BCE NOTES RGPV - TRINITY INST OF TECH AND RESEARCH BHOPAL (RGTU)

BTech- I Yr ..BASIC COMPUTER ENGINEERING (BT- 2005)
Compiled by - Dr Ilyas Khan
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TRINITY INST OF TECHNOLOGY AND RESEARCH, BHOPAL P a g e | 1
UNIT I
Computer: Definition, Classification, Organization i.e. CPU, register, Bus architecture,
Instruction set,Memory & Storage Systems, I/O Devices, and System & Application Software.
Computer Application ine-Business, Bio-Informatics, health Care, Remote Sensing & GIS,
Meteorology and Climatology,Computer Gaming, Multimedia and Animation etc. Operating
System: Definition, Function, Types, Management of File, Process & Memory. Introdcution
to MS word, MS powerpoint, MS Excel
UNIT II
Introduction to Algorithms, Complexities and Flowchart, Introduction to Programming,
Categories ofProgramming Languages, Program Design, Programming Paradigms,
Characteristics or Concepts of OOP,Procedure Oriented Programming VS object oriented
Programming.Introduction to C++: Character Set, Tokens, Precedence and Associativity,
Program Structure, Data Types,Variables, Operators, Expressions, Statements and control
structures, I/O operations, Array, Functions,
UNIT III
Object & Classes, Scope Resolution Operator, Constructors & Destructors, Friend Functions,
Inheritance,Polymorphism, Overloading Functions & Operators, Types of Inheritance,
Virtual functions.Introduction to Data Structures.
UNIT IV
Computer Networking: Introduction, Goals, ISO-OSI Model, Functions of Different Layers.
Internetworking Concepts, Devices, TCP/IP Model. Introduction to Internet, World Wide
Web, Ecommerce
Computer Security Basics: Introduction to viruses, worms, malware, Trojans, Spyware and Anti-
Spyware Software, Different types of attacks like Money Laundering, Information Theft,
CyberPornography, Email spoofing, Denial of Service (DoS), Cyber Stalking, ,Logic bombs,
HackingSpamming, Cyber Defamation , pharming Security measures Firewall, Computer Ethics
& Good Practices, Introduction of Cyber Laws about Internet Fraud, Good Computer
Security Habits,
UNIT V
Data base Management System: Introduction, File oriented approach and Database approach,
DataModels, Architecture of Database System, Data independence, Data dictionary, DBA,
Primary Key, Datadefinition language and Manipulation Languages.
Cloud computing: definition, cloud infrastructure, cloud segments or service delivery models
(IaaS, PaaSand SaaS), cloud deployment models/ types of cloud (public, private, community
and hybrid clouds), Prosand Cons of cloud computing

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UNIT –I
Computer
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as an input from the user and
processes it under the control of a set of instructions (called program), produces a result
(output), and saves it for future use
Functionalities of a Computer
If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the following five
functions −
Step 1 − Takes data as input.
Step 2 − Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.
Step 3 − Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
Step 4 − Generates the output.
Step 5 − Controls all the above four steps.
Advantages of Computers
Following are certain advantages of computers.
High Speed
 Computer is a very fast device.
 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.

 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the
picosecond.

 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will
spend many months to perform the same task.
Accuracy
 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
 The calculations are 100% error free.

 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is
correct. Storage Capability
 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
 A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.

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Diligence
 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of
concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.
Versatility
 A computer is a very versatile machine.
 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.

 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next
moment it may be playing a card game.
Reliability
 A computer is a reliable machine.
 Modern electronic components have long lives.

 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
Automation
 Computer is an automatic machine.

 Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer
receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the
program and instruction can control the program execution without human
interaction.
Reduction in Paper Work and Cost
 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper
work and results in speeding up the process.

 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of
maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.

 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially reduces
the cost of each of its transaction.
Disadvantages of Computers
Following are certain disadvantages of computers.
No I.Q.
 A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.
 Each instruction has to be given to the computer.
 A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
Dependency
 It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on humans.
Environment
 The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and
suitable. No Feeling
 Computers have no feelings or emotions.

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 It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike
humans.
Computer – Generations
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used.
Following are the main five generations of computers.
S.No Generation & Description
1 First Generation
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.
2 Second Generation
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.
3 Third Generation
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.
4 Fourth Generation
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.
5 Fifth Generation
The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based.
first generation
The period of first generation was from 1946-1959. The computers of first generation used
vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing
Unit). These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and the installations used to fuse
frequently. Therefore, they were very expensive and only large organizations were able to
afford it.
In this generation, mainly batch processing operating system was used. Punch cards, paper
tape, and magnetic tape was used as input and output devices. The computers in this
generation used machine code as the programming language.

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The main features of the first generation are −
 Vacuum tube technology
 Unreliable
 Supported machine language only
 Very costly
 Generated a lot of heat
 Slow input and output devices
 Huge size
 Need of AC
 Non-portable
 Consumed a lot of electricity
Some computers of this generation were −
 ENIAC
 EDVAC
 UNIVAC
 IBM-701
 IBM-650
second generation
The period of second generation was from 1959-1965. In this generation, transistors were
used that were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster
than the first generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores

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were used as the primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage
devices. In this generation, assembly language and high-level programming languages like
FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The computers used batch processing and multiprogramming
operating system.
The main features of second generation are −
 Use of transistors
 Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
 Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
 Generated less heat as compared to first generation computers
 Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
 Faster than first generation computers
 Still very costly
 AC required
 Supported machine and assembly languages
 IBM 1620
 IBM 7094
 CDC 1604
 CDC 3600
 UNIVAC 1108
third generation
The period of third generation was from 1965-1971. The computers of third generation used
Integrated Circuits (ICs) in place of transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors, and
capacitors along with the associated circuitry.
The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size, reliable,
and efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-sharing, multiprogramming operating

