The document discusses various aspects of water management for irrigation purposes. It covers the quality of irrigation water, factors affecting water quality, classification of water quality, water requirements of different crops like rice, groundnut, sugarcane, maize, mango, banana, and tomato. It also discusses drainage, the need for drainage, characteristics of a good drainage system, and methods of surface drainage.
Management Options and Policy Guidelines forUse of Poor Quality Ground water...UTTAM KUMAR
the amount and quality of irrigation water available in the arid and semi-arid regions of the world are the main limiting factors to the agricultural productivity. Saline-sodic irrigation water, coupled with low annual rainfall and high evapotranspiration in the arid and semi-arid regions, not only results in accumulation of soluble salts in soil solution but also exhibit external signs of salt toxicity in the plants. therefore research works are needed to find the best cultivation conditions for uses of p
B Sc Agri II Sc,Sf & Nm, U 2 Quality Of Irrigation WaterRai University
This document discusses various criteria for evaluating the quality of irrigation water, including salinity, sodicity, and specific ion toxicities. It outlines classification systems for salinity hazard, sodium hazard, alkalinity hazard, and toxic ions such as boron. Salinity is classified based on electrical conductivity into four classes (C1 to C4), with C1 and C2 suitable for irrigation. Sodium hazard is classified using sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) into four classes (S1 to S4). Specific thresholds and classifications are also provided for other ions and characteristics like residual sodium carbonate (RSC), magnesium, chlorides, sulphates, nitrates, fluorides, and lithium.
quality of water irrigation and factors lead poor water qualitynasuura
Water quality is the physical, chemical, biological, and aesthetic characteristics of water which determines its fitness for a variety of uses and for protecting the health and integrity of aquatic ecosystems.
Another general perception of water quality is that of a simple
property that tells whether water is polluted or not. Water
quality depends on the local geology and ecosystem, as well as
human uses such as sewage dispersion, industrial pollution, use
of water bodies as a heat sink, and overuse (which may lower the level of the water).
Agriculture, nursery, and turfgrass managers depend on an adequate supply of water for irrigation. With the increasing demand for potable water, irrigation managers are turning to alternative, poorer quality sources of water (e.g., recycled runoff, saline groundwater, reclaimed water) for irrigation purposes.
Poor quality irrigation water poses many hazards to plant production if not managed properly.
This document summarizes the key factors in evaluating the quality of irrigation water. It discusses salinity hazard, sodium hazard, salt index, and alkalinity hazard. Salinity hazard refers to the salts content in water and its negative effects on crop yields and soil quality. High sodium ions can affect soil permeability. The salt index determines the sustainability of irrigation water based on sodium, calcium, and carbonate levels. Alkalinity hazard refers to high pH levels in water above normal drinking water standards. Together these factors are important considerations for successful irrigation and preventing long term damage to soil.
This document discusses various aspects of evaluating water quality for irrigation purposes. It provides guidelines on different criteria used to assess water quality, including salinity hazard, sodium hazard, bicarbonate hazard, and toxicities from boron and chlorine. Threshold values are given for different water quality classes based on these criteria. The document also discusses managing irrigation with marginal quality water through growing salt tolerant crops, applying organic matter, and following appropriate cropping sequences. Overall, the key criteria for evaluating irrigation water quality are salinity, sodium, and toxic concentrations of elements like boron and strategies for utilizing poorer quality water.
Water quality is determined by several factors including total salt concentration, sodium absorption ratio (SAR), residual sodium carbonate or bicarbonate, and boron content. Total salt concentration is measured by electrical conductivity and varies depending on dissolved salts, with higher concentrations making water less suitable for irrigation. SAR measures the sodium content and is used to assess soil structure, with higher SAR increasing the risk of destroying soil structure. Residual sodium carbonate and high bicarbonate ion concentrations can also have hazardous effects. Boron is a nutrient but becomes toxic above certain levels. All of these factors must be considered together to determine water quality for irrigation.
Industrialization of poor quality water in agricultural applicationVenkatKamal1
The document discusses the industrialization of poor quality water and its usage in agricultural applications. It provides grouping of low-quality ground waters for irrigation in India based on electrical conductivity, sodium adsorption ratio, and residual sodium carbonate levels. It also discusses the characteristics and management of wastewater from various industries like distilleries, paper and pulp, tanneries, and textiles for use in irrigation and agriculture. Management techniques presented include gypsum application, leaching, crop selection, fertilizer application, drainage, mulching, and appropriate irrigation methods.
Management Options and Policy Guidelines forUse of Poor Quality Ground water...UTTAM KUMAR
the amount and quality of irrigation water available in the arid and semi-arid regions of the world are the main limiting factors to the agricultural productivity. Saline-sodic irrigation water, coupled with low annual rainfall and high evapotranspiration in the arid and semi-arid regions, not only results in accumulation of soluble salts in soil solution but also exhibit external signs of salt toxicity in the plants. therefore research works are needed to find the best cultivation conditions for uses of p
B Sc Agri II Sc,Sf & Nm, U 2 Quality Of Irrigation WaterRai University
This document discusses various criteria for evaluating the quality of irrigation water, including salinity, sodicity, and specific ion toxicities. It outlines classification systems for salinity hazard, sodium hazard, alkalinity hazard, and toxic ions such as boron. Salinity is classified based on electrical conductivity into four classes (C1 to C4), with C1 and C2 suitable for irrigation. Sodium hazard is classified using sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) into four classes (S1 to S4). Specific thresholds and classifications are also provided for other ions and characteristics like residual sodium carbonate (RSC), magnesium, chlorides, sulphates, nitrates, fluorides, and lithium.
quality of water irrigation and factors lead poor water qualitynasuura
Water quality is the physical, chemical, biological, and aesthetic characteristics of water which determines its fitness for a variety of uses and for protecting the health and integrity of aquatic ecosystems.
Another general perception of water quality is that of a simple
property that tells whether water is polluted or not. Water
quality depends on the local geology and ecosystem, as well as
human uses such as sewage dispersion, industrial pollution, use
of water bodies as a heat sink, and overuse (which may lower the level of the water).
Agriculture, nursery, and turfgrass managers depend on an adequate supply of water for irrigation. With the increasing demand for potable water, irrigation managers are turning to alternative, poorer quality sources of water (e.g., recycled runoff, saline groundwater, reclaimed water) for irrigation purposes.
Poor quality irrigation water poses many hazards to plant production if not managed properly.
This document summarizes the key factors in evaluating the quality of irrigation water. It discusses salinity hazard, sodium hazard, salt index, and alkalinity hazard. Salinity hazard refers to the salts content in water and its negative effects on crop yields and soil quality. High sodium ions can affect soil permeability. The salt index determines the sustainability of irrigation water based on sodium, calcium, and carbonate levels. Alkalinity hazard refers to high pH levels in water above normal drinking water standards. Together these factors are important considerations for successful irrigation and preventing long term damage to soil.
This document discusses various aspects of evaluating water quality for irrigation purposes. It provides guidelines on different criteria used to assess water quality, including salinity hazard, sodium hazard, bicarbonate hazard, and toxicities from boron and chlorine. Threshold values are given for different water quality classes based on these criteria. The document also discusses managing irrigation with marginal quality water through growing salt tolerant crops, applying organic matter, and following appropriate cropping sequences. Overall, the key criteria for evaluating irrigation water quality are salinity, sodium, and toxic concentrations of elements like boron and strategies for utilizing poorer quality water.
Water quality is determined by several factors including total salt concentration, sodium absorption ratio (SAR), residual sodium carbonate or bicarbonate, and boron content. Total salt concentration is measured by electrical conductivity and varies depending on dissolved salts, with higher concentrations making water less suitable for irrigation. SAR measures the sodium content and is used to assess soil structure, with higher SAR increasing the risk of destroying soil structure. Residual sodium carbonate and high bicarbonate ion concentrations can also have hazardous effects. Boron is a nutrient but becomes toxic above certain levels. All of these factors must be considered together to determine water quality for irrigation.
Industrialization of poor quality water in agricultural applicationVenkatKamal1
The document discusses the industrialization of poor quality water and its usage in agricultural applications. It provides grouping of low-quality ground waters for irrigation in India based on electrical conductivity, sodium adsorption ratio, and residual sodium carbonate levels. It also discusses the characteristics and management of wastewater from various industries like distilleries, paper and pulp, tanneries, and textiles for use in irrigation and agriculture. Management techniques presented include gypsum application, leaching, crop selection, fertilizer application, drainage, mulching, and appropriate irrigation methods.
QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER AND MANAGEMENT OF SALINE WATER FOR IRRIGATION
GOVARDHAN LODHA
Enroll. No. (160111017)
Department of Agronomy
M.Sc. (Ag) Agronomy 2nd semester
This document provides information on salinity management of irrigation water. It discusses several methods for managing salinity problems, including drainage to control water tables, leaching salts below the root zone, developing crop tolerance, optimizing cultural practices like irrigation timing, and changing or blending water sources. Drainage systems are shown to effectively reduce soil salinity and improve crop yields over time. Leaching requirements and crop tolerance data help determine appropriate irrigation amounts. Certain cultural practices like land grading and post-sowing irrigation can also improve crop establishment under saline conditions. The objective is to maintain acceptable crop yields through various salinity control strategies.
