BONE – AN INTRODUCTION
A bone is a rigid organ that constitutes part of the vertebrate skeleton.
There are around 270 to 300+ bones in Infants which gets reduced to 206 bones in adults.
Bones are dynamic structures that are undergoing constant change and remodelling in
response to the ever-changing environment.
Bones support and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells,
store minerals, provide structure and support for the body, and enable mobility.
It has a honeycomb-like matrix internally, which helps to give the bone rigidity.
The largest bone in the body is the femur or thigh-bone, and the smallest is the stapes in
the middle ear.
In my presentation, I have described about the anatomy and physiology of bone and also did a elaboration on the pathways which is responsible for bone cells formation. For more details related to bone you can contact me on my email : sheershopramanik24@gmail.com
In my presentation, I have described about the anatomy and physiology of bone and also did a elaboration on the pathways which is responsible for bone cells formation. For more details related to bone you can contact me on my email : sheershopramanik24@gmail.com
synovial joint, definition of synovial joint, diarthrodial joints, components of synovial joint, types of synovial joints, hinge joint with examples, pivot joint with examples, condyloid joint with examples, saddle joint with examples, ball and socket joint with examples, gliding joint with examples, features of synovial joint, synovial membrane, synovial fluid, components of synovial membrane, meniscus, true and accessory ligament of synovial joint, bursae, blood supply of synovial joint, innervation of synovial joint
a brief ppt description about cartilage which may be usefull for teaching for first year mbbs, bds and paramedical students, hope it is helpfull to everyone
all the stages of bone formation described in easiest way possible for better understanding including graphical representation for better understanding. description of each and very thing.
A detail account of Bones, their histological features, classification, composition, Formation, blood and nerve supply, functions, plus some interesting facts about bones.
Bones of lower limb (Human Anatomy)
by DR RAI M. AMMAR
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A joint is an articulation between two bones in the body and are broadly classified by the tissue which connects the bones. The three main types of joints are: synovial, cartilaginous and fibrous.
synovial joint, definition of synovial joint, diarthrodial joints, components of synovial joint, types of synovial joints, hinge joint with examples, pivot joint with examples, condyloid joint with examples, saddle joint with examples, ball and socket joint with examples, gliding joint with examples, features of synovial joint, synovial membrane, synovial fluid, components of synovial membrane, meniscus, true and accessory ligament of synovial joint, bursae, blood supply of synovial joint, innervation of synovial joint
a brief ppt description about cartilage which may be usefull for teaching for first year mbbs, bds and paramedical students, hope it is helpfull to everyone
all the stages of bone formation described in easiest way possible for better understanding including graphical representation for better understanding. description of each and very thing.
A detail account of Bones, their histological features, classification, composition, Formation, blood and nerve supply, functions, plus some interesting facts about bones.
Bones of lower limb (Human Anatomy)
by DR RAI M. AMMAR
www.facebook.com/drraiammar
www.twitter.com/drraiammar
www.instagram.com/drraiammar
www.linkedin.com/in/drraiammar
www.themedicall.com/blog/auther/drraiammar/
For Any Book or Notes Visit Our Website:
www.allmedicaldata.wordpress.com
www.drraiammar.blogspot.com
YOUTUBE CHANNEL :
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCu-oR9V3OdFNTJW5yqXWXxA
ANY QUESTION ??
Get in touch with us at Any of the Above Social Media or Email at
drraiammar@gmail.com
allmedicaldata@gmail.com
A joint is an articulation between two bones in the body and are broadly classified by the tissue which connects the bones. The three main types of joints are: synovial, cartilaginous and fibrous.
Description :
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.for more details please visit
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Bones and its structure in detail with two different form of bone formationbhartisharma175
It consist of detail content about different types of bone cells, two different type of bone formation and structure of long bone. easy to understand for students. language is simple.
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.for more details please visit
www.indiandentalacademy.com
astigmatism
AstigmatismAstigmatism Walter Huang, ODWalter Huang, OD Yuanpei UniversityYuanpei University Department of OptometryDepartment of Optometry
2. DefinitionDefinition When parallel rays of light enter the eyeWhen parallel rays of light enter the eye ((with accommodation relaxedwith accommodation relaxed) and do) and do notnot come to a single point focus on or nearcome to a single point focus on or near the retinathe retina
3. OpticsOptics Power in thePower in the horizontalhorizontal plane projects aplane projects a verticalvertical focal line imagefocal line image Power in thePower in the verticalvertical plane projects aplane projects a horizontalhorizontal focal line imagefocal line image
4. OpticsOptics Refraction of light taking place at a toricRefraction of light taking place at a toric surface: the conoid of Sturmsurface: the conoid of Sturm
TONOMETRY • Tonometry is the procedure performed to determine the intraocular pressure (IOP).