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system were used. High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC,
ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.
The main features of third generation are −
 IC used
 More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
 Smaller size
 Generated less heat
 Faster
 Lesser maintenance
 Costly
 AC required
 Consumed lesser electricity
 Supported high-level language
 IBM-360 series
 Honeywell-6000 series
 PDP (Personal Data Processor)
 IBM-370/168
 TDC-316
fourth generation
The period of fourth generation was from 1971-1980. Computers of fourth generation used
Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other
circuit elements with their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of fourth generation.
Fourth generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a
result, it gave rise to Personal Computer (PC) revolution. In this generation, time sharing, real

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time networks, distributed operating system were used. All the high-level languages like C,
C++, DBASE etc., were used in this generation.
The main features of fourth generation are −
 VLSI technology used
 Very cheap
 Portable and reliable
 Use of PCs
 Very small size
 Pipeline processing
 No AC required
 Concept of internet was introduced
 Great developments in the fields of networks
 Computers became easily available
 DEC 10
 STAR 1000
 PDP 11
 CRAY-1(Super Computer)
 CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)
fifth generation
The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, VLSI technology became
ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor
chips having ten million electronic components.
This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence)
software. AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets the means and

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method of making computers think like human beings. All the high-level languages like C and
C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this generation.
AI includes −
 Robotics
 Neural Networks
 Game Playing
 Development of expert systems to make decisions in real-life situations
 Natural language understanding and generation
The main features of fifth generation are −
 ULSI technology
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Development of Natural language processing
 Advancement in Parallel Processing
 Advancement in Superconductor technology
 More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates
Some computer types of this generation are −
 Desktop
 Laptop
 NoteBook
 UltraBook
 ChromeBook

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Computer – Types
Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.
S.No. Type Specifications
1
PC (Personal It is a single user computer system having moderately powerful
Computer) microprocessor
It is also a single user computer system, similar to personal computer
2 Workstation however has a more powerful microprocessor.
3 Mini Computer
It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting hundreds of
users simultaneously.
It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting hundreds of
4 Main Frame users simultaneously. Software technology is different from
minicomputer.
5 Supercomputer
It is an extremely fast computer, which can execute hundreds of
millions of instructions per second.
PC (Personal Computer)
A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user.
PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire
CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop
publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the
most popular use for personal computers is playing games and surfing the Internet.

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Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are normally
linked together to form a network. In terms of power, now-a-days high-end models of the
Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability as low-end
workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.
Workstation
Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing,
software development, and other such types of applications which require a moderate amount
of computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities.
Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large amount of
RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have
mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called diskless
workstation, comes without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC, workstations
are also single-user computers like PC but are typically linked together to form a local-area
network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.

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Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.
Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds or even
thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs concurrently and supports many
simultaneous execution of programs.

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Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very expensive
and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amount of mathematical calculations
(number crunching).
For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic
calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in
petrochemical prospecting).
Computer – Components
All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform the following five
basic operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users.
S.No. Operation Description
1 Take Input
The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.
2 Store Data
Saving data and instructions so that they are available for processing as
and when required.
3 Processing Data
Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to convert
them into useful information.
4
Output The process of producing useful information or results for the user, such
Information as a printed report or visual display.
5
Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are
workflow performed.

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Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer. This unit
creates a link between the user and the computer. The input devices translate the information
into a form understandable by the computer.
CPU (Central Processing Unit)
CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing
operations. It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program). It controls the
operation of all parts of the computer.
CPU itself has the following three components −
 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
 Memory Unit
 Control Unit
Output Unit
The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from the
computer. This unit is a link between the computer and the users. Output devices translate the
computer's output into a form understandable by the users.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −
 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

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CPU itself has following three components.
 Memory or Storage Unit
 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Memory or Storage Unit
This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information
to other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the
main memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two
types of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.

 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output
device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.
Control Unit
this unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual
data processing operations.
Functions of this unit are −
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units
of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.

 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation
of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.

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ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
This unit consists of two subsections namely,
 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the
above operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching,
and merging of data.
Input Devices
Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer −
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
 Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)
Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are
some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.

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Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108
keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows –
Typing Keys
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give the
Numeric Keypad
It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set
of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machines
Function Keys
The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row at
the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for
Control keys
These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys.
Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl),
Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
Special Purpose Keys
Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock,
Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.
Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a
small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and
sends corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present between
the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it
cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

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Advantages
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.
Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor
screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical
ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or
draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in
a small tube.
When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed,
its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal
to the CPU.

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Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can
be moved.
Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball
comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.
Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer
for further manipulation.
Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can
be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in

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a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera
had been pointed at.
Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data
into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image
manipulation applications.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.
The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.
Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine
readable.

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this reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main advantages
of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.
Optical Character Reader (OCR)
OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.
OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine readable
code, and stores the text on the system memory.
Bar Code Readers
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be
a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.

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Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then
fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.
It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions.
Output Devices
Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.
 Monitors
 Graphic Plotter
 Printer
Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form.
The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

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There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat-Panel Display
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the
better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole
character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.
A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided
into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can
be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25
lines vertically.
There are some disadvantages of CRT −
 Large in Size

 High power consumption 
 Flat-Panel Display 

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on
your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors,
laptop computer, and graphics display.

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The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −
 Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).

 Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or
light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal
Device).
Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers −
 Impact Printers

 Non-Impact Printers
Impact Printers

Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on
the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −
 Very low consumable costs
 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types −
 Character printers
 Line printers
Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:
 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
 Daisy Wheel

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Dot Matrix Printer
In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are
popular because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in the
form of pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9)
which come out to form a character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages
 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality
Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower)
which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-
processing in offices that require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.
Advantages

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 More reliable than DMP
 Better quality
 Fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages
 Slower than DMP
 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP
Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
These are of two types −
 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer
Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum is
divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper
width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track.
Different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set.
One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000
lines per minute.
Advantages
 Very high speed
Disadvantages
 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain Printer
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard
character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
 Character fonts can easily be changed.

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 Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages
 Noisy
Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a
complete page at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types −
 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
 Faster than impact printers
 They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form
the characters to be printed on a page.
Advantages
 Very high speed
 Very high quality output
 Good graphics quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages

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 Expensive
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They
print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality
output with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce
multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages
 High quality printing
 More reliable
Disadvantages
 Expensive as the cost per page is high
 Slow as compared to laser printer
Computer - Memory
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer
memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions
required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts
called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size
minus one. For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024
= 65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types −
 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory

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Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It
acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data
and program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can
access them.
Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows −
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently
working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally
made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and
instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two
subcategories RAM and ROM.

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Characteristics of Main Memory
 These are semiconductor memories.
 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the
main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not
access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of
secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it.
For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
 These are magnetic and optical memories.
 It is known as the backup memory.

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 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.
Random Access Memory
RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program,
and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working.
As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the
RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with
computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can
hold.
RAM is of two types −
 Static RAM (SRAM)
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being
supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips
use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent
leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis.
There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as cache
memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of Static RAM

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 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done
by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per
second. DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made
up of memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor. Characteristics of
Dynamic RAM
 Short data lifetime
 Needs to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption
Computer - Read Only Memory
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot
write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a
computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the
computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

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Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.
MROM (Masked ROM);
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory):
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there
are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once
and is not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.
Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is
trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than 10 years because the
charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz
crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal
use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten
thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In
EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased
one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is
flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows −
 Non-volatile in nature
 Cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 Static and do not require refreshing
 Contents are always known and can be verified

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Computer - Software
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program
is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.
There are two types of software −
 System Software
 Application Software
System Software
The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the
processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the
computer manufacturers. These software products comprise of programs written in low-level
languages, which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as
the interface between the hardware and the end users.
Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers,
etc.
Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −
 Close to the system
 Fast in speed
 Difficult to design
 Difficult to understand
 Less interactive
 Smaller in size
 Difficult to manipulate
 Generally written in low-level language

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Application Software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular
environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the
category of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad for writing
and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a
software package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.
Examples of Application software are the following −
 Payroll Software
 Student Record Software
 Inventory Management Software
 Income Tax Software
 Railways Reservation Software
 Microsoft Office Suite Software
 Microsoft Word
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft PowerPoint
Features of application software are as follows −
 Close to the user
 Easy to design
 More interactive
 Slow in speed
 Generally written in high-level language
 Easy to understand
 Easy to manipulate and use
 Bigger in size and requires large storage space

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Computer - Applications
Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which
has made it an integrated part in all business organizations.
Computer is used in business organizations for −
 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting
 Managing employee database
 Maintenance of stocks, etc.
Banking

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Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.
Banks provide the following facilities −
 Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making deposits
and overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, and trustee records.

 ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier for
customers to deal with banks.
Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. Insurance
companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their
concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing −
 Procedure to continue with policies
 Starting date of the policies
 Next due installment of a policy
 Maturity date
 Interests due
 Survival benefits
 Bonus
Education
The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.

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 The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based
Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.

 There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a computer to
educate the students.

 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried
out on this basis.
Marketing
In marketing, uses of the computer are following −
 Advertising − With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write
and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.

 Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made possible through the use of
computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and permit direct
entry of orders to be filled by the customers.
Healthcare
Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are being
used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and
diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are also done by
computerized machines.
Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used.
 Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data and identify the cause of
illness.

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 Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the reports are prepared by
computer.

 Patient Monitoring System − These are used to check the patient's signs for
abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.

 Pharma Information System − Computer is used to check drug labels, expiry dates,
harmful side effects, etc.
 Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.
Engineering Design
Computers are widely used for Engineering purpose.
One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that provides creation and
modification of images. Some of the fields are −
 Structural Engineering − Requires stress and strain analysis for design of ships,
buildings, budgets, airplanes, etc.

 Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design, implementation, and
improvement of integrated systems of people, materials, and equipment.

 Architectural Engineering − Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings,
determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.
Military

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Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military also
employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used
are −
 Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons
Communication
Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is received
and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in
this category are −
 E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
 FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing

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Government
Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this category
are −
 Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Computation of male/female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather forecasting
Instruction set
An instruction set is a group of commands for a CPU in machine language. The term can refer to
all possible instructions for a CPU or a subset of instructions to enhance its performance in
certain situations.
All CPUs have instruction sets that enable commands to the processor directing the CPU to
switch the relevant transistors. Some instructions are simple read, write and movecommands
that direct data to different hardware.
In CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) processors there is also a microcode layer, which
involves programmable instructions stored in fast memory that may be updated. The RISC
(Reduced Instruction Set Computer) architecture, on the other hand, has hard-wired control; it
does not require microcode but has a greater base instruction set.