Effect of saline water irrigation and different management practices on soil ...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science (IOSR-JAVS) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal edited by the International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR). The journal provides a common forum where all aspects of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences are presented. The journal invites original papers, review articles, technical reports and short communications containing new insight into any aspect Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences that are not published or not being considered for publication elsewhere.
QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER AND MANAGEMENT OF SALINE WATER FOR IRRIGATION GOVARDHAN LODHA
Enroll. No. (160111017)
Department of Agronomy
M.Sc. (Ag) Agronomy 2nd semester
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to soil water, pH, nutrients, and relative humidity. It defines terms like field capacity, gravitational water, and permanent wilting point. It explains the pH scale and how pH affects nutrient availability and plant growth. The major plant macronutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are described as well as calcium and iron deficiencies. Relative humidity is defined in relation to air temperature and water vapor holding capacity. Learning objectives cover soil water, pH, macronutrients, calcium and iron, and how relative humidity is impacted by temperature.
This document discusses the quality of irrigation water and criteria for determining water quality. It outlines 5 classes of water salinity based on electrical conductivity and 4 classes of sodium level based on sodium adsorption ratio. It also discusses acceptable boron levels and provides management practices for using poor quality water, including applying gypsum, alternate irrigation strategies, fertilizer application techniques, irrigation methods, growing crop varieties, drainage, and other soil management practices. The document concludes with a discussion of soil fertility versus productivity and different methods for evaluating soil fertility.
Determination of quality aspects groundwater.Prashant Katti
This document discusses three quality aspects of groundwater:
1. Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) measures the suitability of water for irrigation based on dissolved solids concentrations and determines soil sodicity.
2. Residual sodium carbonate (RSC) index indicates the alkalinity hazard for soil and determines suitability of water for irrigation in clay soils based on cation exchange capacity.
3. Temporary hardness (TH) is caused by dissolved bicarbonate minerals like calcium bicarbonate and magnesium bicarbonate, which yield calcium, magnesium, carbonate, and bicarbonate ions when dissolved.
Irrigation Groundwater Quality for Agricultural Usability in Biochar and Fert...Jenkins Macedo
1J. Macedo, 2M. Souvanhnachit, 3S. Rattanavong, 4B. Maokhamphiou, 4T. Sotoukee, 4P. Pavelic, 1M. Sarkis, 1T. Downs
1 Department of International Development, Community, and Environment, Clark University, Worcester, MA. U.S.A.
2 Department of Water Resources Engineering, National University of Laos, Vientiane, Lao PDR
3Independent Consultant, Washington DC, U.S.A.
4 International Water Management Institute Vientiane, Lao PDR.
Climate change risks pose significant challenge to smallholder irrigators who rely on rainfed agriculture for their livelihoods. Increased mean surface temperatures, varying rainfall, increasing evaporation and declining soil moistures all serve to impact productivity. Groundwater irrigation poses promising potential for agricultural productivity and the livelihoods of smallholders. Groundwater irrigation for agriculture use requires constant water quality monitoring. This excerpt is part of a field research, which assessed the impacts of biochar and fertilizer treatments on soil nutrients status, soil moisture, irrigation groundwater quality for agricultural use on the growth and yield of water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica). Groundwater quality was monitored to determine the levels of electric conductivity (EC) and total dissolved solids (TDS) determinants of salinity and sodium, calcium, and magnesium to calculate the sodium absorption ratio (SAR) to estimate sodicity. The methods involved daily field tests to measure EC, TDS, pH, temperature, and detailed chemical analysis. The results indicate that the mean EC (0.021 dS/m; SD = 0.010) is significantly less than the salinity tolerance threshold for water spinach (< 1.3 dS/m) and the mean TDS (12 ppm; SD = 4.5) with soil pH of 6.6. The results suggest that the irrigation groundwater quality was suitable for agriculture and the chance of salinity was significantly low. The computed SAR 0.174 was significantly lower than the normal level (<10) above which soil water permeability could result from sodic soil condition. The results demonstrate that groundwater use for agriculture could assist smallholders adapt to climate change risks, but judicious use requires constant monitoring of groundwater quality and resources to increase crop yield and improve soil health.
Key Words: Salinity, Sodicity, Groundwater Quality, Electric Conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids, Sodium Absorption Ratio
This PowerPoint only focuses on assessing irrigation groundwater quality in objective 4 and not the water use efficiency aspect/soil water savings. Here, we are only interested in the ability for biochar to reduce soil water salinity and sodicity.
Soil salinity problem in irrigated lands Avinash Sahu
This presentation discusses the salinity problem in irrigated land. Salt accumulates in soil when water evaporates, leaving the salt behind. Irrigation water and rainfall contain salts that accumulate over time if not properly drained. Factors like irrigation method, drainage, soil type, and climate affect salinity levels. High salinity stunts plant growth and reduces yields. Management strategies include drainage, leaching salts from the soil, adjusting irrigation practices, using fertilizers and bioremediation techniques. The literature review discusses studies on the impacts of soil salinity in India and methods to monitor and predict salinity levels. Proper drainage and adding organic matter can help reclaim saline soils.
Practical productive and environment friendly utilization of salt affected landsShah Awan
1) The document discusses strategies for utilizing salt-affected soils in Pakistan in a practical, productive, and environmentally friendly manner.
2) It describes three types of salt-affected soils in Pakistan and introduces varieties developed to suit each soil type: short-stature wheat for irrigated saline soils, drought-tolerant wheat for saline soils in dry areas, and Durugen wheat to tolerate desert conditions of high salt, heat, and low water.
3) Testing showed these new varieties outperformed standard varieties by yielding more while requiring fewer inputs under harsh soil and climate conditions. Their cultivation could help increase wheat production and improve food security.
water logging and salinity in pakistan by Musadiq Rehmanimusadiqrehmani
The document discusses water logging and salinity issues affecting agriculture in Pakistan. It states that 50% of irrigated lands in Pakistan are affected by water logging and salinity, reducing crop yields and farmer incomes. Drainage systems are needed to control water logging by allowing excess irrigation water to drain away and leach out salts. Biological controls and choosing tolerant crop species can also help reduce the impact of water logging on agricultural production.
This document discusses soil salinity, including its causes, effects, and management strategies. It begins by defining salinity as the presence of excess salts in the soil. The major causes of salinity include natural rock weathering, fluctuating water tables, lack of rainfall, and irrigation with saline water. Saline soils are then categorized based on electrical conductivity, pH, and exchangeable sodium percentage. The document outlines various effects of salinity such as reduced water availability, ion toxicity, and nutritional imbalances. Evaluation methods and management approaches are then presented, such as water and soil management practices, leaching salts from the root zone, and using salt-tolerant crops.
This document discusses the quality of irrigation water and its impacts on soil and crop cultivation. It provides information on:
1. Salts are commonly found in irrigation water and can accumulate in soils over time, reducing water availability to plants and causing toxicity issues.
2. Various metrics are used to determine water quality for irrigation, including electrical conductivity (EC), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), and boron content.
3. Data on the quality of groundwater in various Indian states is presented, showing the prevalence of saline and alkali soils. Most states have some areas with marginal or unfit groundwater according to EC, RSC, and other criteria.
This document discusses soil salinity in Bangladesh. Approximately 2.8 million hectares of land, or one-fifth of the total area, is affected by soil salinity. The main causes of salinity are saltwater intrusion from the sea and tidal flooding. Reclamation of saline soils involves leaching salts from the soil through irrigation and drainage. Crop varieties that are tolerant of saline conditions need to be grown. Coastal aquaculture is also presented as a way to productively use saline coastal lands and waters.
Irrigation with municipal waste water is a suitable disposal option in all regions where additional moisture can be effectively utilized for improved crop production. Waste water loading is to be based on the consumptive water use of the crop being grown. The primary objective should be enhancement of crop production. The root zone of productive soils can often serve as one of the most active media for the decomposition, immobilization, or utilization of wastes.
This document discusses various methods of rainwater harvesting and artificial groundwater recharge to meet increasing water demands, raise water tables, and supplement groundwater supplies during dry seasons. These methods include rooftop rainwater harvesting, check dams, embankments, underground tanks, and khadins. Examples are given of projects using these methods in places like the Golden Temple, IIT Delhi, JNU Delhi, Maharashtra, and Jodhpur that have successfully raised local water tables and increased food production. The benefits of these methods are listed as rising water tables, improved groundwater quality, reduced soil erosion, mitigation of drought and flood hazards, lower pumping costs, and sustainable groundwater sources.
