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Bee & Boyd, Lifespan Development, Chapter 7
- 1. Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood Chapter 7:
- 3. Physical Changes Growth and Motor Development In early childhood: Changes in height and weight happen more slowly during early childhood than infancy Impressive gains in major locomotor skills Manipulative skills improve but less so than major motor skills
- 4. Physical Changes Children’s Drawing Early training can accelerate rate children learn school-related fine-motor skills Older children benefit more from training more than younger Learning to write letters aids in letter understanding
- 5. Figure 7.1 Stages in Children’s Drawing
- 6. The Brain and Nervous System Lateralization Lateralization: left and right halves of the brain's cerebral cortex execute different functional specializations Contributes to important neurological milestones in early childhood
- 7. The Brain and the Nervous System • Basic outline of lateralization is genetically determined • Genes dictate functions to be lateralized • Experience shapes pace of lateralization Figure 7.2 Lateralization of Brain Function
- 8. The Brain and Nervous System Myelinization Myelinization: protective, fatty material wraps around nerve cells in the peripheral and central nervous system Reticular formation Hippocampus
- 9. The Brain and Nervous System Handedness Right or Left…Not right or wrong! 83% right-handed 14% left-handed 3% ambidextrous Appears very early in life Research suggests genetic link
- 10. Health and Wellness Eating patterns Preschoolers: Often eat less than when babies May not consume the majority of daily calories at mealtime Challenges: Food aversions may surface Eating behaviors bring on family conflicts
- 11. Health and Wellness Illnesses and Accidents Illness Each year, 4 – 6 bouts of brief sickness High levels of family stress more likely to produce sick children
- 12. Health and Wellness Illnesses and Accidents Accidents 25% of U.S. children under 5 have one accident in any one year requiring medical attention Most occur in home Major cause of death in preschoolers More common among boys
- 13. Abuse and Neglect Child abuse What is child abuse? Child Abuse: Physical or psychological injury resulting from adult’s intentional exposure of child to potentially harmful stimuli, sexual acts, or neglect
- 14. Abuse and Neglect Child Abuse Prevalence Prevalence Responsible for about 10% of emergency room visits Between 1% and 5% of children suffer physical abuse 2000 infants and children die each year as result of child abuse
- 15. Abuse and Neglect Risk factors Overview: Sociocultural factors Personal or cultural values that regard physical abuse as morally acceptable Cultural traditions that view children as property Communities that support these beliefs
- 16. True or False? Episodes of abuse are typically precipitated by everyday interactions between parent and child.
- 17. Abuse and Neglect Risk factors: Child Characteristics Characteristics of child Physical or mental disabilities Difficult temperaments Age
- 18. Abuse and Neglect Risk factors: Abuser Characteristics Characteristics of abuser Depressed Lacking in parenting skills and knowledge History of abuse themselves Substance abusers Live-in male partners
- 19. Abuse and Neglect Risk factors: Family Stress Family stress Poverty Unemployment Inter-parental conflicts The presence of several factors in combination increases likelihood of abuse
- 20. Abuse and Neglect Consequences of Abuse Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Delays in all developmental domains Children removed from the abusive situation typically appear to catch up within 1 year.
- 21. Abuse and Neglect Prevention Preventing abuse begins with education! Inform parents about consequences Parenting classes Identify families at risk Protect children from further injury
- 22. Cognitive Changes Piaget’s Preoperational Stage: Overview Preoperational Stage
- 23. Cognitive Changes Piaget’s Preoperational Stage: Centration Centration: tendency to think of world one variable at a time Use of animism or belief that inanimate objects are alive
- 24. Cognitive Changes Piaget’s Preoperational Stage: Egocentrism Egocentrism: child’s tendency to view things from own perspective Guided by object appearance May create frustration in communication Piaget Three-mountain task (See Figure 7.3)
- 25. Figure 7.3 Piaget’s Three Mountain Task
- 26. Cognitive Changes Piaget’s Preoperational Stage: Conservation Conservation: understanding that change in appearance can occur without change in quantity
- 27. Figure 7.4 Piaget’s Conservation Tasks
- 28. Cognitive Changes Children’s Play and Cognitive Development
- 29. Challenges to Piaget’s Views Do you agree or disagree? Children as young as 2 and 3 have at least some ability to understand that another person sees things or experiences things differently than they do.