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BUS
Inside computers, there are many internal components. In order for these components to
communicate with each other they make use of wires that are known as a ‘bus’ .
A bus is a common pathway through which information flows from one computer component
to another. This pathway is used for communication purpose and it is established between two
or more computer components
functions of buses in computers
1. Data sharing - All types of buses found in a computer transfer data between the
computer peripherals connected to it.
The buses transfer or send data in either serial or parallel method of data transfer. This allows
for the exchange of 1, 2, 4 or even 8 bytes of data at a time. (A byte is a group of 8 bits). Buses
are classified depending on how many bits they can move at the same time, which means
that we have 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit or even 64-bit buses.
2. Addressing - A bus has address lines, which match those of the processor. This allows data
to be sent to or from specific memory locations.
3. Power - A bus supplies power to various peripherals connected to it.
4. Timing - The bus provides a system clock signal to synchronize the peripherals attached to it
with the rest of the system.
Computers have two major types of buses:
1. System bus:- This is the bus that connects the CPU to main memory on the
motherboard. The system bus is also called the front-side bus, memory bus, local bus, or
host bus.
2. A number of I/O Buses, (I/O is an acronym for input / output), connecting various peripheral
devices to the CPU. These devices connect to the system bus via a ‘bridge’ implemented in the
processors chipset. Other names for the I/O bus include “expansion bus", "external bus” or
“host bus”.

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The System Bus
The System Bus is one of the four major components of a computer.
A data bus will contain actual data that has either just been read from memory or is about to
be written to a memory location. A data bus is bi-directional, which means that information can
either be written or read using the bus lines.
An address bus contains location information. Address bus is unidirectional and usually the
main processing unit writes location information on it of where data will be read from or
written to.
A control bus will transmit commands or control signals between different components. The
data present on a control bus will determine the period for which a device can access the other
busses and one or more command signals that will determine what kind of operation the
device has to execute.
Expansion Bus Types
These are some of the common expansion bus types that have ever been used in computers:
 ISA - Industry Standard Architecture

 EISA - Extended Industry Standard Architecture

 MCA - Micro Channel Architecture

 VESA - Video Electronics Standards Association

 PCI - Peripheral Component Interconnect

 PCMCIA - Personal Computer Memory Card Industry Association (Also called PC bus)

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 AGP - Accelerated Graphics Port

 SCSI - Small Computer Systems Interface.
Operating System
The Operating System is a program with the following features −
 An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software and
the computer hardware.

 It is an integrated set of specialized programs used to manage overall resources and
operations of the computer.

 It is a specialized software that controls and monitors the execution of all other
programs that reside in the computer, including application programs and other system
software.
Objectives of Operating System
The objectives of the operating system are −
 To make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner.
 To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.
 To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.

 To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making it easier for the
users to access and use other resources.

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 To manage the resources of a computer system.

 To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, and
mediating conflicting requests from different programs and users.
 To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs.
Characteristics of Operating System
Here is a list of some of the most prominent characteristic features of Operating Systems −
 Memory Management − Keeps track of the primary memory, i.e. what part of it is in
use by whom, what part is not in use, etc. and allocates the memory when a process or
program requests it.

 Processor Management − Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process and deallocates
the processor when it is no longer required.

 Device Management − Keeps track of all the devices. This is also called I/O controller
that decides which process gets the device, when, and for how much time.

 File Management − Allocates and de-allocates the resources and decides who gets the
resources.

 Security − Prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of passwords
and other similar techniques.
 Job Accounting − Keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs and/or users.

 Control Over System Performance − Records delays between the request for a service
and from the system.

 Interaction with the Operators − Interaction may take place via the console of the
computer in the form of instructions. The Operating System acknowledges the same,
does the corresponding action, and informs the operation by a display screen.

 Error-detecting Aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other
debugging and error-detecting methods.

 Coordination Between Other Software and Users − Coordination and assignment of
compilers, interpreters, assemblers, and other software to the various users of the
computer systems
Operating system types
 Batch operating system

 Time-sharing operating systems

 Distributed operating System

 Network operating System

 Real Time operating System

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Batch operating system
The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each user
prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator.
To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a group. The
programmers leave their programs with the operator and the operator then sorts the programs
with similar requirements into batches.
The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −
 Lack of interaction between the user and the job.

 CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower than
the CPU.
 Difficult to provide the desired priority.
Time-sharing operating systems
Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a
particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical
extension of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among multiple users
simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.
The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is
that in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to maximize processor use,
whereas in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimize response time.
Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches occur so
frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response. For example, in a transaction
processing, the processor executes each user program in a short burst or quantum of
computation. That is, if nusers are present, then each user can get a time quantum. When the
user submits the command, the response time is in few seconds at most.
The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a
small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily as batch systems have
been modified to time-sharing systems.
Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −
 Provides the advantage of quick response.
 Avoids duplication of software.
 Reduces CPU idle time.
Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −
 Problem of reliability.
 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
 Problem of data communication.
Distributed operating System
Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time applications
and multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly.

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The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as
high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or
distributed systems. Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These
processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.
The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −
 With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the
resources available at another.
 Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.

 If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially
continue operating.
 Better service to the customers.
 Reduction of the load on the host computer.
 Reduction of delays in data processing.
Network operating System
A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability to
manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. The
primary purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared file and printer access
among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private
network or to other networks.
Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft
Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.
The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −
 Centralized servers are highly stable.
 Security is server managed.
 Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the system.
 Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of systems.
The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −
 High cost of buying and running a server.
 Dependency on a central location for most operations.
 Regular maintenance and updates are required.
Real Time operating System
A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval required
to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. The time taken
by the system to respond to an input and display of required updated information is termed as
the response time. So in this method, the response time is very less as compared to online
processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a
processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a
dedicated application. A real-time operating system must have well-defined, fixed time
constraints, otherwise the system will fail. For example, Scientific experiments, medical