Rainwater harvesting is the process of collecting, conveying, and storing rainwater for beneficial uses like irrigation, production, washing, and drinking water. It involves capturing rainwater primarily from rooftops and surface runoff and storing it for direct use or recharging into groundwater. RWH helps conserve and supplement existing water resources and can potentially provide an improved quality water source at a low cost. However, performance depends on climate and collected rainwater quality may be impacted by external factors like pollution, requiring ongoing maintenance.
This document proposes infiltration galleries as a solution for drinking water supply in urban areas near rivers. It summarizes the key benefits of infiltration galleries, which extract water from below the river bed through perforated pipes. This provides a continuous supply of filtered water, even during periods of low surface flow. A specific example is provided for constructing an infiltration gallery under the Yamuna River to supply the city of Agra. Design details are given, and calculations show the gallery could provide between 67-157 liters/second of water. Infiltration galleries provide higher quality water at lower treatment and operating costs compared to direct intake from polluted surface sources.
The quality of irrigation water significantly impacts the effectiveness of fertilizers and pesticides. Water pH outside the optimal range of 4-6.5 can compromise pesticide performance by causing the chemicals to fall out of solution or break down more quickly. Fertilizer absorption by plant roots is also optimized at a soil and water pH of 5.5-6.5. High pH water can cause phosphate fertilizers to precipitate out as less soluble calcium or magnesium compounds. Maintaining appropriate water pH levels through the use of acidifiers or conditioners is important for maximizing the benefits of applied chemicals and nutrients.
Irrigation water management for water management in high water table areas & canal irrigation management, water logging, Drainage system, Canal irrigation management, farmer's participation in management, Water users organization(WUA),
The document discusses the physics behind how kites are able to fly. It explains that kites generate lift through Bernoulli's principle and Newton's third law of motion as air flows over and under the kite. The main forces acting on a kiting are lift, which overcomes the kite and rider's weight; drag from air movement; and gravity pulling downward. A kite's position in different wind conditions affects these forces.
QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER AND MANAGEMENT OF SALINE WATER FOR IRRIGATION
GOVARDHAN LODHA
Enroll. No. (160111017)
Department of Agronomy
M.Sc. (Ag) Agronomy 2nd semester
This document provides information on salinity management of irrigation water. It discusses several methods for managing salinity problems, including drainage to control water tables, leaching salts below the root zone, developing crop tolerance, optimizing cultural practices like irrigation timing, and changing or blending water sources. Drainage systems are shown to effectively reduce soil salinity and improve crop yields over time. Leaching requirements and crop tolerance data help determine appropriate irrigation amounts. Certain cultural practices like land grading and post-sowing irrigation can also improve crop establishment under saline conditions. The objective is to maintain acceptable crop yields through various salinity control strategies.
Effect of saline water irrigation and different management practices on soil ...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science (IOSR-JAVS) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal edited by the International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR). The journal provides a common forum where all aspects of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences are presented. The journal invites original papers, review articles, technical reports and short communications containing new insight into any aspect Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences that are not published or not being considered for publication elsewhere.
QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER AND MANAGEMENT OF SALINE WATER FOR IRRIGATION GOVARDHAN LODHA
Enroll. No. (160111017)
Department of Agronomy
M.Sc. (Ag) Agronomy 2nd semester
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to soil water, pH, nutrients, and relative humidity. It defines terms like field capacity, gravitational water, and permanent wilting point. It explains the pH scale and how pH affects nutrient availability and plant growth. The major plant macronutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are described as well as calcium and iron deficiencies. Relative humidity is defined in relation to air temperature and water vapor holding capacity. Learning objectives cover soil water, pH, macronutrients, calcium and iron, and how relative humidity is impacted by temperature.
This document discusses the quality of irrigation water and criteria for determining water quality. It outlines 5 classes of water salinity based on electrical conductivity and 4 classes of sodium level based on sodium adsorption ratio. It also discusses acceptable boron levels and provides management practices for using poor quality water, including applying gypsum, alternate irrigation strategies, fertilizer application techniques, irrigation methods, growing crop varieties, drainage, and other soil management practices. The document concludes with a discussion of soil fertility versus productivity and different methods for evaluating soil fertility.
Determination of quality aspects groundwater.Prashant Katti
This document discusses three quality aspects of groundwater:
1. Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) measures the suitability of water for irrigation based on dissolved solids concentrations and determines soil sodicity.
2. Residual sodium carbonate (RSC) index indicates the alkalinity hazard for soil and determines suitability of water for irrigation in clay soils based on cation exchange capacity.
3. Temporary hardness (TH) is caused by dissolved bicarbonate minerals like calcium bicarbonate and magnesium bicarbonate, which yield calcium, magnesium, carbonate, and bicarbonate ions when dissolved.
Irrigation Groundwater Quality for Agricultural Usability in Biochar and Fert...Jenkins Macedo
1J. Macedo, 2M. Souvanhnachit, 3S. Rattanavong, 4B. Maokhamphiou, 4T. Sotoukee, 4P. Pavelic, 1M. Sarkis, 1T. Downs
1 Department of International Development, Community, and Environment, Clark University, Worcester, MA. U.S.A.
2 Department of Water Resources Engineering, National University of Laos, Vientiane, Lao PDR
3Independent Consultant, Washington DC, U.S.A.
4 International Water Management Institute Vientiane, Lao PDR.
Climate change risks pose significant challenge to smallholder irrigators who rely on rainfed agriculture for their livelihoods. Increased mean surface temperatures, varying rainfall, increasing evaporation and declining soil moistures all serve to impact productivity. Groundwater irrigation poses promising potential for agricultural productivity and the livelihoods of smallholders. Groundwater irrigation for agriculture use requires constant water quality monitoring. This excerpt is part of a field research, which assessed the impacts of biochar and fertilizer treatments on soil nutrients status, soil moisture, irrigation groundwater quality for agricultural use on the growth and yield of water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica). Groundwater quality was monitored to determine the levels of electric conductivity (EC) and total dissolved solids (TDS) determinants of salinity and sodium, calcium, and magnesium to calculate the sodium absorption ratio (SAR) to estimate sodicity. The methods involved daily field tests to measure EC, TDS, pH, temperature, and detailed chemical analysis. The results indicate that the mean EC (0.021 dS/m; SD = 0.010) is significantly less than the salinity tolerance threshold for water spinach (< 1.3 dS/m) and the mean TDS (12 ppm; SD = 4.5) with soil pH of 6.6. The results suggest that the irrigation groundwater quality was suitable for agriculture and the chance of salinity was significantly low. The computed SAR 0.174 was significantly lower than the normal level (<10) above which soil water permeability could result from sodic soil condition. The results demonstrate that groundwater use for agriculture could assist smallholders adapt to climate change risks, but judicious use requires constant monitoring of groundwater quality and resources to increase crop yield and improve soil health.
Key Words: Salinity, Sodicity, Groundwater Quality, Electric Conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids, Sodium Absorption Ratio
This PowerPoint only focuses on assessing irrigation groundwater quality in objective 4 and not the water use efficiency aspect/soil water savings. Here, we are only interested in the ability for biochar to reduce soil water salinity and sodicity.
Soil salinity problem in irrigated lands Avinash Sahu
This presentation discusses the salinity problem in irrigated land. Salt accumulates in soil when water evaporates, leaving the salt behind. Irrigation water and rainfall contain salts that accumulate over time if not properly drained. Factors like irrigation method, drainage, soil type, and climate affect salinity levels. High salinity stunts plant growth and reduces yields. Management strategies include drainage, leaching salts from the soil, adjusting irrigation practices, using fertilizers and bioremediation techniques. The literature review discusses studies on the impacts of soil salinity in India and methods to monitor and predict salinity levels. Proper drainage and adding organic matter can help reclaim saline soils.
Practical productive and environment friendly utilization of salt affected landsShah Awan
1) The document discusses strategies for utilizing salt-affected soils in Pakistan in a practical, productive, and environmentally friendly manner.
2) It describes three types of salt-affected soils in Pakistan and introduces varieties developed to suit each soil type: short-stature wheat for irrigated saline soils, drought-tolerant wheat for saline soils in dry areas, and Durugen wheat to tolerate desert conditions of high salt, heat, and low water.
3) Testing showed these new varieties outperformed standard varieties by yielding more while requiring fewer inputs under harsh soil and climate conditions. Their cultivation could help increase wheat production and improve food security.
water logging and salinity in pakistan by Musadiq Rehmanimusadiqrehmani
The document discusses water logging and salinity issues affecting agriculture in Pakistan. It states that 50% of irrigated lands in Pakistan are affected by water logging and salinity, reducing crop yields and farmer incomes. Drainage systems are needed to control water logging by allowing excess irrigation water to drain away and leach out salts. Biological controls and choosing tolerant crop species can also help reduce the impact of water logging on agricultural production.
This document discusses soil salinity, including its causes, effects, and management strategies. It begins by defining salinity as the presence of excess salts in the soil. The major causes of salinity include natural rock weathering, fluctuating water tables, lack of rainfall, and irrigation with saline water. Saline soils are then categorized based on electrical conductivity, pH, and exchangeable sodium percentage. The document outlines various effects of salinity such as reduced water availability, ion toxicity, and nutritional imbalances. Evaluation methods and management approaches are then presented, such as water and soil management practices, leaching salts from the root zone, and using salt-tolerant crops.
