in life—diet, exercise, etc. If injured, older adults may face painful rehabilitation to improve recovery and resume activities Responding to health crises in a positive way makes difference in aging
- Cognitive adventurousness: willingness to learn new things Ageist self-stereotyping contributes to reluctance to use new technologies and can lead to cognitive decline
- Even elders with significant health or disabilities report more satisfaction with life if they are able to help others Nursing home residents report greater life satisfaction when they have frequent contact with family and friends Elders who help others and remain active in a community exhibit higher physical and emotional functioning Those who help others feel more satisfied with their own lives
- 10 – 30% of older adults are involved in volunteer activities. Older adults contribute more to school programs than any other group. Volunteerism Performing unpaid work for altruistic reasons linked to successful aging New pursuits offer productivity options Music lessons or art classes Attending college classes Gives a sense of purpose in life Provides a sense of competence
- We need continued focus on medical research to address issues in physical decline
- Sense of control important to a sense of personal well-being Perceived adequacy of social support important So is perceived adequacy of income Self-ratings of health can be critical Seeing others as having more problems than oneself also contributes to life satisfaction
- African Americans are higher in use May mitigate depression Women make more use of religious coping
- Older adults who are Christian, Buddhists, Moslems, Hindus, Taoists, and Sikhs are associated with better health Elders placing high emphasis on religious faith worry less Associations between religious faith and physical and mental health reported among diverse faiths Positive effects associated with how elders think about their lives Provides elders with a positive theme to integrate various periods of life Religious service attendance provides a social aspect necessary for sustained health Individuals who attend church more likely to comply with medical advice Possibly discuss medication regimes with peers Institutions provide Avenues for helping others Intergenerational opportunities Structure to pass on knowledge and beliefs to younger individuals Low-income elders often rely on divine power
- Older adults may be unjustly forced out of roles by younger adults Physical and cognitive changes affect roles Ageism affects roles “Looking old” can lead to negative stereotypes about competence Ageism applied to older women more than men Older adults may be prejudiced against their elder peers Elder roles have fewer expectations and duties Daily routines may no longer be structured by specific roles Risk of isolation or alienation
- See Figure 18.1 to look at variations across ethnic groups Most prefer to live in private homes Aging in place Modifying private residence responsive to changing needs Hiring a home health aid Changing normal environment is preferable to moving into an institution Comprehensive home-based care has strong positive effects on elder’s physical and mental health
- In the U.S. most older adults live with a spouse or alone but living arrangements vary to some degree across ethnic groups
- ADL’s – activities of daily living Influences Health – especially those who need help with with one or two activities of daily living (ADLs) Lower income elders more often live with children More likely to live with daughters; married adults more likely to take in elders Ethnicity – Hispanic Americans, African Americans, Asian Americans more likely to live with relatives
- In Japan, only 1/3 of older adults live alone or with a spouse Children have duty to care for elderly parents Common feature of Asian cultures Asian elders who live with children are less depressed Asian countries may not provide pension programs for elderly
- See in Figure 18.2, the majority of elders’ social contacts in the US involve interactions with family members. Children’s social and financial resources taken into account Adults, especially males, who must depend on children for financial help often experience emotional distress
- Independent living community: Apartment complex in which all residents are over a certain age, such as 55 Typically does not provide health care assistance Residents join together for social activities Approximately 4% of older adults live in assisted living facilities. Average age is 80.
- About 2% of older adults; average age 80 Most require help with one or two ADLs Nurses available around-the-clock Live in small apartments Elders report less stress and enhanced sense of well-being just knowing help is nearby
- Female in late 70’s or 80’s Continuing-care retirement communities New form offering multiple continuous levels of care from independent living to skilled nursing
- Older couples resolve conflicts in more affectionate and less negative ways. Those who spend more time with each other report high levels of happiness. In late adulthood, marriages tend to be based on loyalty, familiarity, companionship, and mutual investment in the relationship Higher levels of pleasure and less conflict Remarkable care older individuals give each other Similar effects in gay and lesbian relationships
- Death of spouse Men remarry at higher rates Older men more likely to date (more single older women than men are “available”) Both men and women benefit emotionally from remarriage Married older adults have higher life satisfaction, better health, and lower rates of institutionalization. Advantages greater for married older men
- Role prescriptions even in old age may lead to discrepancies in these findings. When with your children, you may still feel the need to live up to their demands and expectations.
- Students to discuss.
- Grandchildren are rarely a part of an elderly adult’s close family network. Sibling relationships may become more important with age Seldom provide practical assistance but Can provide emotional support Can be seen as “support of last resort”
- May provide assistance with daily tasks too
- These patterns are a continuation of a pattern evident across most of the lifespan Men’s friendships involve less disclosure and intimacy; women have larger networks BUT both sexes report similar satisfaction and emotional support from their social networks African Americans have warmer relationships with siblings Fictive kin: friends who acquire family member status Other ethnic groups report more extensive social networks than White Americans
- Those who are still supporting children retire later. Late marriages and raising grandchildren delays retirement. Poor pension plans means working longer even when health is an issue. Challenging and interesting work leads to later retirement. Timing of Retirement Decline in average age of retirement Most older adults plan on working part-time Multi-phase process: bridge jobs to retirement Reasons for Retirement Health Family composition and considerations Finances Work characteristics Level of enjoyment, “downsizing” Effects of retirement Elderly face a decline in income of roughly 25% after retirement Owning own home with no payments improves financial picture Medicare eligibility as well as Senior Citizen benefits help as well Sources of income – government pensions such as social security; other pensions; earnings from continued work. When all factors are figured in, incomes for retired adults in U.S., Australia, and most European countries is 85 -100% of pre-retirement levels. The most reliable predictor of when women retire is whether her husband has retired. Poverty rates have declined among the elderly in recent years Significant improvements in Social Security help More elderly are high school or college graduates than before Most had better jobs and earned more money before retirement than in the past
- See Figure 18.4 for ethnic group breakdown. Differences among ethnic group rates of poverty have declined although disparities remain Poverty associated with disability status Some current ethnic differences relate to educational attainment Among singles, older women more likely than older men to be poor Women less likely to have earned retirement benefits and, due to lower pay, have lower benefits
- False Health does not change simply because of retirement Retirement not seen as a stressor Retirement essentially no impact on overall life satisfaction or subjective well-being Those with the least control over decision to retire respond least well to retirement
- Elders who make amenity moves generally have more income, better health, happier marriages. These are 3 different kinds of moves made by quite different subsets of the population of elderly. Amenity move Made close to retirement Away from children Often towards warmer climate or the seaside May move seasonally Compensatory (kinship) migration EXAMPLE: Widow with disabilities moves closer to a child Institutional migration Movement to nursing home care