3. CLASSIFICATION TONOMETRY DIRECT INDIRECT Indentation Applanation Manometer
4. APPLANATION Contact Non-contact Goldmann Perkins Air-puff Pulse air
5. INDENTATION TONOMETER • It is based on fundamental fact that plunger will indent a soft eye more than hard eye. • The indentation tonometer in current use is that of Schiotz . • It was devised in 1905 and continued to refine it through 1927.
6. PROCEDURE • Patient should be anaesthetising with 4% lignocaine or 0.5% proparacaine. • with the patient in supine position, looking up at a fixation target while examiners separates the lids and lower the tonometer plate to rest on the cornea so that plunger is free to move. •
. Introduction Biomicroscope derives its name from the fact that it enables the practitioner to observe the living tissue of eye under magnification. It not only provides magnified view of every part of eye but also allows quantitative measurements and photography of every part for documentation.
3. • The lamp facilitates an examination which looks at anterior segment, or frontal structures, of the human eye, which includes the –Eyelid –Cornea –Sclera –Conjunctiva –Iris –Aqueous –Natural crystalline lens and –Anterior vitreous.
4. Important historical landmarks De Wecker 1863 devised a portable ophthalmomicroscope . Albert and Greenough 1891,developed a binocular microscope which provided stereoscopic view. Gullstrand ,1911 introduced the illumination system which had for the first time a slit diapharm in it Therefore Gullstrand is credited with the invention of slit lamp.
1. Introduction Gross anatomy Layers Blood supply, drainage and nerve supply
2. INTRODUCTION • Sclera forms posterior 5/6th of external tunic , connective tissue coat of eyeball. • it continues with duramater and cornea • Its whole surface covered by tenon’s capsule • Anteriorly covered by- bulbar conjunctiva • Inner surface lies in contact with choroid • With a potential suprachoroidal space in between
3. Equa THICKNESS OF SCLERA
4. • Thickness varies with individual, with age • Thinner- children, elder, F> M • Thickest posteriorly • Gradually becomes thinner when traced anteriorly • Thin at insertion of extraocular muscle
The pupil is an opening located in the center of the iris that allows light to enter the retina. • Its function is to control the amount of light entering the eye and it does this via contraction (miosis) and dilation (mydriasis) under the influence of the autonomic nervous system
3. • The iris is a contractile structure, consisting mainly of smooth muscle, surrounding the pupil. Light enters the eye through the pupil, and the iris regulates the amount of light by controlling the size of the pupil.
4. The iris contains two groups of smooth muscles: a circular group called the sphincter pupillae. and a radial group called the dilator pupillae.
5. Parasympathetic pathway • First Order – Retina to Pretectal Nucleus in B/S (at level of Superior colliculus) Second Order – Pretectal nucleus to E/W nucleus (bilateral innervation!) Third Order – E/W nucleus to Ciliary Ganglion Fourth Order – Ciliary Ganglion to Sphincter pupillae (via short ciliary nerves) • • •
The tear film constitutes Three layers :- An outermost lipid (oily) layer An aqueous (watery) layer that makes up 90% of the tear film volume; and A mucin layer that coats the corneal surface.
3. To form smooth optical surface on cornea. To keep the surface of cornea & conjunctiva moist It serve as lubricant It transfer oxygen Provide antibacterial action Wash debris out It provides a pathway for WBC in case of injury
4. Functions of lipid layer Retards evaporation of tear film Prevents the overflow of tears
5. Function of Aqueous Layer Flushes, buffers and lubricates the corneal surface Delivers oxygen and other nutrients to the corneal surface Wash out debris Delivers antibacterial enzymes and antibodies such as lysozyme.