This document discusses the quality of irrigation water and its impacts on soil and crop cultivation. It provides information on:
1. Salts are commonly found in irrigation water and can accumulate in soils over time, reducing water availability to plants and causing toxicity issues.
2. Various metrics are used to determine water quality for irrigation, including electrical conductivity (EC), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), and boron content.
3. Data on the quality of groundwater in various Indian states is presented, showing the prevalence of saline and alkali soils. Most states have some areas with marginal or unfit groundwater according to EC, RSC, and other criteria.
This document discusses soil salinity in Bangladesh. Approximately 2.8 million hectares of land, or one-fifth of the total area, is affected by soil salinity. The main causes of salinity are saltwater intrusion from the sea and tidal flooding. Reclamation of saline soils involves leaching salts from the soil through irrigation and drainage. Crop varieties that are tolerant of saline conditions need to be grown. Coastal aquaculture is also presented as a way to productively use saline coastal lands and waters.
Irrigation with municipal waste water is a suitable disposal option in all regions where additional moisture can be effectively utilized for improved crop production. Waste water loading is to be based on the consumptive water use of the crop being grown. The primary objective should be enhancement of crop production. The root zone of productive soils can often serve as one of the most active media for the decomposition, immobilization, or utilization of wastes.
This document discusses various methods of rainwater harvesting and artificial groundwater recharge to meet increasing water demands, raise water tables, and supplement groundwater supplies during dry seasons. These methods include rooftop rainwater harvesting, check dams, embankments, underground tanks, and khadins. Examples are given of projects using these methods in places like the Golden Temple, IIT Delhi, JNU Delhi, Maharashtra, and Jodhpur that have successfully raised local water tables and increased food production. The benefits of these methods are listed as rising water tables, improved groundwater quality, reduced soil erosion, mitigation of drought and flood hazards, lower pumping costs, and sustainable groundwater sources.
Rainwater harvesting is the process of collecting, conveying, and storing rainwater for beneficial uses like irrigation, production, washing, and drinking water. It involves capturing rainwater primarily from rooftops and surface runoff and storing it for direct use or recharging into groundwater. RWH helps conserve and supplement existing water resources and can potentially provide an improved quality water source at a low cost. However, performance depends on climate and collected rainwater quality may be impacted by external factors like pollution, requiring ongoing maintenance.
This document proposes infiltration galleries as a solution for drinking water supply in urban areas near rivers. It summarizes the key benefits of infiltration galleries, which extract water from below the river bed through perforated pipes. This provides a continuous supply of filtered water, even during periods of low surface flow. A specific example is provided for constructing an infiltration gallery under the Yamuna River to supply the city of Agra. Design details are given, and calculations show the gallery could provide between 67-157 liters/second of water. Infiltration galleries provide higher quality water at lower treatment and operating costs compared to direct intake from polluted surface sources.
The quality of irrigation water significantly impacts the effectiveness of fertilizers and pesticides. Water pH outside the optimal range of 4-6.5 can compromise pesticide performance by causing the chemicals to fall out of solution or break down more quickly. Fertilizer absorption by plant roots is also optimized at a soil and water pH of 5.5-6.5. High pH water can cause phosphate fertilizers to precipitate out as less soluble calcium or magnesium compounds. Maintaining appropriate water pH levels through the use of acidifiers or conditioners is important for maximizing the benefits of applied chemicals and nutrients.
Irrigation water management for water management in high water table areas & canal irrigation management, water logging, Drainage system, Canal irrigation management, farmer's participation in management, Water users organization(WUA),
The document discusses the physics behind how kites are able to fly. It explains that kites generate lift through Bernoulli's principle and Newton's third law of motion as air flows over and under the kite. The main forces acting on a kiting are lift, which overcomes the kite and rider's weight; drag from air movement; and gravity pulling downward. A kite's position in different wind conditions affects these forces.
This document discusses energy kites, an alternative renewable energy technology. Energy kites replace traditional wind turbines by using kites tethered to the ground that fly in circular trajectories to harness wind power. They have three main components: the kite, tether, and ground station. Energy kites operate at higher altitudes where winds are stronger and more consistent, allowing them to generate more energy with less infrastructure and land use than other renewable technologies like wind turbines and solar panels. While energy kites face limitations from weather and require airspace restrictions, they could significantly reduce pollution and global warming if implemented on a large scale.
There are several people at the park engaging in different activities. Two boys are flying kites while two girls sit on a bench under a tree talking. Some other boys are playing with marbles or tops on the ground. Various children and adults are enjoying the outdoors at the park on a nice day.
Soil, Plant, water and atmosphere relationshipgtc21187
1. Soil and water are vital resources for plant growth. Soil provides nutrients and support for roots while water transports nutrients and helps plants grow.
2. The water retention properties of soil like bulk density and particle size determine how much water the soil can hold. Generally, finer textured soils like clay retain more water than coarser soils like sand.
3. The soil-water retention curve shows the relationship between soil water content and pressure head. It allows determining how much water the soil holds at different tensions.
This document provides information about irrigation, including its definition, purposes, history, types, and components. It defines irrigation as the artificial application of water to soil, usually used to assist growing crops in dry areas or during low rainfall. Ancient Mesopotamian engineers built elaborate dam and canal systems to distribute water for agricultural and domestic needs. Modern irrigation systems include surface, center pivot, lateral move, and localized drip/sprinkler methods. Proper drainage of excess water is also important for soil health and equipment access. The document discusses drainage system design considerations based on soil, water table, and crop factors.
This document discusses irrigation water management in India. It provides background on irrigation's role in India's agricultural production, noting that over 55% of output comes from irrigated lands. It also details irrigation statistics in India such as total area, arable land area, and water availability. The document outlines India's classification of irrigation projects and discusses various irrigation policies, strategies and case studies. It provides an in-depth case study of the Samrat Ashoka Sagar Irrigation Project, describing its location, command area, participating organizations, and functions of water user associations. The conclusion emphasizes the importance of irrigation for food production in India and the role of farmer organizations in irrigation management.
This document discusses various methods of irrigation, including surface irrigation methods like furrow irrigation, contour farming, and flooding methods. It also discusses subsurface irrigation methods like sprinkler irrigation and drip/trickle irrigation. For each method, it describes the basic components and process, as well as advantages and disadvantages. Surface irrigation methods are best suited for row crops, while sprinkler and drip irrigation methods reduce evaporation and allow more precise water and fertilizer application. Drip irrigation in particular minimizes water usage and loss. The document emphasizes matching the appropriate irrigation method to field and crop conditions.
The document discusses synchronous and asynchronous counters. It begins by explaining the difference between synchronous and asynchronous counters. Asynchronous counters have the clock signal applied to only the first flip-flop, while synchronous counters have the clock applied to all flip-flops simultaneously. The document then discusses various types of counters like up counters, down counters, decade counters, and up-down counters. It provides circuit diagrams and timing diagrams to illustrate the operation of these counters. It also discusses using integrated circuits like the 74293 to implement asynchronous counters of different moduli. Finally, it notes some disadvantages of asynchronous counters and why synchronous counters are preferable.
This document discusses soil-plant and plant-water relations, including rooting characteristics of different plant types, factors influencing root development, types of water movement in soil, and water absorption by plants. It also covers crop water requirements, water use efficiency, scheduling irrigation using different methods, and quality of irrigation water including criteria used to determine quality and management practices for using poor quality water.
This document discusses rainwater harvesting and watershed management. It defines water harvesting as capturing freshwater sources like rainwater and runoff and storing it for uses like irrigation, drinking water, and groundwater recharge. Rainwater harvesting specifically refers to collecting rainwater from rooftops or land surfaces and storing it. There are rural and urban models of rainwater harvesting in India. Watershed management aims to sustainably manage land, vegetation, and water resources within a drainage area. It outlines objectives, parameters, and practices like conserving soil/water, improving water retention, growing greenery, and structures like contour bunds and check dams.
This document discusses the problems caused by poor quality irrigation water and methods for managing them. It notes that poor quality water can turn good soil saline or sodic due to dissolved salts, adversely affecting crop growth. Issues include difficulty extracting water, reduced soil permeability, toxicity symptoms in plants, and effects on plant anatomy, physiology, and nutrition uptake. Over 1.5 million hectares in India are affected. Management techniques include applying organic matter to improve soil structure, mixing good and poor quality water, drainage improvements, and growing salt tolerant crops. Fertilizer rates may need slight increases when using poor quality water.
This document discusses the management of poor quality irrigation water. It outlines criteria for determining water suitability, including total dissolved solids, sodicity, and anion/cation components. Adverse effects of poor quality water are then described, such as reduced infiltration from high sodium content. The document proposes various management practices for saline, alkali, and waste water. These include leaching, drainage, salt tolerant crops, amendments like gypsum, and water treatment methods. Improved irrigation techniques including drip and sprinkler irrigation are also recommended.
