DNA molecule is composed of 2 strands of complementary nucleotides bound together by a double Helix.
Bacterial nucleus contains circular chromosome of a double strand DNA molecule of 1000um (1mm) long when straightened.
Each strand have a backbone of deoxyribose sugar and phosphate groups
There are 4 nitrogenous bases
Two purines- adenine(A) and guanine(G)
Two Pyrimidines- thymine(T) and cytosine(C)
One of these four nitrogenous bases is attached to each deoxyribose (sugar)
The two stands are held together by hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases on the opposite strands
It is defined simply as a technique to efficiently and stably introduce foreign genes into the genome of target cells.
The insertion of unrelated, therapeutic genetic information in the form of DNA into target cells
A bacteriophage (informally, phage) is a virus that infects and replicates within a bacterium. The term is derived from "bacteria" and the Greek (phagein), "to devour". Bacteriophages are composed of proteins that encapsulate a DNA or RNA genome, and may have relatively simple or elaborate structures. Their genomes may encode as few as four genes, and as many as hundreds of genes. Phages replicate within the bacterium following the injection of their genome into its cytoplasm. Bacteriophages are among the most common and diverse entities in the biosphere.
Phages are widely distributed in locations populated by bacterial hosts, such as soil or the intestines of animals. One of the densest natural sources for phages and other viruses is sea water, where up to 9×108 virions per milliliter have been found in microbial mats at the surface,] and up to 70% of marine bacteria may be infected by phages. They have been used for over 90 years as an alternative to antibiotics in the former Soviet Union and Central Europe, as well as in France. They are seen as a possible therapy against multi-drug-resistant strains of many bacteria (see phage therapy). Nevertheless, phages of Inoviridae have been shown to complicate biofilms involved in pneumonia and cystic fibrosis, shelter the bacteria from drugs meant to eradicate disease and promote persistent infection
It is defined simply as a technique to efficiently and stably introduce foreign genes into the genome of target cells.
The insertion of unrelated, therapeutic genetic information in the form of DNA into target cells
A bacteriophage (informally, phage) is a virus that infects and replicates within a bacterium. The term is derived from "bacteria" and the Greek (phagein), "to devour". Bacteriophages are composed of proteins that encapsulate a DNA or RNA genome, and may have relatively simple or elaborate structures. Their genomes may encode as few as four genes, and as many as hundreds of genes. Phages replicate within the bacterium following the injection of their genome into its cytoplasm. Bacteriophages are among the most common and diverse entities in the biosphere.
Phages are widely distributed in locations populated by bacterial hosts, such as soil or the intestines of animals. One of the densest natural sources for phages and other viruses is sea water, where up to 9×108 virions per milliliter have been found in microbial mats at the surface,] and up to 70% of marine bacteria may be infected by phages. They have been used for over 90 years as an alternative to antibiotics in the former Soviet Union and Central Europe, as well as in France. They are seen as a possible therapy against multi-drug-resistant strains of many bacteria (see phage therapy). Nevertheless, phages of Inoviridae have been shown to complicate biofilms involved in pneumonia and cystic fibrosis, shelter the bacteria from drugs meant to eradicate disease and promote persistent infection
Recombinant baculoviruses are widely used to
express heterologous genes in cultured insect cells
and insect larvae. For large-scale applications, the
baculovirus expression vector system (BEVS) is particularly
advantageous.
Recombinant baculoviruses are widely used to
express heterologous genes in cultured insect cells
and insect larvae. For large-scale applications, the
baculovirus expression vector system (BEVS) is particularly
advantageous.
Nematodes” are Round worms
Most nematodes are free living in fresh water, sea water and soil.
Are elongated bilaterally symmetrical, Non-segmented cylindrical worms, tapering at both the ends.
Sexes are separate (diecious), male is smaller than female & its posterior end is curved ventrally.
Females are either Viviparous (produces larvae/ embryo), Oviparous (lay egg) or ovo-viviparous (lays eggs which hatches immediately)
Lives in intestinal tract or tissues.
The name is derived from Greek word,
Trypano means (borer)
Soma means (body)
They are unicellular flagellate protozoa.
Have corkscrew like motion.
Oftenly transmitted by a vector.