- 30. Challenges to Piaget’s Views Emotions
- 31. Challenges to Piaget’s Views Flavell Flavell’s perspective-taking ability levels Level One – child knows that other people experience things differently: begins at 2 – 3 years Level Two –child develops a series of complex rules to figure out precisely what the other person sees or experiences: begins at 4 – 5 years
- 32. Theories of Mind Theory of Mind: understanding thoughts, desires, and beliefs of others
- 33. Theories of Mind
- 34. Theories of Mind
- 35. Theories of Mind Influences on Development of a Theory of Mind Correlated with: Performance on Piaget’s tasks Pretend play Shared pretense with other children Discussion of emotion-provoking events with parents Language skills and working memory Cross-cultural influences
- 36. Neo-Piagetian Theories: Robbie Case Short-term storage space (STSS) Operational efficiency Matrix Classification Task Let’s take a closer look at this task. Alternative Theories of Early Childhood Thinking
- 37. Figure 7.5 Neo-Piagetian Matrix Task
- 38. Alternative Theories of Early Childhood Thinking Information Processing Theories Metamemory: Knowledge about and control of memory processes Metacognition: Knowledge about and control of thought processes Scripts: Cognitive structures underlie behavior and emerge during middle childhood
- 39. Alternative Theories of Early Childhood Thinking Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory Overview Emphasis on role of social factors in cognitive development Problem solutions socially generated and learned Key principles: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and scaffolding
- 40. Alternative Theories of Early Childhood Thinking Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory Stages of Cognitive Development
- 41. Alternative Theories of Early Childhood Thinking Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory How are Vygotsky’s stages related to the eventual development of adult thinking? Each stage represents a step toward child’s internalization of ways of thinking used by adults around him or her.
- 42. Changes in Language Fast-mapping: Ability to categorically link new words to real word referents Occurs at about age 3 Rapid formation of hypothesis about new word’s meaning Remember: Word learning drives process of language development
- 43. Grammar Explosion: Period when grammatical features of child speech becomes more adultlike Inflections Questions and Negatives Overregularizations Complex sentences Changes in Language Grammar Explosion
- 44. Changes in Language Phonological Awareness Phonological awareness: Child’s sensitivity to sound patterns that are specific to a language Awareness of sounds represented by letters Learned in school through formal instruction Primarily developed through word play Related to invented spelling
- 45. Figure 7.6 Invented Spelling
- 46. Differences in Intelligence Measuring Intelligence • Alfred Binet • Lewis Terman: Intelligence Quotient (IQ) • Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children
- 47. Differences in Intelligence Something to Consider An important assumption in studying differences in intelligence is that these differences can be measured.
- 48. The Normal Curve IQ scores form a normal distribution – the famous “bell curve” with which you may be familiar. Can you explain what this bell curve tells us about IQ?
- 49. Differences in Intelligence Stability and Predictive Value of IQ Scores Correlation between IQ score and future grades is about .50 – .60. Consistent relationship are found within social classes and racial groups. IQ scores are quite stable BUT do not measure underlying competence.
- 50. Stop and think! A high level of predictability masks an interesting fact about children being tested. Do you know what this is?
- 51. Origins of Individual Differences in Intelligence Evidence of Heredity and Family Influences Heredity Twin and adoption studies findings Family Influences Adoption studies findings Family demographics and learning environments
- 52. Origins of Individual Differences in Intelligence Evidence for Preschool Influences Short- and long term outcomes from formal education programs Head Start outcomes Let’s look at the relationship between some early education programs and IQ scores.
- 53. Figure 7.8 Early Education and IQ Scores
- 54. Piaget sees the child as the little scientist who works on her own to discover knowledge. Vygotsky suggests children learn from skilled social partners in a social setting. Which theory or combination describes children the best? Why? What makes Head Start a successful program? Questions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To Ponder
- 55. Group Differences in Intelligence Test Scores Can you hypothesize why these findings occur? Higher scores than white children Chinese and Japanese children Lower scores than white children African American children Higher scores in all groups over two centuries Flynn Effect
Editor's Notes
- Child adds about 2 – 3 inches and 6 pounds per year Steady progress in major locomotor skills. See Table 7.1 for milestones in motor development from ages 2 to 6 years Manipulative skills improve. Fine motor control used for letters and drawing will improve enough during age 5 – 6 for school skills to be displayed. See Figure 7.1.
- Genes provide the mechanism for lateralization but experience provides the pace. Lateralization of language functions to the left hemisphere is tied to language production.
- Reticular formation Myelinization of RF important early childhood milestone; regulates attention and concentration Hippocampus Myelinization of H important in improvement of long term memory; transfer of information to long term memory
- Emerges between 2 and 6 years of age.
- Eat half as much as parents
- 4 – 6 bouts of sickness yearly – most often colds or flu Majority accidents occur at home (drowing age 1-4 years); motor vehicle (5+ years)
- 4 – 6 bouts of sickness yearly – most often colds or flu Majority accidents occur at home (drowing age 1-4 years); motor vehicle (5+ years)
- 2/3 of abuse results in physical injury. 25% involves sexual abuse. 5% involves neglect.
- 2/3 of abuse results in physical injury. 25% involves sexual abuse. 5% involves neglect.
- Episodes of abuse are typically precipitated by everyday interactions between parent and child, such as a child spilling milk.
- True
- Live-in male partners whose children are not theirs
- Related to quality of post-abuse environment
- Increased proficiency of symbol use (models, maps, graphics symbols)
- Child guided by own point of view
- Child guided by own point of view
- Ask: How would you explain each task to someone who has never heard of Piaget? Assessing child’s stage of cognitive development involves discovery of how they arrive at answer, not just evaluating answers as right or wrong
- Constructive play (2+ yrs) First pretend play (15-21 mos) Substitute pretend play (2-3 yrs) Sociodramatic play (4 yrs) Rule-governed play (5-6 yrs)
- Studies also suggest children regulate their emotions based on social expectations – a behavior not possible if children are completely egocentric.