This document summarizes water management techniques for horticultural crops. It discusses the importance of proper water management for crop production. It provides tips on knowing soil water holding capacity, using soil moisture monitoring, choosing appropriate irrigation equipment, scheduling irrigation efficiently, and auditing water use performance. The document then covers various topics in more depth, including water quality, water storage options, irrigation system design and equipment types, scheduling based on crop needs, and techniques for monitoring soil moisture and irrigation performance.
Quality of Irrigation Water[Replica].pptxDIBYADas17
The document discusses criteria for determining the quality of irrigation water, including total salt concentration, sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), bicarbonate content, and boron concentration. It explains that salinity refers to total soluble salts, which is measured by electrical conductivity. The SAR indicates the proportion of sodium to other cations and affects soil properties. While boron is an essential micronutrient, excess amounts can harm plants. Management practices for poor quality water include applying gypsum to reduce SAR, alternating irrigation sources, proper fertilizer application, appropriate irrigation methods, and choosing salt-tolerant crops.
This document summarizes sustainable stormwater management strategies. It discusses how poor management can cause flooding and pollution issues. Sustainable approaches include low impact development techniques that mimic natural water flows, as well as best management practices like retention basins, infiltration trenches, porous pavement, and rain gardens. These techniques aim to reduce runoff volumes and filter out pollutants. The case study describes a public housing project in Singapore that uses an integrated system of bioretention basins and underground gravel layers to detain stormwater, regulate flows to pre-development levels, and improve water quality.
The study of the source of disposal is important because the amount of treatment required to be given to sewage depends very much upon the source of disposal, its quality, and capacity to tolerate the impurities present in the sewage effluents, without itself getting potentially polluted or becoming less useful.
Surface irrigation methods like furrow and border strip irrigation distribute water over soil surfaces using gravity. Furrow irrigation involves making small channels along slopes for water to flow down, while border strip irrigation uses longer borders oriented with slopes. These methods are suited for row crops but often result in non-uniform water distribution and issues like waterlogging or salinity if not properly managed through drainage and controlling water amounts. Drip and sprinkler irrigation use pipes and emitters to supply water directly to plant roots, allowing more control and efficiency. The appropriate irrigation method depends on factors like crop type, water source, and land characteristics.
Bridge between ep & eia for the salinity of vadodara regionParth Sadaria
The document discusses soil salinization in the Vadodara region of Gujarat, India. Around 50% of the land in the region has become saline due to sea water and industrial activities. Major industries are located in Savli, Vaghodia, and Halol talukas, and the land along the Mahi River in Padra taluka has also become saline. Only 12% of land samples in Vadodara district remain suitable for irrigation. The document outlines causes and impacts of soil salinization, as well as management approaches like using salt-tolerant crops and planting mangroves to reduce salinity in the Mahi River belt.
This document discusses various sources of water for potable water supply. It describes surface water sources like rivers, streams, ponds and lakes. It also describes subsurface sources like springs, wells and tube wells. It provides details on ponds and lakes, rivers and streams, and reservoirs as surface water sources. It discusses the quality of water from these different sources. It also summarizes the characteristics of groundwater versus surface water sources. The document provides guidance on selecting appropriate water sources based on factors like quantity, quality, distance, topography and elevation. It discusses water supply considerations and methods for rural areas.
Through this Slide Share we can seek to harness the benefits of water by ensuring that there is sufficient water for growth of mulberry plants and the different resources from which this water is obtained.
The document discusses factors that affect water quality and cause deterioration. It notes that water quality is influenced by both natural factors like geology and hydrology as well as human interferences. The major threats to water quality are scarcity, pathogenic pollution, oxygen depletion, salinity, and toxicity. The main causes of water quality degradation are point sources of pollution like domestic and industrial wastewater, and non-point sources like agricultural and storm runoff. Untreated sewage is a significant pollutant as India has a large gap between sewage generation and treatment. Other problems discussed are high levels of biochemical oxygen demand, coliform bacteria, heavy metals, and chemicals. Both river and groundwater quality are adversely impacted.
Irrigation engineering involves planning and designing water supply systems for crop irrigation. Key factors that necessitate irrigation include insufficient or uneven rainfall, requirements of perennial crops, and converting desert areas. Benefits of irrigation include increased crop yields, elimination of mixed cropping, prosperity of farmers, and sources of revenue from water taxes. Factors affecting the water requirements of crops include climate, soil type, irrigation method, and ground slope. Important terms include gross command area, culturable command area, crop rotation, base period, delta, and duty. The relationship between duty, base period, and delta is defined. Methods to improve duty involve efficient irrigation methods, reducing canal seepage and evaporation losses, and farmer training.
ppt on 10th class social science topic- Water resources.It contains topics like water sources, types of sources, water scarcity, water conservation and conservation methods.
Rainwater harvesting is the collection and storage of rainwater from surfaces like rooftops. It helps address water scarcity by supplementing other water sources and relieving pressure on them. Some key techniques include collecting rainwater from rooftops in tanks, or from streams and rivers during monsoon season. The main components are the catchment surface, delivery systems like pipes, and storage units like tanks. Rainwater harvesting provides multiple benefits like improving groundwater quality, increasing water levels in wells, and mitigating drought impacts. While maintenance costs can be a disadvantage, it is an important solution to water problems in areas with inadequate resources.
The document discusses the management of salt-affected soils. It describes salt-affected soils as those with soluble salts that affect crop growth. Management involves maintaining downward water and salt movement, reducing groundwater replenishment and ingress of salts. Specific techniques include planned irrigation, controlling surplus water, improving drainage, crop selection based on salt tolerance, and leaching to manage soil salinity.
Similar to B Sc Agri II Wmmi U 4 Water Management (20)
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The document discusses various types of retailers including specialty stores, department stores, supermarkets, convenience stores, and discount stores. It then covers marketing decisions for retailers related to target markets, product assortment, store services, pricing, promotion, and store location. The document also discusses wholesaling, including the functions of wholesalers, types of wholesalers, and marketing decisions faced by wholesalers.
This document discusses marketing channels and channel management. It defines marketing channels as sets of interdependent organizations that make a product available for use. Channels perform important functions like information gathering, stimulating purchases, negotiating prices, ordering, financing inventory, storage, and payment. Channel design considers customer expectations, objectives, constraints, alternatives that are evaluated. Channel management includes selecting, training, motivating, and evaluating channel members. Channels are dynamic and can involve vertical, horizontal, and multi-channel systems. Conflicts between channels must be managed to balance cooperation and competition.
The document discusses integrated marketing communication and its various elements. It defines integrated marketing communication as combining different communication modes like advertising, sales promotion, public relations, personal selling, and direct marketing to provide a complete communication portfolio to audiences. It also discusses the communication process and how each element of the marketing mix communicates to customers. The document provides details on the key components of an integrated marketing communication mix and how it can be used to build brand equity.
Pricing is a key element in determining the profitability and success of a business. The price must be set correctly - if too high, demand may decrease and the product may be priced out of the market, but if too low, revenue may not cover costs. Pricing strategies should consider the product lifecycle stage, costs, competitors, and demand factors. Common pricing methods include penetration pricing for new products, market skimming for premium products, value pricing based on perceived worth, and cost-plus pricing which adds a markup to costs. Price affects demand through price elasticity, with elastic demand more sensitive to price changes.
The document discusses various aspects of branding such as definitions of a brand, brand positioning, brand name selection, brand sponsorship, brand development strategies like line extensions and brand extensions, challenges in branding, importance of packaging, labeling, and universal product codes. It provides examples of well-known brands and analyzes their branding strategies. The key points covered are creating emotional value for customers, building relationships and loyalty, using brands to project aspirational lifestyles and values to command premium prices.
This document outlines the key stages in the new product development (NPD) process. It begins with generating ideas for new products, which can come from internal or external sources. Ideas are then screened using criteria like market size and development costs. Successful concepts are developed and test marketed to customers. If testing goes well, the product proceeds to commercialization with a full market launch. The NPD process helps companies focus their resources on projects most likely to be rewarding and brings new products to market more quickly. It describes common challenges in NPD like defining specifications and managing resources and timelines, and how to overcome them through planning and cross-functional involvement.
A product is an item offered for sale that can be physical or virtual. It has a life cycle and may need to be adapted over time to remain relevant. A product needs to serve a purpose, function well, and be effectively communicated to users. It also requires a name to help it stand out.
A product hierarchy has multiple levels from core needs down to specific items. These include the need, product family, class, line, type, and item or stock keeping unit.
Products go through a life cycle with stages of development, introduction, growth, maturity, and decline. Marketing strategies must adapt to each stage such as heavy promotion and price changes in introduction and maturity.
This document discusses barriers between marketing researchers and managerial decision makers. It identifies three types of barriers: behavioral, process, and organizational. Specific behavioral barriers discussed include confirmatory bias, the difficulty balancing creativity and data, and the newcomer syndrome. Process barriers include unsuccessful problem definition and research rigidity. Organizational barriers include misuse of information asymmetries. The document also discusses ethical issues in marketing research such as deceptive practices, invasion of privacy, and breaches of confidentiality.