Pneumococci are normal commensals of the upper respiratory tract
Important pathogen of pneumonia & otitis media
Reclassified as Streptococcus pneumoniae
Differ from Streptococci in morphology, bile solubility, optochin sensitivity & capsule
Oldest disease known to mankind
First described in ancient Indian
texts as “Kustha roga” attributed ]
to curse from God
Leper : Greek “scaly”
Hansen’s Disease – 1873 Norwegian Armauer Hansen discovered that leprosy is caused by bacterium - Mycobacterium leprae
Albert Neisser (1879) – stained the organism with fuchsin & gentian violet ( AFB )
The Paramyxoviridae is a family of single-stranded RNA viruses known to cause different types of infections in vertebrates. Examples of these infections in humans include the measles virus, mumps virus, parainfluenza virus, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV).
Largest viruses that infect vertebrates
Can be seen under light microscope
Poxvirus diseases are characterized by skin lesions – localized or generalized
Important diseases caused by poxviruses are-
Smallpox
Monkeypox
Cowpox
Tanapox
Molluscum contagiosum
bacterial Growth curve and nutrition of bacteria.pptNCRIMS, Meerut
The bacterial cell contains water (80% of total weight), proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, mucopeptides and low molecular weight compounds. For growth and nutrition of bacteria, the minimum nutritional requirements are water, a source of carbon, a source of nitrogen and some inorganic salts.
A type of virus that causes herpes infections and has DNA as its genetic material. There are two types of human herpesviruses. Infections with type 1 viruses cause cold sores on the lips or nostrils. Infections with type 2 viruses cause sores on the genitals (external and internal sex organs and glands).
HPV can cause cervical and other cancers, including cancer of the vulva, vagina, penis, or anus. It can also cause cancer in the back of the throat (called oropharyngeal cancer). This can include the base of the tongue and tonsils. Cancer often takes years, even decades, to develop after a person gets HPV.
polio virus lecture for MBBS
The picornaviruses are small (22 to 30 nm) nonenveloped, single-stranded RNA viruses with cubic symmetry. The virus capsid is composed of 60 protein subunits, each consisting of four poly-peptides VP1–VP4. Because they contain no essential lipids, they are ether resistant. They replicate in the cytoplasm.
Prokaryote cells grow by increasing in cell number (as opposed to increasing in size).
Replication is by BINARY FISSION, the splitting of one cell into two
Therefore, bacterial populations increase by a factor of two (double) every generation time
The time required to for a population to double (doubling time) in number.
Ex. Escherichia coli (E. coli) double every 20 minutes
Ex. Mycobacterium tuberculosis double every 12 to 24 hours
In 1900, Jules Bordet along with Octave Gengou observed a small ovoid bacterium in the sputum of a 5 month old child suffering from pertussis, or whooping cough.
The bacterium was similar to Haemophilus influenza but showed distinct morphological characterstic which led Bordet and Gengou to consider it as a separate species.
The organism was unable to be isolated and cultivated on ordinary blood agar plates.
Six years later, Bordet and Gengou suceed in making a selective media called Bordet and Gengou (BG) medium, which helped in isolating this fastidous bacteria.
this ppt well describes the principle, procedure, modification, usage and limitations of gram's staining.
it is a differential staining method used in bacteriology laboratory
The genus Shigella exclusively infects human intestine.
Shigella dysenteriae is the causative agent of bacillary dysentery or shigellosis in humans.
It is a diarrheal illness which is characterized by frequent passage of blood stained mucopurulent stools.
The four important species of the genus Shigella are:
Shigella dysenteriae
Shigella flexneri
Shigella sonnei
Shigella boydii.
A virus is an obligate intracellular parasite containing genetic material surrounded by protein
Virus particles can only be observed by an electron microscope
Most viruses range in sizes from 20 – 250 nanometers
Protozoa of this group possess one or more whip like flagella as their organs of locomotion
Classification
According to their habitat
Lumen dwelling flagellates
Alimentary canal – Intestinal flagellates
Urogenital tract – Genital flagellattes
2.Hemoflagellates - flagellates found in blood and tissues
Pathogenic:
Intestinal flagellates - Giardia lamblia Duodenum, Jejunum -Diarrhoea.
Genital flagellates - Trichomonas vaginalis Vagina, Urethra -Vaginitis , Urethritis
Non pathogenic:
Trichomonas tenax ( Mouth)
Trichomonas hominis ( Caecum).
Enteromonas hominis ( Colon)
Dientamoeba fragilis( Colon)
Viruses that infect and parsitized bacteria is known as bacteriophage.
It was discovered by Frederick.W.Twort in Great Britian (1915) and Felix d’ Herelle in France(1917).