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imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control
systems, etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.
>> Hard real-time systems
Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time
systems, secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM. In these
systems, virtual memory is almost never found.
>> Soft real-time systems
Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks
and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard
real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like
undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc
MS WORD
MS WORD is used for Word Processing. It is windows version developed by Microsoft. It is a
part of MS-Office package.
It is an application Software that is designed for the entry, editing, and printing of documents
Word processing documents include: E-mail , One page flyers , Reports , Mail Merges , Faxes ,
Memorandums , Letters
Features
 Character formatting
 Paragraph formatting
 Wizards- step by step tutorial
 Thesaurus
 Spell checker
 Grammar Checker
 Mail merge
 Auto correct
 Auto text
 Etc

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
Microsoft Excel
It is a spreadsheet developed by Microsoft for Windows, macOS, Android and iOS. It features
calculation, graphing tools, pivot tables, and a macro programming language called Visual Basic
for Applications. It has been a very widely applied spreadsheet for these platforms, especially
since version 5 in 1993, and it has replaced Lotus 1-2-3 as the industry standard for
spreadsheets.
Microsoft Excel is an Electronic Spreadsheet Computer Program.

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Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program that is used to record and analyse numerical data.
Think of a spreadsheet as a collection of columns and rows that form a table. Alphabetical
letters are usually assigned to columns and numbers are usually assigned to rows. The point
where a column and a row meet is called a cell. The address of a cell is given by the letter
representing the column and the number representing a row. Let's illustrate this using the
following image.
We all deal with numbers in one way or the other. We all have daily expenses which we pay for
from the monthly income that we earn. For one to spend wisely, they will need to know their
income vs. expenditure. Microsoft Excel comes in handy when we want to record, analyze and
store such numeric data.

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Ribbon and Tabs in Excel
Ribbon is on the top of worksheet, below the title bar or name of the excel file. It
contains seven tabs: Home, Insert, Page Layout, Formulas, Data, Review and View.
Each tab has its own specific groups of related commands. These groups have several additional
commands that can be viewed by clicking the arrow at the right bottom corner of any group.
There are many tabs available in Microsoft Excel: Home, Insert, Page Layout, Formula,
Data, Review and View. Each tab has different features.
The features of the Home tab are:
Clipboard, Font, Alignment, Number, Cells and Editing

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The features of the Insert tab are:
Tables, Illustrations, Charts, Links, Text
The features of the Page Layout tab are:
Themes, Page Setup, Scale to Fit, Sheet Options and Arrange

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The features in the Formula tab are:
Function Library, Defined Names, Formula Auditing, Calculation
The features in the Data tab are:
Get External Data, Connections, Sort & Filter, Data Tools and Outline

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The features of the Review tab are:
Proofing, Comments and Changes
The features of the View tab are:
Workbook Views, Show/Hide, Zoom, Window and Macros

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Worksheet
Worksheet is also called spreadsheet. It is made up of rows, columns and cells.

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Rows
Rows run horizontally across the worksheet and ranges from 1 to 1048576. A row is identified
by the number that is on left side of the row, from where the row originates.
Columns
Columns run vertically downward across the worksheet and ranges from A to XFD - 1 to
16384. A column is identified by a column header that is on the top of the column, from where
the column originates.
Cells
Cells are small boxes in the worksheet where we enter data. A cell is the intersection of a row
and column. It is identified by row number and column header such as A1, A2.
How to enter data in Excel
Select a cell with a single click where you want to enter data; cell B3 is selected in the image
given below. Then double click in the cell to enter data. You can enter text, numbers and
formulas in the cell.
After entering data, you can press Tab key to move to next column and can press Enter key
to move to next row. You can press arrow keys for more options to move to other cells.

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How to select data in Excel
There are various options to select data. The most common way is a left click on the cell then
dragging the mouse over the data you want to select. Start from the upper-left cell of the data,
as cell B3 in the image given below:

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MS- PowerPoint
PowerPoint is the powerful and ubiquitous presentation program from Microsoft. It gives you
the facility to create stunning presentations that incorporate video and PowerPoint animations.
The image editing capabilities that PowerPoint offer get better and better with every new
version.
Microsoft PowerPoint is a software program developed by Microsoft to produce effective
presentations. It is a part of Microsoft Office suite. The program comprises slides and various
tools like word processing, drawing, graphing and outlining. Thus it can display text, table,
chart, graphics and media in the slides.
There are three main features of the Microsoft PowerPoint window that you need to focus
upon while learning PowerPoint. These features are Microsoft Office Button, Quick Access
Toolbar and Ribbon.
Microsoft Office Button is located on the upper-left corner of the PowerPoint window.
See the image:
When you click the button it displays a menu with multiple options to perform different tasks.
See the image:

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New: To create a new presentation
Open: To open an existing presentation
Save: To save changes made in the open presentation
Save As: To save the presentation with a specific name to a preferred location in the computer
Print: To print the hard copy of the open presentation
Prepare: To prepare the presentation for distribution
Send: To send the copy of the presentation to others
Publish: To distribute the presentation to others
Close: To close the open presentation
Quick Access Toolbar
It is located beside the Microsoft Office Button. By default it shows three commands; Save,
Undo and Redo.
See the image:

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When you click the drop-down arrow at the right end of Quick Access Toolbar it offers more
commands. The desired command out of these commands can be added to Quick Access
Toolbar with a left click on it.
See the image:
You can also add the Office Button and Ribbon commands. Just right click the command
and select the "Add to Quick Access Toolbar" option. See the image, the command New
Slide is added to Quick Access Toolbar.