The document discusses best practices for organizing, writing, and presenting a marketing research report. It provides guidance on structuring the report with appropriate headings, formatting the introduction and conclusion/recommendation sections, effectively utilizing visuals like tables and graphs, and tips for an ethical and impactful oral presentation of the findings. The goal is to clearly communicate the research results and insights to the client to inform their decision-making.
This document discusses marketing research and its key steps and methods. Marketing research involves collecting, analyzing and communicating information to make informed marketing decisions. There are 5 key steps in marketing research: 1) define the problem, 2) collect data, 3) analyze and interpret data, 4) reach a conclusion, 5) implement the research. Common data collection methods include interviews, surveys, observations, and experiments. The data is then analyzed using statistical techniques like frequency, percentages, and means to interpret the findings and their implications for marketing decisions.
Bdft ii, tmt, unit-iii, dyeing & types of dyeing,Rai University
Dyeing is a method of imparting color to textiles by applying dyes. There are two major types of dyes - natural dyes extracted from plants/animals/minerals and synthetic dyes made in a laboratory. Dyes can be applied at different stages of textile production from fibers to yarns to fabrics to finished garments. Common dyeing methods include stock dyeing, yarn dyeing, piece dyeing, and garment dyeing. Proper dye and method selection are needed for good colorfastness.
Bsc agri 2 pae u-4.4 publicrevenue-presentation-130208082149-phpapp02Rai University
The government requires public revenue to fund its political, social, and economic activities. There are three main sources of public revenue: tax revenue, non-tax revenue, and capital receipts. Tax revenue is collected through direct taxes like income tax, which are paid directly to the government, and indirect taxes like sales tax, where the burden can be shifted to other parties. Non-tax revenue sources include profits from public enterprises, railways, postal services, and the Reserve Bank of India. While taxes provide wide coverage and influence production, they can also reduce incentives to work and increase inequality.
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Public finance involves the taxing and spending activities of government. It focuses on the microeconomic functions of government and examines taxes and spending. Government ideology can view the community or individual as most important. In the US, the federal government has more spending flexibility than states. Government spending has increased significantly as a percentage of GDP from 1929 to 2001. Major items of federal spending have shifted from defense to entitlements like Social Security and Medicare. Revenues mainly come from individual income taxes, payroll taxes, and corporate taxes at the federal level and property, sales, and income taxes at the state and local levels.
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The document discusses the classical theory of inflation and how it relates to money supply. It states that inflation is defined as a rise in the overall price level in an economy. The quantity theory of money explains that inflation is primarily caused by increases in the money supply as controlled by the central bank. When the money supply grows faster than the amount of goods and services, it leads to too much money chasing too few goods and a rise in prices, or inflation. The document also notes that hyperinflation, which is a very high rate of inflation, can occur when governments print too much money to fund spending.
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3.2 introduction to macro economicsRai University
This document provides an introduction to macroeconomics. It defines macroeconomics as the study of national economies and the policies that governments use to affect economic performance. It discusses key issues macroeconomists address such as economic growth, business cycles, unemployment, inflation, international trade, and macroeconomic policies. It also outlines different macroeconomic theories including classical, Keynesian, and unified approaches.
Market structure identifies how a market is composed in terms of the number of firms, nature of products, degree of monopoly power, and barriers to entry. Markets range from perfect competition to pure monopoly based on imperfections. The level of competition affects consumer benefits and firm behavior. While models simplify reality, they provide benchmarks to analyze real world situations, where regulation may influence firm actions.
This document discusses the concept of perfect competition in economics. It defines perfect competition as a market with many small firms, identical products, free entry and exit of firms, and complete information. The document outlines the key features of perfect competition including: a large number of buyers and sellers, homogeneous products, no barriers to entry or exit, and profit maximization by firms. It also discusses the short run and long run equilibrium of a perfectly competitive firm, including cases where firms experience super normal profits, normal profits, or losses.
TOPIC OF DISCUSSION: CENTRIFUGATION SLIDESHARE.pptxshubhijain836
Centrifugation is a powerful technique used in laboratories to separate components of a heterogeneous mixture based on their density. This process utilizes centrifugal force to rapidly spin samples, causing denser particles to migrate outward more quickly than lighter ones. As a result, distinct layers form within the sample tube, allowing for easy isolation and purification of target substances.
Candidate young stellar objects in the S-cluster: Kinematic analysis of a sub...Sérgio Sacani
Context. The observation of several L-band emission sources in the S cluster has led to a rich discussion of their nature. However, a definitive answer to the classification of the dusty objects requires an explanation for the detection of compact Doppler-shifted Brγ emission. The ionized hydrogen in combination with the observation of mid-infrared L-band continuum emission suggests that most of these sources are embedded in a dusty envelope. These embedded sources are part of the S-cluster, and their relationship to the S-stars is still under debate. To date, the question of the origin of these two populations has been vague, although all explanations favor migration processes for the individual cluster members. Aims. This work revisits the S-cluster and its dusty members orbiting the supermassive black hole SgrA* on bound Keplerian orbits from a kinematic perspective. The aim is to explore the Keplerian parameters for patterns that might imply a nonrandom distribution of the sample. Additionally, various analytical aspects are considered to address the nature of the dusty sources. Methods. Based on the photometric analysis, we estimated the individual H−K and K−L colors for the source sample and compared the results to known cluster members. The classification revealed a noticeable contrast between the S-stars and the dusty sources. To fit the flux-density distribution, we utilized the radiative transfer code HYPERION and implemented a young stellar object Class I model. We obtained the position angle from the Keplerian fit results; additionally, we analyzed the distribution of the inclinations and the longitudes of the ascending node. Results. The colors of the dusty sources suggest a stellar nature consistent with the spectral energy distribution in the near and midinfrared domains. Furthermore, the evaporation timescales of dusty and gaseous clumps in the vicinity of SgrA* are much shorter ( 2yr) than the epochs covered by the observations (≈15yr). In addition to the strong evidence for the stellar classification of the D-sources, we also find a clear disk-like pattern following the arrangements of S-stars proposed in the literature. Furthermore, we find a global intrinsic inclination for all dusty sources of 60 ± 20◦, implying a common formation process. Conclusions. The pattern of the dusty sources manifested in the distribution of the position angles, inclinations, and longitudes of the ascending node strongly suggests two different scenarios: the main-sequence stars and the dusty stellar S-cluster sources share a common formation history or migrated with a similar formation channel in the vicinity of SgrA*. Alternatively, the gravitational influence of SgrA* in combination with a massive perturber, such as a putative intermediate mass black hole in the IRS 13 cluster, forces the dusty objects and S-stars to follow a particular orbital arrangement. Key words. stars: black holes– stars: formation– Galaxy: center– galaxies: star formation
Mechanisms and Applications of Antiviral Neutralizing Antibodies - Creative B...Creative-Biolabs
Neutralizing antibodies, pivotal in immune defense, specifically bind and inhibit viral pathogens, thereby playing a crucial role in protecting against and mitigating infectious diseases. In this slide, we will introduce what antibodies and neutralizing antibodies are, the production and regulation of neutralizing antibodies, their mechanisms of action, classification and applications, as well as the challenges they face.
PPT on Sustainable Land Management presented at the three-day 'Training and Validation Workshop on Modules of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Technologies in South Asia' workshop on April 22, 2024.
PPT on Alternate Wetting and Drying presented at the three-day 'Training and Validation Workshop on Modules of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Technologies in South Asia' workshop on April 22, 2024.
Anti-Universe And Emergent Gravity and the Dark UniverseSérgio Sacani
Recent theoretical progress indicates that spacetime and gravity emerge together from the entanglement structure of an underlying microscopic theory. These ideas are best understood in Anti-de Sitter space, where they rely on the area law for entanglement entropy. The extension to de Sitter space requires taking into account the entropy and temperature associated with the cosmological horizon. Using insights from string theory, black hole physics and quantum information theory we argue that the positive dark energy leads to a thermal volume law contribution to the entropy that overtakes the area law precisely at the cosmological horizon. Due to the competition between area and volume law entanglement the microscopic de Sitter states do not thermalise at sub-Hubble scales: they exhibit memory effects in the form of an entropy displacement caused by matter. The emergent laws of gravity contain an additional ‘dark’ gravitational force describing the ‘elastic’ response due to the entropy displacement. We derive an estimate of the strength of this extra force in terms of the baryonic mass, Newton’s constant and the Hubble acceleration scale a0 = cH0, and provide evidence for the fact that this additional ‘dark gravity force’ explains the observed phenomena in galaxies and clusters currently attributed to dark matter.
