This chapter has very recently been expanded from being a mere part of the population dynamic topic. A good call since migration has become a pretty big issue in the world today as population mobility has greatly increased in the 21st century.

1. MIGRATION
AS level Geography

2. Contents
• Migration as a Component of Population
• Internal Migration
• International Migration

3. MIGRATION AND
POPULATION CHANGES
PART 1

4. Definition of terms
Migration: The movement of people across a specified
boundary, national or international, to establish a new
place of residence. The UN defines permanent as
lasting more than 1 year
The Core: A region of concentrated economic
development with advanced systems of infrastructure,
resulting in high average income and relatively low
unemployment
The Periphery: A region of low or declining economic
development characterized by low income and relatively
low unemployment

5. Definition of terms
Macro level: Large scale
Meso level: Intermediate scale
Micro level: Small Scale
Chain Migration: When one or a small number of
pioneering migrants have led the way in rural urban
migrations, and other in the same rural communities
follow
Step Migration: A series of shorter, less extreme
migrations from a person’s place of origin to final
destination – such as moving from a farm to a village
and finally to a city

6. Definition of terms
 Stepped migration: When a rural migrant initially /heads for a
familiar small town and then after a period of time moves on
to a larger urban settlement. Over the years, migrants may
take several steps up the urban hierarchy
 Counterurbanisation: The process of population de-
centralization where an increasing number of population
move from large urban areas to rural areas or smaller urban
settlements
 Voluntary migration: A migration of choice where the
individual/ household has a free choice about whether to
move or not
 Forced migration: A migration without a choice when the
individual/ household has little or no choice but to move.

7. Definition of terms
 Someone who has been forced to leave home and
country because of a well-founded fear of persecution on
account of race, religion, social group or political opinion.
 Someone who has been forced to leave his/her home for
reasons similar to a refugee but who remains in the
same country.
 Immigration: Movement of people into a country
 Emigration: movement of people out of a country
 In-migration: Movement of people into a region
 Out-migration: Movement of people out of a region

8. Definition of terms
• Diaspora: The dispersal of people from
their original homeland
• Multiplier effect: Where an increase in the
money supply in a region sets off an
upward spiral of development as this
money circulates the economy

9. Models of Migration
1. E.S. Lee’s Origin-Obstacles-Intervention model
2. Akin Mobugunje’s System Approach
3. Todaro’s Cost-Benefit Model
4. Stark-Todaro’s New Economics of Migration
5. Marxist/ Structuralist Theory
6. Ravenstein’s law
7. Structuration theory
8. Gender Analysis

10. Lee’s Model
• Lee’s Model introduces the idea of push-
pull factor in migration
• Decision is often made as an individual
• Push and Pull factors working to
encourage migration
• With intervening obstacles playing a part

12. Todaro’s Cost-effective
approach
• Migrants’ perception are not
entirely skewed
• They know that initial life in urban
area won’t be entirely positive
• Migrants weigh up the
possibilities of achieving a better
life in the areas of origins to the
areas of destinations
• There are more opportunities in
destinations

14. Stark’s New Economics of
Migration
• An extension of Todaro’s model
• Decision is also by household
• A form of economic diversification
• A cost/reward sharing
• Risk spreading – as a response to rural deprivation

15. Marxist Theory
• A transition to
capitalism
• Market force is the
main factor
• The only option of
alienation from the
land
• Emphasizes the
control market force
has over migrants

16. Structuration Theory
• Incorporate personal motives and
structural forces of economy, society and
culture
• Rules designed to regulate can also create
forces that lead to more opportunity

17. Gender Roles
• Patriarchal society may
lead to men moving more
than women
• Emancipation of women
leads to higher mobility of
the gender
• Higher mobility – whole
movement of household

18. Ravenstein’s Law
1. The ides of distance decay
2. There are always counter-current
3. Dispersion is inverse of absorption
4. Most migration are two ways
5. Longer distance migration will be movement
toward urban areas
6. Most migrants are rural
7. Female migrants migrate more in shorter distance.
Male migrants migrate more in longer distances