D’ Herelle coined the term bacteriophage meaning ‘bacterial eater’ to describe the agent’s bacteriocidal activity. He observed lysis of a broth culture of a dysentry bacillus.
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
Follow us on: Pinterest
Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
2. Understanding Genetics
We resemble and differ because of Genetic
configuration.
Parents- Son- Daughter
HOW THEY RESEMBLE EACH OTHER?
They breed true from Generation to Generation..
But vary in small proportion in progeny.
Bacteria too obeys the law of Genetics.
5. Basic Principles
• DNA molecule is composed of 2
strands of complementary
nucleotides bound together by a
double Helix.
• Bacterial nucleus contains circular
chromosome of a double strand DNA
molecule of 1000um (1mm) long
when straightened
6. • Each strand have a backbone of deoxyribose sugar
and phosphate groups
• There are 4 nitrogenous bases
• Two purines- adenine(A) and guanine(G)
• Two Pyrimidines- thymine(T) and cytosine(C)
• One of these four nitrogenous bases is attached to
each deoxyribose (sugar)
• The two stands are held together by hydrogen bonds
between the nitrogenous bases on the opposite
strands
7. Basic Principles contd…
• This bonding is in such a specific manner that
hydrogen bonds can only be formed between
adenine and Thymine (A-T) and between
guanine and cytosine (G-C)
• Adenine and thymine (A-T) one
complementary base pair
• Guanine and cytosine (G-C) form one
complementary base pair
8. Basic Principles contd…
• RNA is structurally similar to DNA
• Except it has sugar base ribose is present
instead of deoxyribose
• And the nitrogenous base uracil instead of
thymine
• There are three different types of RNA in a cell
• Messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA)
9. Important definitions
• Gene- A segment of DNA that specifies for a
particular polypeptide is called a gene.
• DNA contains many Genes( A combination of
hundreds and thousands of Nucleotides )
10. Codon
• Codon –Genetic information is stored in the DNA as a
code. Codon consists of three nucleotide bases i.e.
codon is triplet
• Each codon specifies production of a single amino
acid but more than one codon exist for the same
amino acid e.g. AGA codes for arginine but CGU,
CGC,CCG and CGA and AGG also codes for same
amino acid
• This is also applicable to other amino acids
11. Non-sense codon
• Three codons (UAA,UGA and UAG) do not
code for any amino acid and act as stop
codons for terminating the message for the
synthesis of a polypeptide
• These are called non-sense codons
12. Extra chromosomal genetic elements
• Some bacteria posses extra
chromosomal DNA this is
called as plasmids (When
situated in cytoplasm).
• Episomes When extra
chromosomal DNA is
integrated with
Chromosome of the
bacteria
13. Plasmids
• Plasmids are circular DNA molecule and can
replicate autonomously
• It is often not possible to differentiate
between plasmids and episomes
• Plamids and episome are not essential for
bacteria
• Plasmids carry properties of drug resistance ,
toxigenicity, conjugation and others
14.
15. Plasmids contd…
• Some plasmids have the ability to transfer
themselves to other bacteria of the same or other
species. These are called self transmissible plasmids
• Transfer of plasmids occur by conjugation
• There are other plasmids which cannot be
transferred themselves (non transmissible) but can
be transduced
Ability of plasmids to transfer DNA from one cell to
another
• Plasmids have become important vectors in
recombinant DNA technology or genetic
engineering
16. Genetic variation
• Genotypic variation occur in the genetic
material.
• They are stable, heritable and not influenced
by environment
Genotypic variation occur by
• Mutation
• Gene transfer
17. Mutation
• Mutation is an inherited change in the nucleotide sequence
of the nucleic acid comprising the genome of an organism .
• A strain carrying such changes is called as mutant.
• A mutant may differ from its parent strain in genotype
(sequence of nucleotides in the DNA of the genome) and
sometimes in phenotype (observable properties from its
parent) also.
18. Mutation
• Mutation can be either spontaneous or induced.
• Spontaneous mutation occurs naturally (natural
radiation or due to error in pairing of bases during
replication).
• Mutation involving one or a very few base pairs are
referred to as point mutations.
• Mutation involving change in base pairs without
causing change in the amino acid that code for is
called silent mutation.
19. Mutation
• Mutation involving change in base pair which codes for a
different amino acid is called missense mutation. Eg. (UAC -
Tyrosin; AAC– asparagine).
• Some times a mutation may result in premature termination
of translation (as the base pair alteration contribute to stop
codon TAG - UAG (stop codon) resulting in incomplete protein
– such is called non-sense mutation.