Sexuality - Issues, Attitude and Behaviour - Applied Social Psychology - Psyc...PsychoTech Services
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2. Quality of irrigation water
• Whatever may be the source of irrigation water viz., river,
canal, tank, open well or tube well, some soluble salts are always
dissolved in it. The main soluble constituent in water are Ca, Mg,
Na and K as cations and chloride, sulphate bicarbonate and
carbonate as anions. However ions of other elements such as
lithium, silicon, bromine, iodine, copper, cobalt, fluorine, boron,
titanium, vanadium, barium, arsenic, antimony, beryllium,
chromium, manganese, lead, selenium phosphate and organic
matter are also present. Among the soluble constituents, calcium,
sodium, sulphate, bicarbonate and boron are important in
determining the quality of irrigation water and its suitability for
irrigation purposes. However other factors such as soil texture,
permeability, drainage, type of crop etc., are equally important in
determining the suitability of irrigation water. The following are the
most common problems that result from using poor quality water.
3. • 1. Salinity
• If the total quantity of salts in the irrigation water is high, the salts will
accumulate in the crop root zone and affect the crop growth and yield. Excess salt
condition reduces uptake of water due to high concentration of soil solution.
•
• 2. Permeability
• Some specific salts reduce the rate of infiltration in to the soil profile.
•
• 3. Toxicity
• When certain constituents of water are taken up by plans which
accumulates in large quantities and results in plant toxicity and reduces yield.
•
• 4. Miscellaneous
• Excessive Nitrogen in irrigation water causes excessive vegetative growth
and leads to lodging and delayed crop maturity. White deposits on fruits or leaves
may occur due to sprinkler irrigation with high bicarbonate water.
5. Factors affecting suitability of waters
for irrigation
• The suitability of particular water for irrigation is
governed by the following factors.
• Chemical composition of water (TSS, pH; CO3, HCO3, Cl, So4,
Ca, Mg, Na, and B)
• Total concentration of soluble salts or salinity (EC)
• Concentration of sodium ions, in proportion to calcium and
magnesium or sodicity (SAR);
• Trace element boron may be toxic to plant growth, if
present in limits beyond permissible
• The effect of salt on crop growth is of osmotic nature. If
excessive quantities of soluble salts accumulate in the root
zone the crop has extra difficult in extracting enough water
from salty solution, thereby affecting the yields adversely.
6. • Besides this, total salinity depends of the extent to which exchangeable
sodium percentage (ESP) of soil increase as a result of adsorption of
sodium from water. This increase depends on sodium percentage.
• Soil characteristics like structure, texture, organic matter, nature of clay
minerals, topography etc.
• Plant characteristics like tolerance of plant varies with different stages of
growth. The germinating and seedling stages are usually the most
sensitive to salinity.
• Climatic factors can modify plant response to salinity. Tolerance to saline
water irrigation is often greater in winter than in the summer. Rainfall is
the most significant factor for the leaching of salts from the plant root
zone. Temperature also plays a vital role.
• Management practices also play great role. Wherever saline water is used
for irrigation, adoption of management practices which allow minimum
salt accumulation in the root zone of the soil is necessary.
7. Points to be considered for the management and use
of poor quality water
• Application of greater amounts of organic matter such
as FYM, compost etc., to the soil to improve
permeability and structure.
• Increasing the proportion of calcium, through addition
of gypsum (CaSO4) to the irrigation water in the
channel, by keeping pebbles mixed pure gypsum
bundles in the irrigation tank.
• Mixing of good quality water with poor water in proper
proportions so that both the sources of water are
effectively used to maximum advantage.
• Periodical application of organic matter and raising as
well as incorporation of green manure crops in the soil.
8. • Irrigating the land with small quantities of water at
frequent intervals instead of large quantity at a time.
• Application of fertilizer may be increased slightly more than
the normally required and preferably ammonium sulphate
for nitrogen, super phosphate and Di Ammonium
Phosphate (DAP) for phosphorus application
• Drainage facilities must be improved
• Raising of salt tolerant crops such as cotton, ragi, sugar
beet, paddy, groundnut, sorghum, corn, sunflower, chillies,
tobacco, onion, tomato, garden beans, amaranthus and
lucerne.
•
9. Use of poor quality water
• Besides the salinity and alkalinity hazard of water,
some industrial effluents and sewage water are also
problem water that can be reused by proper treatment.
The complex growth of industries and urbanization (Urban
development) leads to massive increase in waste water in
the form of sewage and effluent. Waste water supplies not
only nutrient but also some toxic elements such as total
solids of chloride, carbonate, bicarbonate, sulphate, sodium
chromium, calcium magnesium, etc., in high concentration.
Besides this the effluent or waste water creates BOD (Bio
chemical Oxygen Demand) These waste water when used
for irrigation leads to surface and sub surface source of
pollution due to horizontal and vertical seepage.
10. Projected waste-water Utilization
• It is estimated that 287,000 million m3 of waste
water can be reusable during 2000 A.D. Hence this
waste water can be properly treated as follows
• Dilute with good quality water in the ratio of 50:50 or
75:25
• Alternate irrigation with waste water and good quality
water
• Treat the effluent water through fill and draw tanks,
lime tank, equalization tank, settling tank, sludge
removal tank, aerobic and anaerobic treatment tanks
etc.
11. Water requirement for different crops
• Rice
• Total water requirement is 1100 -1250 mm
• The daily consumptive use of rice varies from 6-10 mm and total water is ranges from
1100 to 1250 mm depending upon the agro climatic situation. Of the total water required for
the crop, 3% or 40 mm is used for the nursery, 16% or 200 mm for the land preparation i.e.
puddling and 81% or 1000 mm for field irrigation of the crop.
• The growth of rice plant in relation to water management can be divided into four
periods viz., Seedling, vegetative, reproductive and ripening. Less water is consumed during
seedling stage. At the time of transplanting, shallow depth of 2 cm is adequate and
maintained upto 7 days and there after 5 cm of submergence is necessary to facilitate
development of new roots. The same water level is required for tiller production during the
vegetative phase. At the beginning of the maximum tillering stage the entire water in the
field can be drained and left as such for one or two days which is termed as mid season
drainage. This mid season drainage may improve the respiratory functions of the roots,
stimulate vigorous growth of roots and checks the development of non-effective tillers. Any
stress during the vegetative phase may affect the root growth and reduce the leaf area.
•
12. • During flowering phase 5 cm submergence should be maintained
because it is a critical stage of water requirement. Stress during this
phase will impair all yield components and cause severe reduction
in yield. Excess water than 5 cm is also not necessary especially at
booting stage which may lead to delay in heading.
• Water requirement during ripening phase is less and water is
not necessary after yellow ripening. Water can be gradually
drained from the field 15-21 days ahead of harvest of crop.
Whenever 5 cm submergence is recommended the irrigation
management may be done by irrigating to 5 cm submergence at
saturation or one or two days after the disappearance of ponded
water. This will result in 30% saving of irrigation water compared to
the continuous submergence.
13. • Groundnut
• Total water requirement 500-550 mm
• Evapotranspiration is low during the first 35 days after
sowing and last 35 days before harvest and reaches a peak
requirement between peg penetration and pod
development stages. After the sowing irrigation the second
irrigation can be scheduled 25 days after sowing i.e. 4 or 6
days after first hand hoeing and thereafter irrigation
interval of 15 days is maintained upto peak flowering.
During the critical stages the interval may be 7 or 10 days
depending upon the soil and climate. During maturity
period the interval is 15 days.
14. • Sugarcane
• Total water requirement: 1800-2200 mm
• Formative phase (120 days from planting) is the critical period for water demand. To ensure
uniform emergence and optimum number of tillers per unit area lesser quantity of water at more
frequencies is preferable. The response for applied water is more during this critical phase during
which the crop needs higher quantity of water comparing, the other two phases. Water
requirement, number of irrigations etc., are higher during this period. As there is no secondary
thickening of stem, elongation of stem as sink for storage of sugar it is desirable to maintain
optimum level of moisture during grand growth period. Response for water is less in this stage and
this will be still less in the ripening stage. During the ripening phase as harvest time approaches
soil moisture content should be allowed to decrease gradually so that growth of cane is checked
and sucrose content is increased.
• Maize
• Total water requirement: 500 – 600 mm
• The water requirement of maize is higher but it is very efficient in water use. Growth stages
of maize crop are sowing, four leaf stage, knee high, grand growth, tasseling, silking early dough
and late dough stages. Crop uniformly requires water in all these stages. Of this, tasseling, silking
and early dough stages are critical periods.
15. • Mango
• In an annual growth cycle mango has two critical periods of high water demand. One is after
harvesting up to flushing and flush maturity. Then the second and the most important critical water
demand arise with the flowering of the trees and this continues up to fruit maturity. During these
periods, the quantities of water demands are very high and are determined by the variety, tree age
and tree size, soil type and climatic conditions prevailing on these periods such as rain fall,
temperature, ET and wind velocity. However, the research information on exact water requirements
are not available and therefore it should be decided by the grower looking into the principles
behind the water requirements of trees as well as taking into consideration the climatic and soil
conditions. As a basic guideline to estimate water needs, as mentioned above 25 mm per week to
the root zone may be followed for periods with peak water demand.