19. Constraints/ Obstacles/ Barriers
• Legal obstacles e.g. hukou system
• Obstacles: Distance/ Cost
• Migrants may not have enough money to
move out
• Cost for closing up (may be higher in
MEDCs)
• Actual Cost of transport
• Costs of opening up – is also high

20. Cost for closing up
• Vary according to the
value of the estate
• LEDCs: monetary value
small – personal value
high
• MEDCs: Real estates
agents, legal fees,
possessions

21. Travelling Cost
• Depends on the mode of transport
• Time taken / distance travelled
• Costs for transporting possession
• Danger associated with journey
• Ethnic tension/ discrimination
• Thieves/ Smugglers
• Natural obstcles

22. Opening Up cost
• Usually quite high especially in urban area
• To find an area housing
• Deal with legal fees
• Buy furniture
• Unless: lives in informal housing/ share
with relatives

23. Collecting Data in Migration
• Population censuses
• Migrants registers
• Specific surveys
• Airports etc.

24. INTERNAL MIGRATION
PART 2

25. Distance, Direction, Pattern
• Distance may have filtering effects on
migration – Distance Decay
• Direction: Migration’s direction usually
follows the push-pull factor – usually by
rural-urban movement or periphery to core
movements
• Rural-rural migration is equally important

26. Distance in migration
• Intra-national (within a country)
• Local
• Intra-district/ inter-district (Within district/
between districts)
• Intra-provincial/ Inter-provincial (Within a
province/ between provinces)
• Intra-regional/ Inter regional (Within
regions/ between regions)

27. Distance
• Distance can differentiate types of movements/
types of movers
• Are they: wealthy/ poor
• LEDCs/ MEDCs
• Ethnicity
• Gender
• Family
• Permanent movement or Temporary
movement

28. Directions
• Most prevalent: Periphery – core / Rural-
urban
• From culturally traditional – areas of rapid
changes

29. Directions
• Larger difference in magnitude between
socio-economic (Socio-economic
disparities) = larger scale of rural urban
movement in LEDCs
• Rural-rural movement may also be
common

31. The Causes of Migration
• Reasons for Rural – urban movement
• Political resettling

32. Rural-urban movement causes
• Influence by push/pull factors
• PUSH FACTORS:
Land reforms not complete
Inheritance law – causes the land to be
divided over and over again
Low agricultural output
Natural disasters

33. Rural-urban movement causes
• PUSH FACTORS:
Mechanization – lower farm employment –
rural depopulation – rural service decline
Underemployment
Overpopulation
Activities of governments
Activities of transnational companies

34. Rural-urban movement causes
• PULL FACTORS: based on the
perception?
Better housing
Employment
Proximity to amenities/ services
Improved lifestyle
Reliable source of food

35. Division of causes into 3 scales
• Each scale of motives affect migrants at
different levels
• Macro scale: At a national level
• Meso level: At a regional/ village level
• Micro level: At a family/ personal level

36. Macro-level
• Highlights socio-economic disparity
• Focuses on core-periphery concept
• Akin of the Marxist/ Structuralist concept
• Migrants move in response to market
forces and the need for employment.

37. Macro-level
• In LEDCs – had its start in the colonial era
– most people are forced to move to cities
as workers or by taxation laws
• LEDCs development – urbanization/
industrialization – leads to migrants
movement by the forces of capitalism
• Disproportionate investment – more in
capital cities

38. Meso Level
• More detailed analysis of origin, obstacles,
destinations
• Follows more closely E.S. Lee’s model of
migration
• Todaro's/ Stark's model begin to play a
part
• Individual perception highlighted
• Economic reasons are still very dominant

39. The Micro-level
• Specific circumstances of individual
families
• Conflicts within family?
• Urban relatives/ contact?
• Very important when long distance
involved