20. 20
Mutation
Mutations can arise spontaneously in bacteria
-Also caused by radiation and chemicals
Mutations (and plasmids) can spread rapidly in a
population
-Negative consequences for humans
-For example:
-Methicillin-resistance Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
-Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA)
21. Transmission of Genetic material
(Gene transfer)
Prokaryotes do not reproduce sexually
However, they undergo horizontal gene transfer.
Various methods are
• Transformation (uptake of naked DNA)
• Transduction (Through bacteriophage)
Lysogenic conversion
• Conjugation (Plasmid mediated)
22. 22
TRANSFORMATION
Transformation
-It is the transfer of genetic information through
free or naked DNA
-DNA that is released from a dead cell is picked
up by another live cell
Occurs in many bacterial species, including
Streptococcus which was studied by Griffith
23. The Griffith’s Experiment
• In 1928, Frederick Griffith discovered
Tranformation while working on Streptococcus
pneumoniae.
• The bacterium exists in two strains
– S
• Forms smooth colonies in culture plate
• Cells produce a polysaccharide capsule and cause disease
– R
• forms rough colonies in culture plate
• Cells do not produce a polysaccharide capsule and are
harmless.
24. Transformation
• Genes are transferred from one bacterium to
another as “naked” DNA
• Frederick Griffith (1928)
25. 25
TRANSDUCTION
- Transmission of a portion of DNA from one
bacterium to another through the BACTERIOPHAGE
• In this bacteriophage nucleic acid and a portion of
the host DNA may be accidentally incorporated into
the bacteriophage. This is known as packaging error
• This bacteriophage when infects another bacterium
the host DNA transfers and the recipient cell
acquires new characters coded by donor DNA
27. Bacteriophage have two types of
life cycle inside the host
bacterium
• Virulent or lytic cycle
• Temperate or non lytic cycle
28. Virulent or Lytic cycle
• In this large number of progeny is formed and
subsequently these progeny phages are
released causing death and lysis of the host
cell
29. Temperate or nonlytic cycle
• In this the host bacterium remains unharmed The
phage DNA (new genetic element) remains
integrated with the bacterial chromosome as
prophage which multiplies synchronously with
bacterial DNA.
• The prophage act as additional chromosomal
element which encodes for new characters and
transferred to daughter cells
• This process is known as lysogenic conversion and
bacteria harboring prophage are known as lysogenic
bacteria
30.
31. 31
CONJUGATION
• The transfer of genetic material from one bacterium
(donor male) to another bacterium (recipient female)
by contact or mating is called conjugation
• Donors bacteria are those bacteria that contain F
plasmid ( F+ male cells) while cell lacking F plasmid is
called (F- or female cells )act as recipients
• F plasmid is conjugative plasmid which encodes for sex
pilus (F+ cells) which is necessary for conjugation . This
plasmid is known as sex factor or fertility factor
32. 32
CONJUGATION
• During conjugation the plasmid DNA replicates and
copy of it passes from donor to the recipient cell
probably along the sex pilus (conjugation tube) as a
result recipient (F-) becomes F+ donor (F+) and can
in turn conjugate with other female cells (F-)
• This character of maleness (F+) in bacteria is
transmissible or infectious
33. Sexduction
• F plasmid has the ability to
integrate into its own host
chromosomes.
• These cells transfer chromosomal
DNA to recipient cells with high
frequency (Hfr cells)
• Conjugation with Hfr cell and f-
rarely becomes F+ cell but it
receives chromosomal DNA from
donor
34. Transposable Genetic elements
• Transposable Genetic elements are specific
sequences of DNA segments that have the ability to
move from one plasmid to another plasmid or from
plasmid to chromosome and visa versa and also with
in the chromosome
• Because of their ability to insert into many sites both
on plasmid and chromosome they are called jumping
genes
• The transfer of genetic material from one DNA
molecule to another is called transposition
35. Detection methods of Genetic material
(DNA/RNA )
• Polymerase chain reaction(PCR)
• DNA probes
• Blotting techniques.
36. POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR)
• Kary Mullis (1993) awarded Noble prize for his
discovery.
• Nucleic acid amplification system
• Produces large amount of DNA.
• Amplifies specific DNA sequence. (gene)
37. • PCR involves four main stages.
–Denaturation
–Primer annealing
–DNA synthesis
–Detection of amplified
product.
38. POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR)
STEP-1
• Denaturation
The double stranded DNA is dislocated to
single stranded DNA.