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Ribbon and Tabs
Ribbon is located on the top of the PowerPoint window just below the Title bar. It is made up of
seven tabs; Home, Insert, Design, Animations, Slide Show, Review and View. Each tab is divided
into groups of related commands that are displayed on the Ribbon. To view additional
commands of a group click the arrow at the right bottom corner of the group.
See the image:
Slide, Placeholder and Notes
Slide: Presentation is created on slides. It lies in the centre of the PowerPoint window.
Placeholder: By default two placeholders appear in the slide when you open the PowerPoint.
Click to add notes: This space is provided to create notes if needed.
See the image:

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UNIT II
Introduction to Algorithms, Complexities and Flowchart, Introduction to Programming,
Categories of Programming Languages, Program Design, Programming Paradigms,
Characteristics or Concepts of OOP,Procedure Oriented Programming VS object
oriented Programming.Introduction to C++: Character Set, Tokens, Precedence and
Associativity, Program Structure, Data Types,Variables, Operators, Expressions,
Statements and control structures, I/O operations, Array, Functions,
Algorithm
Algorithm is a step-by-step procedure, which defines a set of instructions to be
executed in a certain order to get the desired output. Algorithms are generally created
independent of underlying languages, i.e. an algorithm can be implemented in more
than one programming language.
From the data structure point of view, following are some important categories of
algorithms −
 Search − Algorithm to search an item in a data structure.
 Sort − Algorithm to sort items in a certain order.
 Insert − Algorithm to insert item in a data structure.
 Update − Algorithm to update an existing item in a data structure.
 Delete − Algorithm to delete an existing item from a data structure.
Characteristics of an Algorithm
Not all procedures can be called an algorithm. An algorithm should have the following
characteristics −
 Unambiguous − Algorithm should be clear and unambiguous. Each of its steps
(or phases), and their inputs/outputs should be clear and must lead to only one
meaning.
 Input − An algorithm should have 0 or more well-defined inputs.
 Output − An algorithm should have 1 or more well-defined outputs, and should
match the desired output.
 Finiteness − Algorithms must terminate after a finite number of steps.
 Feasibility − Should be feasible with the available resources.
 Independent − An algorithm should have step-by-step directions, which should
be independent of any programming code.
Example− Design an algorithm to add two numbers and display the result.
the algorithm can be written as −
step 1 − START
step 2 − get values of a & b
step 3 − c ← a + b

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step 4 − display c
step 5 − STOP
Algorithm Analysis
Efficiency of an algorithm can be analyzed at two different stages, before
implementation and after implementation. They are the following −
 A Priori Analysis − This is a theoretical analysis of an algorithm. Efficiency of an
algorithm is measured by assuming that all other factors, for example, processor
speed, are constant and have no effect on the implementation.
 A Posterior Analysis − This is an empirical analysis of an algorithm. The
selected algorithm is implemented using programming language. This is
then executed on target computer machine. In this analysis, actual statistics
like running time and space required, are collected.
We shall learn about a priori algorithm analysis. Algorithm analysis deals with the
execution or running time of various operations involved.
Algorithm Complexity
Suppose X is an algorithm and n is the size of input data, the time and space used by
the algorithm X are the two main factors, which decide the efficiency of X.
 Time Factor − Time is measured by counting the number of key operations
such as comparisons in the sorting algorithm.
 Space Factor − Space is measured by counting the maximum memory space
required by the algorithm.
The complexity of an algorithm f(n) gives the running time and/or the storage space
required by the algorithm in terms of n as the size of input data.
Space Complexity
Space complexity of an algorithm represents the amount of memory space required by
the algorithm in its life cycle. The space required by an algorithm is equal to the sum of
the following two components −

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 A fixed part that is a space required to store certain data and variables, that
are independent of the size of the problem. For example, simple variables and
constants used, program size, etc.
 A variable part is a space required by variables, whose size depends on the size
of the problem. For example, dynamic memory allocation, recursion stack
space, etc.
Space complexity S(P) of any algorithm P is S(P) = C + SP(I),
where C is the fixed part and S(I) is the variable part of the algorithm, which depends
on instance characteristic I.
Following is a simple example that tries to explain the concept −
Algorithm: SUM(A, B)
Step 1 - START
Step 2 - C ← A + B + 10
Step 3 - Stop
Here we have three variables A, B, and C and one constant. Hence S(P) = 1 + 3.
Now, space depends on data types of given variables and constant types and it will be
multiplied accordingly.
Time Complexity
Time complexity of an algorithm represents the amount of time required by
the algorithm to run to completion.
Time requirements can be defined as a numerical function T(n), where T(n) can be
measured as the number of steps, provided each step consumes constant time.
For example, addition of two n-bit integers takes n steps. Consequently, the total
computational time is T(n) = c ∗ n, where c is the time taken for the addition of two bits.
Here, we observe that T(n) grows linearly as the input size increases.

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Example Space Complexity:
Suppose we want to add two integer numbers. To solve this problem we have following
two algorithms:
Algorithm 1: Algorithm
2:Step 1- Input A. Step 1- Input A.
Step 2- Input B. Step 2- Input B.
Step 3- Set C: = A+ B. Step 3- Write: ‗Sum is ‗, A+B.
Step 4- Write: ‗Sum is ‗, C. Step 4- Exit.
Step 5- Exit.
Both algorithms will produce the same result. But first takes 6 bytes and second takes 4
bytes (2 bytes for each integer). And first has more instructions than the second one. So
we will choose the second one as it takes less space than the first one.
Example Time Complexity:
Suppose we want to add two integer numbers. To solve this problem we have following
two algorithms:
Algorithm 1: Algorithm 2:
Step 1- Input A. Step 1- Input A.
Step 2- Input B. Step 2- Input B.
Step 3- Set C: = A+ B. Step 3- Write: ‗Sum is ‗, A+B.
Step 4- Write: ‗Sum is ‗, C. Step 4- Exit.
Step 5- Exit.
Suppose 1 second is required to execute one instruction. So the first algorithm will take
4 seconds and the second algorithm will take 3 seconds for execution. So we will
choose the second one as it will take less time.
Asymptotic Analysis for Algorithm Complexity
Asymptotic analysis of an algorithm refers to defining the mathematical
boundation/framing of its run-time performance. Using asymptotic analysis, we can very
well conclude the best case, average case, and worst case scenario of an algorithm.
Asymptotic analysis is input bound i.e., if there's no input to the algorithm, it is
concluded to work in a constant time. Other than the "input" all other factors are
considered constant.
Asymptotic analysis refers to computing the running time of any operation in
mathematical units of computation. For example, the running time of one operation is
computed as f(n) and may be for another operation it is computed as g(n
2
). This means
the first operation running time will increase linearly with the increase in n and the
running time of the second operation will increase exponentially when n increases.