- Reciprocal nature of thought is needed to form reciprocal friendships, and to develop social skills.
- Reciprocal nature of thought is needed to form reciprocal friendships, and to develop social skills.
- Language skills, such as knowledge of words like “want,” “need,” “think,” or “remember” are related to theory of mind. Children with disabilities – congenital deafness or mental retardation – develop a theory of mind more slowly. Some research suggests cross-cultural influences (level of industrialization)
- Operational Efficiency — the 7-year-old is better able to handle the processing demands of conservation tasks than is a 4-year-old because of improvements in operational efficiency. Short-term storage space (STSS) Refers to child’s working memory Operational efficiency Limited number of schemes to which a child can attend Improves through practice and brain maturation Matrix Classification Requires child to place a given stimulus in two categories simultaneously
- Child fails at task if she processes stimulus on 1 dimension; fails to reprocess on second Young child can learn to perform correctly but approach is quantitatively different from older children Older children use SS to think simultaneously about 2 dimensions
- Metamemory: Knowledge about and control of memory processes. 2 – 6-year-olds have poor strategies for memory Metacognition: Knowledge about and control of thought processes Enables the child to generate strategies to solve problems Both metamemory and metacognition improve during childhood. Scripts especially useful for managing demands of tasks with sequential steps
- Remember from Chapter Two, Vygotsky emphasizes social interactions as mechanisms for cognitive development.
- Remember from Chapter Two, Vygotsky emphasizes social interactions as mechanisms for cognitive development. Primitive stage Infant possesses mental processes “similar to animals” Learns primarily through conditioning Naïve psychology stage Learns to use language to communicate but does not understand symbols Private Speech stage Uses language as a guide to solve problems Internalized by 6-7 Ingrowth stage Logical thinking results from internalization of speech acquired from children and adults in a social world
- Remember from Chapter Two, Vygotsky emphasizes social interactions as mechanisms for cognitive development. Primitive stage Infant possesses mental processes “similar to animals” Learns primarily through conditioning Naïve psychology stage Learns to use language to communicate but does not understand symbols Private Speech stage Uses language as a guide to solve problems Internalized by 6-7 Ingrowth stage Logical thinking results from internalization of speech acquired from children and adults in a social world
- 2.5 year old – 600 word vocabulary. 5 – 6-year-old – vocabulary is as large as 15,000 words; 10 new words a day. Fast-mapping begins as early as 3 as children begin to think of groups of objects in a single class. Grammar Explosion – see Table 7.2, page 183.
- Inflections Additions that change meaning Earliest inflection in English is the addition of –ing: “Where going?” Questions and Negatives Use particular sets of rules Overregularization Using rules when they don’t apply Complex sentences Use conjunctions to combine two ideas or using imbedded clauses Strongly linked to vocabulary development. Inflections – add -s to cat to change meaning. Questions – learns to add with who, what, where and why to questions. Negatives – put in not, -n’t, or no but omit the auxiliary verb; for example, “ I not crying.”
- Awareness of sounds being represented by letters Can be learned in school through formal instruction The greater a child’s phonological awareness, the faster s/he learns to read Primarily develops through word play Nursery rhymes Games involving repetitive words Invented spelling – attempting to write
- Invented spelling required high level of phonological awareness “A snake came to visit our class”
- Binet and Simon – measured vocabulary, comprehension of facts and relationships, mathematical and verbal reasoning. Alfred Binet Identify children who might have difficulty in school Lewis Terman Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Mental age/chronological age x 100 = IQ 2/3 of children exhibit an IQ between 85 and 115 Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children Verbal scales Performance scales Working memory scales
- Correlations show a strong relationship between IQ and school performance. High intelligence, regardless of class, is associated with resiliency and the ability to develop the kind of self-confidence and personal competence to overcome obstacles. Lower IQ is associated with delinquency in adolescence, adult illiteracy, and criminal behavior.
- Many children show quite a wide fluctuation in their scores.
- Family Influences Adoption studies also provide support for environmental influences Children adopted in higher social class homes had higher IQ scores Parents of higher social class provide interesting and complex learning environments Age-appropriate play materials Warm and appropriate responses to behavior Descriptively rich language environments Quick in answering questions Talk to children often Avoid being excessively restrictive, punitive, or controlling Appreciation and encouragement for school achievement
- When an enrichment program is begun in infancy rather than at age 3 or 4, IQ scores remain elevated into adulthood. Head Start aids poor children and supports intellectual development Provide intellectual stimulation Help children to acquire new vocabulary Children show a gain of about 10 IQ points Long term impact on children Less likely to be placed in special education, repeat a grade
- What does the figure reveal? IQs of children enrolled in special programs higher at every level
- Chinese and Japanese children Demonstrate higher performance on achievement tests African American children consistently score lower than white children. Differences appear to be narrowing Fall within the reaction range of scores possible with different environments May reflect poverty differences Mixed-race adoptions studies support environmental influence Flynn Effect: over last two centuries IQ scores have increased in all groups; argues for environmental effects