• After the flush mature the irrigation water applications must be cut down significantly up to
flowering time. This is because mango need 2 - 4 month dormant period before flowering as a pre
condition for the development of floral primordial. If excess water is applied before the onset of
flower primordial, unnecessary growth flushes may come out affecting the subsequent flowering
and fruit production. Therefore, during the period from flush maturity to flowering, irrigation may
be completely cut off. Under extreme drought conditions if trees show signs of water deficiency,
little irrigation may be required to keep the plants alive and active in photosynthesis.
16. • Banana
• Water requirement of banana varies according to topography, soil, climate, cultivar and type
of culture. If there is no rain, the plants should be irrigated immediately after planting. The soil in
banana plantation should not be allowed to dry completely. Bananas are grown both as a rainfed
crop and as an irrigated crop in India. Wherever the adequate rainfall is not available, banana
growers resort to supplement it with irrigation. Proper water management is essential for obtaining
good yields in commercial banana. Banana being a mesophyte requires a huge amount of water
because of the large foliage area and moisture content of the pseudo stem. The consumptive use of
water increased with increase in the available soil moisture level. The total water requirement
varied from 1841 mm to 2150 mm for the various conditions. The per day consumption of water
varied from 4.81 to 6.11 mm. The daily water consumption was greater at higher moisture regimes.
The total number of irrigation ranged from 22 to 78 for the various treatments. Maintenance of
high soil moisture level required frequent irrigation with less quantity of water per irrigation,
whereas, the low moisture regimes required less number of irrigations with more quantity of water
for each irrigation. Maintenance of a high soil moisture range between 60 and 80 per cent of
available soil moisture may be considered optimum for economic production of banana.
17. • Tomato
• Total water requirements (ETm) after transplanting,
of a tomato crop grown in the field for 90 to 120 days,
are 400 to 600 mm, depending on the climate. Water
requirements related to reference evapotranspiration
(ETo) in mm/period are given by the crop factor (Kc) for
different crop development stages, or: during the initial
stage 0. 4 - 0. 5 (10 to 15 days), the development stage
0. 7-0.8 (20 to 30 days), the mid- season stage 1.05-
1.25 (30 to 40 days), the late-season stage 0.8-0.9 (30
to 40 days) and at harvest 0.6-0.65.
18. • Drainage
• Drainage is the process of removal of excess water as free or gravitational water from the
surface and the sub surface of farm lands with a view to avoid water logging and creates favourable
soil conditions for optimum plant growth.
• Need for drainage
• It is generally assumed that in arid region drainage is not necessary and water logging is not
a problem. Even in arid region due to over irrigation and seepage from reservoirs canals etc.,
drainage becomes necessary.
• Irrigation and drainage are complementary practices in arid region to have optimum soil
water balance.
• In humid region drainage is of greater necessity mainly due to heavy precipitation.
• Drainage is required under the following condition
• High water table
• Water ponding on the surface for longer periods
• Excessive soil moisture content above F.C, not draining easily as in clay soil
• Areas of salinity and alkalinity where annual evaporation exceeds rainfall and capillary rise of
ground water occurs
• Humid region with continuous of intermittent heavy rainfall
• Flat land with fine texture soil
• Low lying flat areas surrounded by hills
19. • Characteristics of good drainage system
• It should be permanent
• It must have adequate capacity to drain the area completely
• There should be minimum interference with cultural operated
• There should be minimum loss of cultivable area
• It should intercept or collect water and remove it quickly within
shorter period
• Methods of drainage
• There are two methods
• Surface method
• Sub surface method
20. • Surface drainage
• This is designed primarily to remove excess water from
the surface of soil profile. This can be done by developing
slope in the land so that excess water drains by gravity.
• It is suitable for
• Slowly permeable clay and shallow soil
• Regions of high intensity rainfall
• To fields where adequate out lets are not available
• The land with less than 1.5% slope
• It can be made by
– Land smoothing
– Making field ditches
21. • The surface drainage can be further classified as
• Life drainage
• Gravity drainage
• Field surface drainage
• Ditch drainage
• Lift drainage
• To drain from low lying area or areas having water due to embankment, life
drainage is used. Water to be drained is lifted normally by opened devices
unscoops or by pumping or by mechanical means. This method is costly,
cumbersome and time consuming but effective and efficient to drain standing
water over the soil surface.
• Gravity drainage
• Water is allowed to drain from the areas under higher elevation to lower
reaches through the regulated gravity flow through the out let of various types.
This system is practiced in wet land rice with gentle to moderate slope.
• This method is less costly, easy and effective however the area to be drained
should be leveled smooth and slightly elevated from the drainage source.
22. • Field surface drainage
• The excess water received from the rain or irrigation is drained
through this method. The irrigated basins or furrows are connected
with the drainage under lower elevation which is connected to the
main out let and to the farm pond used for water harvesting. If the
slope of the land is sufficient to drain excess water from the
individual plot, this drain water may be collected and stored locally
in reservoir for recycling for life saving irrigation. This drainage
method is cheap and effective but there is possibility of soil erosion
and distribution of weed seeds along the flow of drainage water.
•
•
23. • Ditch drainage
• Ditches of different dimension are constructed at distances to drain the
excess water accumulated on the surface and inside the soil upto the depth of
ditch. Such ditches may be interceptors or relief drains. This method is adopted in
nurseries, seed beds and rainfed crops. This is an effective and efficient method
but requires smoothening of surface and construction of ditches. This involves
cost and wastage of crop lands. Shifting of soil, restriction for the movement of
farm machineries reconstruction and renovation of ditches during the crop
duration and harvesting of crops and the problems in this method. In flat land,
bed or parallel field ditches may be constructed. The collector ditches should be
across the field ditches.
•
• Advantages Disadvantages
• Low initial cost Low efficiency
• Easy for inspection Loss of cultivable land
• Effective in low Interference to cultural operation
• Permeability area High maintenance cost
24. • Sub surface drainage system
• Sub surface drains are underground artificial channels through
which excess water may flow to a suitable outlet. The purpose is to
lower the ground water level below the root zone of the crop. The
movement of water into sub surface drains is influenced by
• The hydraulic conductivity of soil
• Depth of drain below ground surface
• The horizontal distance between individual drains
• Underground drainage is mostly needed to the
• Medium textured soil
• High value crop
• High soil productivity
25. • There are four types of sub surface drainage
• Tile drainage
• Mole drainage
• Vertical drainage
• Well Drainage / or Drainage wells
• Advantage of sub surface
• There is no loss of cultivable land
• No interference for field operation
• Maintenance cost is less
• Effectively drains sub soil and creates better soil environments
• Disadvantage
• Initial cost is high
• It requires constant attention
• It is effective for soils having low permeability
26. • 1. Title drainage
• This consists of continuous line of tiles laid at a specific depth and
grade so that the excess water enters through the tiles and flow out by
gravity. Laterals collect water from soil and drain into sub main and then
to main and finally to the out let. Tile drains are made with clay and
concrete, Tiles should be strong enough to withstand the pressure and
also resistant to erosive action of chemicals in soil water.
• 2. Mole drainage
• Mole drains are unlined circular earthen channels formed within the
soil by a mole plough. The mole plough has a long blade like shank to
which a cylindical bullet nosed plug is attached known as mole. As the
plough is drawn through the soil the mole forms the cavity to a set depth.
Mole drainage is not effective in the loose soil since the channels
produced by the mole will collapse. This is also not suitable for heavy
plastic soil where mole seals the soil to the movement of water.
27. • 3. Vertical drainage
• Vertical drainage is the disposal of
drainage water through well into porous layers
of earth. Such a layer must be capable of
taking large volume of water rapidly. Such
layers are found in river bed.
• 4. Drainage wells
• The wells are used for the drainage of
agricultural lands especially in irrigated areas.
28. • Systems of drainage
• There are five systems of drainage
• 1. Random 2. Herringbone 3. Grid iron 4. Interceptor
• 1. Random
• This is used where the wet area are scattered and isolated
from each other. The lines are laid more or less at random to drain
these wet areas. The main is located in the largest natural
depression while the submains and laterals extend to the individual
wet areas.
• 2. Herring bone
• In this system the main are in a narrow depression and the
laterals enter the main from both side at an angle of 450 like the
bones of a fish.
29. • 3. Gridiron
• The gridiron is similar to herringbone but the laterals enter the main
only from one side at right angles. It is adopted in flat regularly shaped
fields. This is an efficient drainage system.
• 4. Interceptor
• Ditches of different dimension are constructed at distance to drain
the excess water accumulated on the surface and inside the soil upto the
depth of ditch. Such ditches may be interceptors or relief drains. This
method is adopted in nurseries, seed beds and rainfed crops. This is an
effective and efficient method but requires smoothening of surface and
construction of ditches. This involves cost and wastage of crop lands.
Shifting of soil, restriction for the movement of farm machineries
reconstruction and renovation of ditches during the crop duration and
harvesting of crops are the problems in this method. In flat land, bed or
parallel field ditches may be constructed. The collector ditches should be
across the field ditches.