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Similarly, the running time of both operations will be nearly the same if n is significantly
small.
Usually, the time required by an algorithm falls under three types −
 Best Case − Minimum time required for program execution.

 Average Case − Average time required for program execution.

 Worst Case − Maximum time required for program execution.
Asymptotic Notations
The running time of an algorithm depends on how long it takes a computer to run the
lines of code of the algorithm—and that depends on the speed of the computer, the
programming language, and the compiler that translates the program from the
programming language into code that runs directly on the computer, among other
factors.
Let's think about the running time of an algorithm more carefully. We can use a
combination of two ideas. First, we need to determine how long the algorithm takes, in
terms of the size of its input. This idea makes intuitive sense, doesn't it? We've already
seen that the maximum number of guesses in linear search and binary search
increases as the length of the array increases. Or think about a GPS. If it knew about
only the interstate highway system, and not about every little road, it should be able to
find routes more quickly, right? So we think about the running time of the algorithm as
a function of the size of its input.
The second idea is that we must focus on how fast a function grows with the input
size. We call this the rate of growth of the running time. To keep things manageable,
we need to simplify the function to distill the most important part and cast aside the
less important parts. For example, suppose that an algorithm, running on an input of
size nnn, takes 6n^2 + 100n + 3006n2+100n+3006, n, start superscript, 2, end
superscript, plus, 100, n, plus, 300 machine instructions. The 6n^26n26, n, start
superscript, 2, end superscript term becomes larger than the remaining terms, 100 n +
300100n+300100, n, plus, 300, once nnn becomes large enough, 20 in this case.
Here's a chart showing values of 6n^26n26, n, start superscript, 2, end
superscript and 100n + 300100n+300100, n, plus, 300 for values of nnn from 0 to 100:

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6n^2 vs 100n+300
We would say that the running time of this algorithm grows as n^2n2n, start superscript,
2, end superscript, dropping the coefficient 6 and the remaining terms 100n +
300100n+300100, n, plus, 300. It doesn't really matter what coefficients we use; as
long as the running time is an^2 + bn + can2+bn+ca, n, start superscript, 2, end
superscript, plus, b, n, plus, c, for some numbers a > 0a>0a, is greater than, 0, bbb,
and ccc, there will always be a value of nnn for which an^2an2a, n, start superscript, 2,
end superscript is greater than bn + cbn+cb, n, plus, c, and this difference increases
as nnn increases. For example, here's a chart showing values of 0.6n^20.6n20, point, 6,
n, start superscript, 2, end superscript and 1000n + 30001000n+30001000, n, plus,
3000 so that we've reduced the coefficient of n^2n2n, start superscript, 2, end
superscript by a factor of 10 and increased the other two constants by a factor of 10:

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6n^2 vs 100n+300
The value of nnn at which 0.6n^20.6n20, point, 6, n, start superscript, 2, end
superscript becomes greater than 1000n + 30001000n+30001000, n, plus, 3000 has
increased, but there will always be such a crossover point, no matter what the
constants.
By dropping the less significant terms and the constant coefficients, we can focus on
the important part of an algorithm's running time—its rate of growth—without getting
mired in details that complicate our understanding. When we drop the constant
coefficients and the less significant terms, we use asymptotic notation. We'll see three
forms of it: big-ThetaΘ notation, big-O notation, and big-OmegaΩ notation.
Common Asymptotic Notations
Following is a list of some common asymptotic notations −
constant − Ο(1)
logarithmic − Ο(log n)
linear − Ο(n)

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n log n − Ο(n log n)
quadratic − Ο(n
2
)
cubic − Ο(n
3
)
polynomial − n
Ο(1)
exponential − 2
Ο(n)
flowchart
A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents an algorithm
Flowcharts use special shapes to represent different types of actions or steps in a
process. Lines and arrows show the sequence of the steps, and the relationships
among them. These are known as flowchart symbols.
The type of diagram dictates the flowchart symbols that are used. For example, a data
flow diagram may contain an Input/Output Symbol (also known as an I/O Symbol), but
you wouldn't expect to see it in most process flow diagrams.
Over the years, as technology has evolved, so has flowcharting. Some flowchart
symbols that were used in the past to represent computer punchcards, or punched tape,
have been relegated to the dustbin of history.

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Example.
1. Flowchart to Add 10 and 20
To solve this problem we will take a variable sum and set it to zero. Then we will take
the two numbers 10 and 20 as input. Next we will add both the numbers and save the
result in the variable sum i.e., sum = 10 + 20. Finally, we will print the value stored in the
variable sum.

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2. Find the sum of 5 numbers

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3. Print Hello World 10 times
4. Draw a flowchart to log in to facebook account

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Introduction to Programming
Computer programming is the act of writing computer programs, which are
a sequence of instructions written using a Computer Programming
Language to perform a specified task by the computer.
A computer program is a sequence of instructions written using a Computer
Programming Language to perform a specified task by the computer.
 A computer program is also called a computer software, which can
range from two lines to millions of lines of instructions.