40. The Micro-level
• Level of income
• Size of land holding
• Size of household
• Stage in Life Cycle
• Level of Education
• Cohesiveness in family unit

41. Impacts
• Socio-economic Impacts
• Political Impacts
• Demographic Impacts
• Environmental Impacts

42. Socio-Economic
• Remittances has been seen as a benefit to
the area of origin
• Also seen as an out-flow of money from
urban areas

43. Socio-Economic
• The flow of money/ support is not unilateral
1. Remittance sent home to rural areas vs. money sent
to urban areas as start-up cost/ money for
education
2. Migrants move in for education vs. Return of
educated migrants
3. Lost of workforce vs. Return of experienced, skilled
workforce
4. Young villagers vs. return flow of experienced
workers

44. Socio-Economic
• Newly developed opportunities tend to
stimulate new migrants
• However, in some extreme LEDCs –
migrants may be illiterate, unskilled and
uninformed of the opportunities
• Development in rural areas – tend to result
in even more out-migration

45. Socio-Economic
• Rural migrants – young, economically
active workforce
• May provide great workforce
• May also create strains on the resources

46. Socio-Economic
• Impacts on the areas of origins
1. May reduce unemployment/
underemployment
2. Remittances return
3. Migrants return with skills
4. Promotes development in rural regions
5. Leads to migration becoming unnecessary
6. Patriarchal society reversed?

47. Socio-Economic
• Impacts on the areas of origins
1. Lost of agricultural workforce
2. Lost of parents to children
3. Higher need for child labor
4. Can have an effect in widening the
economic gaps – remittances are unequal
5. Rural depopulation – less market force

48. Political Impact
• Depopulation = lower
political
representation
• Increases in migrants
– higher political
influenced
• Changes in the ethnic
composition e.g. Han
Chinese migration
into Tibet

49. Environmental Impact
• Further urbanization in developing
countries
• Leads to deforestation
• Changes in the ecology
• Pressure on land – resources constraints

50. Demographic Impact
• Impacts on age structure/ gender
composition
• Pyramids of rural areas: Losses of young
economically active adult
• Pyramids of urban areas: More young,
economically active adults
• Usually more men moving than woman

51. Stepped Migration
• Occurs – due to the idea of distance decay
– not wanting to leave families, culture,
ethnicity – also could be due to lack of
capital for movements, lack of skills/
connections
• Soon – migrants develop skills,
connections, confidence and financial
capability

52. Stepped migration
village
Market
Town
Regional
city
National
Conurbation/
Primate city

53. Intra-Urban Movement
• Movement within cities – usually in the form of
family life cycle
• Available housing stocks are important
determining factors
• There are contrasts between the spatial life
cycle of rich and poor
• Life cycle/ incomes influence directions, distance
and patterns
• ALSO – the government’s planning of the
housing areas/ associated organization

54. Intra urban movement
• Wealthy = high mobility
• Hence, the more well-off sector of the population tend to
have higher mobility
• For the lower income groups – choices are more
restricted
• In MEDCs lower income groups may be concentrated in
inner urban areas
 Movement within urban areas are response to
employment, growth of cities, finding better environment,
economic changes etc.

55. Family Life Cycle

56. Counter-Urbanization
• Caused by the more appealing non-urban
lifestyles
• Increasing mobility of urbanites: higher
incomes
• Improvement in transport network
• Introduction of commuter communities in
rural-urban fringes

58. Period explanation
• Role of economic/ demographic situations
in 1970 when Counter urbanization first
appeared
• Energy crisis, economic recession, sharp
growth in retirees, post war baby booms
• Emphasis on urban push factors
• Weaken metropolitan growth
• See Counter urbanization as temporary

59. Regional Restructuring
• New organization of production
• Increase importance of service industries
• Spatial divisions of labor change
• Spread of activities toward rural peripheries