Denaturating temperature (94ᵒC)
39. POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR)
STEP-2
• Annealing of Primers
Oligonucloetide primer attaches to target
DNA.
Temperature is reduced to 50-60 ᵒC
(Annealing temperature).
40. POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR)
STEP-3
• DNA synthesis
Polymerase enzyme derived from Thermus
aquatics(Taq) triggers the formation of new
DNA strand.
Repeat these three steps till 20-30 cycles.
This is automated process done in
thermocycler/PCR machine.
Exponational increase in the amount of DNA
occurs.
41. STEP-4
• Detection of amplified product
Amplified DNA can be detected by Gel
electrophoresis.
42.
43. POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR)
Types of PCR:
–Reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR)
–Nested PCR
–Multiplex PCR
–Real Time PCR
44. Application of PCR
• PCR provides a rapid tool for diagnosis of
various diseases be their infectious,
Neoplastic, or Genetic or in Forensic
investigations
• In this a specific DNA sequence of a particular
infectious agent is amplified with specific
primers
45. POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR)
PCR helps in diagnosis of infectious disease:
• Bacterial infections: M. tuberculosis, Legionella pneumophilia, H.
pylori, C Trachomatis, Mycoplasma pneumoniae
• Viral infections: CMV, Herpes simplex, Hepatitis B, C, Coxsackie
virus, measles virus, HIV I & 2,HPV,Rotavirus,Rubella virus,
Adenovirus, parvovirus
• Fungal infections: C. Albicans, Cryptococcus, Pneumocystis jiroveci,
• Parasitic infections: T. Gondii, Plasmodium, Trypnosoma
46. DNA Probes
• DNA probe A single-strand DNA fragment used to
detect the complementary fragment.
• DNA probes are used widely in
bacteriology/Molecular diagnosis.
• Recombinant DNA techniques are used to isolate,
reproduce, and label a portion of the genetic
material, DNA, from the nucleus of a microorganism
that is specific for it.
• This fragment can be added to a specimen containing
the organisms.
47. DNA Probes contd…
• The specimen and known DNA are treated so that
the DNA strands from the organisms in the specimen
are separated into single strands.
• The DNA from the specimen rejoins (is annealed to)
the known labeled DNA and is thereby labeled.
• This permits the identification of a single pathogenic
organism in a specimen that contains many different
microorganisms.
49. Application of DNA probes
• In clinical microbiology
Direct detection of microorganisms
to detect microbes difficult to culture
• Identification of culture isolates
• Strain identification
• To identify toxins, virulence factors
• Identification of resistant markers
50. Blotting Techniques
blotting method A technique for analysing a
tiny portion of the primary structure of
genomic material (DNA or RNA).
• Southern blotting method
• Northern blotting method
• Western blotting method
51. Southern blotting method
• Southern blotting method A technique used in
molecular genetics to analyze a small portion of
DNA.
• First by purifying it, then by controlled
fragmentation, electrophoretic separation, and fixing
the fragment identity using specific DNA probes.
52. Northern blotting method
• Northern blotting method A blot analysis
technique for analyzing a small portion of
RNA.
• Operationally, this test is identical to
Southern blotting except for the target (RNA)
and the specific reagents used.
53. Western blotting method
• Western blotting method A technique for
analyzing protein antigens.
• HIV proteins
54. Genetically modified organisms
• The process of artificially introducing foreign DNA
into organisms is called Transfection
• The recombinant organism produced in this way is
called transgenic or genetically modified organisms
• Transgenic organisms are available for a variety of
biotechnological applications
55. Gene Therapy
• It is a therapy by which faulty gene is replaced
by the normal gene in persons suffering with
fatal or debilitating disease
• Main benefit is defective gene is replaced with
normal gene
Types
• Ex Vivo therapy
• In Vivo therapy
56. Gene Therapy contd…
Ex Vivo Therapy In this normal gene is cloned
with vectors like adenoviruses which are
infectious but harmless .
• Tissues are removed from patient and
incubated with these genetically modified
viruses to transfect them with normal gene
• The transfected cells are reintroduced in the
patient by Transfusion
57. Gene Therapy contd…
In Vivo Gene Therapy normal gene is cloned
with vector as adenovirus and it is then
directly introduced into the patient tissues
58. Applications of Gene Therapy
• A person born with defective genes can have
is defective gene replaced by this method
• A cancer patient who have developed
defective gene which have caused the cancer
can have his defective gene replaced and can
lead a normal life