 Computer program instructions are also called program source code
and computer programming is also called program coding.

 A computer without a computer program is just a dump box; it
is programs that make computers active.
here are hundreds of programming languages, which can be used to write
computer programs and following are a few of them −
 Java
 C
 C++
 Python
 PHP
 Perl
 Ruby
Etc.
Today computer programs are being used in almost every field, household,
agriculture, medical, entertainment, defense, communication, etc. Listed
below are a few applications of computer programs −
 MS Word, MS Excel, Adobe Photoshop, Internet Explorer,
Chrome, etc., are examples of computer programs.

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 Computer programs are being used to develop graphics and special
effects in movie making.

 Computer programs are being used to perform Ultrasounds, X-Rays,
and other medical examinations.

Computer programs are being used in our mobile phones for SMS,
Chat, and voice communication.
Types of Computer Languages with Their Advantages and
Disadvantages
Low-Level Language/Machine Language
Machine language is the lowest and most elementary level of programming language
and was the first type of programming language to be developed. Machine language is
basically the only language that a computer can understand and it is usually written in
hex.
In fact, a manufacturer designs a computer to obey just one language, its machine
code, which is represented inside the computer by a string of binary digits (bits) 0 and 1.
The symbol 0 stands for the absence of an electric pulse and the 1 stands for the
presence of an electric pulse. Since a computer is capable of recognizing electric
signals, it understands machine language.
Advantages Disadvantages
Machine language makes fast
and efficient use of the
computer.
All operation codes have to be
remembered
It requires no translator to
translate the code. It is directly
understood by the computer.
All memory addresses have to
be remembered.
It is hard to amend or find
errors in a program written in
the machine language.

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Assembly Language
Assembly language was developed to overcome some of the many inconveniences of
machine language. This is another low-level but very important language in which
operation codes and operands are given in the form of alphanumeric symbols instead of
0‘s and l‘s.
These alphanumeric symbols are known as mnemonic codes and can combine in a
maximum of five-letter combinations e.g. ADD for addition, SUB for subtraction, START,
LABEL etc. Because of this feature, assembly language is also known as ‗Symbolic
Programming Language.'
This language is also very difficult and needs a lot of practice to master it because there
is only a little English support in this language. Mostly assembly language is used to
help in compiler orientations. The instructions of the assembly language are converted
to machine codes by a language translator and then they are executed by the computer.
Assembly language is easier
Like machine language, it is
to understand and use as
also machine
compared to machine
dependent/specific.
language.
It is easy to locate and correct
errors.
Since it is machine dependent,
the programmer also needs to
understand the hardware.
It is easily modified.

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High-Level Languages
High-level computer languages use formats that are similar to English. The purpose of
developing high-level languages was to enable people to write programs easily, in their
own native language environment (English).
High-level languages are basically symbolic languages that use English words and/or
mathematical symbols rather than mnemonic codes. Each instruction in the high-level
language is translated into many machine language instructions that the computer can
understand.
A high-level language has to
High-level languages are user- be translated into the machine
friendly language by a translator, which
takes up time
They are similar to English and
The object code generated by
a translator might be inefficient
use English vocabulary and
compared to an equivalent
well-known symbols
assembly language program
They are easier to learn
They are easier to maintain
They are problem-oriented
rather than 'machine'-based

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A program written in a high-
level language can be
translated into many machine
languages and can run on any
computer for which there
exists an appropriate translator
The language is independent
of the machine on which it is
used i.e. programs developed
in a high-level language can
be run on any computer text
Program Design
It is the process that organizations use to develop a program. Ideally, the process is
collaborative, iterative, and tentative—stakeholders work together to repeat, review, and
refine a program until they believe it will consistently achieve its purpose.
A program design is also the plan of action that results from that process. Ideally, the
plan is developed to the point that others can implement the program in the same way
and consistently achieve its purpose.
There are three fundamental steps you should perform when you have a program to
write:
1. Define the output and data flows.
2. Develop the logic to get to that output.
3. Write the program.

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Programming paradigms
Paradigm commonly refers to a new method of thinking about a problem or situation.
A programming paradigm is a style, or ―way,‖ of programming.
There are 4 Programming paradigms
 The imperative paradigm
 Declarative paradigm
 The functional paradigm
 The logical paradigm
 The object-oriented paradigm
imperative paradigm
Imperative programming is a paradigm of computer programming in which the
program describes a sequence of steps that change the state of the computer.
imperative programming explicitly tells the computer "how" to accomplish it. Programs
written this way often compile to binaryexecutables that run more efficiently since all
CPUinstructions are themselves imperative statements. commands show how the
computation takes place, step by step. Each step affects the global state of the
computation.
To make programs simpler for a human to read and write, imperative statements can be
grouped into sections known as code blocks. In the 1950s, the idea of grouping a
program's code into blocks was first implemented in the ALGOL programming language.
They were originally called "compound statements," but today these blocks of code are
known as procedures. Once a procedure is defined, it can be used as a single
imperative statement, abstracting the control flow of a program and allowing the
developer to express programming ideas more naturally. This type of imperative
programming is called procedural programming,
Imperative programming languages are
Ada ,ALGOL,Assembly language, BASIC, Blue, C, C#, C++, COBOL, D, FORTRAN,
Go, Groovy, Java,Julia ,Lua, MATLAB, Modula,MUMPS,
Nim,Oberon,OCaml,Pascal ,Perl,PHP,PROSE, Python, Ruby,Rust

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