60. De-concentration
• Less technological/ institutional barriers
now
• Reducing constraints on infrastructures/
technologies in rural areas
• Hence many companies/ households felt
free to leave urban areas
• The improvement have to also be made
accessible by the other 2 reasons

61. INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
PART 3

62. Changes to International
Migration
• Growth of labor migration/ student migration
due to higher mobility – migrations are now
more temporary, circular
• Spatial impacts have increased with the
scale
• Gender roles – increase female migrants
• Movement is from the weaker to the stronger
economy

63. Changes to International
Migration
• Controls have been
enforced to prevent
illegal immigrations/
security purposes
e.g. after 911
• Globalization –
increases awareness
of opportunities

64. Refugees situations
• Late 20th to early 21s Century
• In Africa and Asia – violent conflicts have
broken out
• Lead population movement in large scale
• Internal displacement and refugees have
both become huge issues
• In 2015, refugee situation was worse than
ever

65. Refugees situations - War
• Increase in weapons and arms availability
• New forms of warfare has impacts that
affect even the civilians
• Light weapons/ land mines at low price –
allow whole population to be armed
• Mass eviction/ expulsion in the form of
ethnic cleansings e.g. in Rwanda

66. Refugees situations
• UNHCR (United Nation High Commission
for Refugees)
• Guarantees security for refugees and
asylum seekers
• Fund more people forced to uproot from
their home – to live nomadic lifestyles

67. WAR

68. Refugees situations
• Natural disasters
• Droughts, floods, volcanic eruptions
• Soil degradation/ Desertification
• Water constraint – e.g. Aral sea
• Almost all was the cause of human actions
• LEDCs most heavily affected – no capital
for prevention

69. Refugees situations
• Large infrastructure projects may also
displace large number of people
• The Xayaburi dam in Mekong
• The Aswan high dam in Egypt

70. Voluntary migration
• Large number of voluntary international
migrations nowadays are for economic
reasons
• Tends to be movement from LEDCs to
MEDCs
• There are also those from MEDCs to
LEDCs – may be for lower living cost

71. Voluntary migration
• Most recent movements – coinciding with
global economic recessions are into the
OECDs (Organization of economic
cooperation and development)

72. Voluntary migration
• Factors influencing movements
• The extent of economic opportunities
• Presence of family members/ those of the
same ethnic origin
• Point of entry

73. Socio-Economic
• Socio-economic status of migrants in
OECDs countries
1. Unemployed compared with nationals/
locals
2. Dirty, dangerous, difficult/dull works
3. Over represented in some industries

74. Industries for foreign migrants in
OECD
• Construction workers
• Hospitality/ hotel
• Catering
• Household services

75. Socio-Economic
• Value of remittances are very important
• Philippines – highest remittance in the
world
• Some will argue it to be the most essential
source of income
• ‘Globalization bottom up’
• Helps alleviate poverty
• Increases investment/ businesses
• Reduces impact of global recession

76. Socio-Economic
• Remittances – multiplier effect in donor
countries
• Although: Brain drain from the donor
countries – are they well compensated by
remittances

77. Socio-Economic
• Assimilation in receiving
countries: racial tension,
differences in language,
culture
• Donor countries: Lost of
dynamic population,
returned migrants have
ideas that may clash
with traditional values

78. Cultural
• Cultural exchange/ globalization
• Multi-cultural society
• Cultural hybrid
• Diaspora population forming ethnic areas
in receiving countries
• Once again, lost of traditional can be an
issue
• Changes in ethnicity/ languages

79. Political
• Migrants have political opinions – tend to be
more to the left wing
• Movement of migrants will also influence the
political importance of areas
• When immigrant population reaches a certain
size – they may form their own real political
union – a representation
• Political tension between donor/ receiving
nations
• Pro-migration agenda of developing nation

80. Environmental
• May argue that environmental problems
(ecological footprints) are increased by
movement of migration fro the receiving
countries
• Increase in resource constraints