6. Functions of Mucin Layer Spreads tears over corneal surface. Protects the cornea against foreign substances . Makes corneal surface smooth by filling in surface irregularities
Introduction Transparent,avascular,watch-glass like structure. Forms 1/6th part of outer fibrous coat (Sclera) It is the major refracting surface of the eye
3. Dimensions + Avg horizontal dia =11.75 mm (ant surface) + Avg vertical dia = 11 mm (ant surface ) + Avg dia (post surface)= 11.5 mm + Thickness(centre) =0.52mm + Thickness(peripheral) = 0.67mm + Radius of curvature (ant surface) = 7.8mm + Radius of curvature (post surface)= 6.5mm + Refractive power (ant surface) = +48D + Refractive power(post surface)= - 5D + R.I = 1.376
4. Histology + Epithelium + Bowman’s membrane + Stroma + Dua’s layer + Descemet’s membrane + Endothelium
5. Epithelium + Made up of stratified squamous epithelium + Thickness - 50-90 um + 5-6 layers of cells + Regenerative, entire epithelial layer is replaced every 6-8 days + Made up of 3 types of cells - basal,wing, flattened cells + Cells are attached by to each other by means of desmosomes & maculi occludents
6. Bowman’s membrane + Acellular,Non regenerative + Made up of condensed collagen fibrils. + Thickness - 12um + Resistant to infection & injury.
LIMBUS… • The limbus forms the border between the transparent cornea and opaque sclera, contains the pathways of aqueous humour outflow, and is the site of surgical incisions for cataract and glaucoma
2. Anatomical Limbus: Circumcorneal transitional zone of the conjunctivocorneal & corneoscleral junction Conjunctivo-corneal junction: • Bulbar conjunctiva is firmly adherent to underlying structures • Substantia propria of the conjunctiva stops here but its epithelium continues with that of the cornea. Sclero-corneal junction: • Transparent corneal lamellae become continuous • With the oblique, circular and opaque fibres of sclera
3. CONTINUE…. • In the area near limbus, the conjunctiva, tenon’s capsule & the episcleral tissue are fused into a dense tissue which is strongly adherent to corneo scleral junction.It is preferred site for obtaining a firm hold of the eyeball during ocular surgery. • The limbus is a common site for the occurrence of corneal epithelial neoplasm. • The Limbus contains radially oriented fibrovascular ridge known as the palisades of Vogt that may harbour a stem cell population. The palisades of Vogt are more common in the superior and inferior quadrants around the eye
Diagnosis, Management, and Surgery by Adam J. Cohen, Michael Mercandetti & Brian G. Brazzo. The dry eye , a practical approach by Sudi Patel & Kenny J Blades. Jack J Kanski’s clinical ophthalmology Clinical Anatomy of the Eye by Richard S. Snell & Michael A. Lemp.
3. It is concerned with the tear formation & transport. Lacrimal passage includes : Lacrimal gland Conjunctival sac Lacrimal puncta Lacrimal canaliculi Lacrimal sac Nasolacrimal duct
4. The following components of the lacrimal apparatus are discussed : Embryology Osteology Secretory system Excretory system Physiology
5. Ectodermal origin Solid epithelial buds(first 2 months) Supero
Extraocular musles(EOM) They are six in number Four recti: Superior rectus Inferior rectus Medial rectus Lateral rectus Two oblique muscles: Superior oblique Inferior oblique
3. SUPERIOR RECTUS MUSCLE . Origin Superior part of common annular tendon of Zinn Course Passes anterolaterally beneath the levator At 23 degrees with the globe ‘s AP axis Pierces Tenon s capsule Insertion into sclera by flat tendinous 10 mm broad insertion 7.7 mm behind sclero-corneal junction. 42 mm long 9 mm wide
4. Nerve supply Sup division of 3rd N Blood Supply Lateral Muscular br. of Ophthalmic A APPLIED: SR loosely bound to LPS muscle. • During SR resection- eyelid may be pulled forward narr owing palpebral fissure • In hypotropia pseudoptosis may be present Origin of SR and MR are closely attached to the dural sheat h of the optic nerve pain during upward & inward movements of the globe in RETROBULBAR NEURITIS
Diseases of sclera
2. anatomy • Sclera posterior 5/6th opaque part of the external fibrous tunic of the eyeball.
3. • outer surface }covered by Tenon's capsule. • anterior part } covered by bulbar conjunctiva.
4. Its inner surface lies in contact with choroid with a potential suprachoroidal space in between
5. Thickness of sclera. • thinner }children and in females Sclera • thickest} posteriorly (1mm) • gradually becomes thin when traced anteriorly. • thinnest } insertion of extraocular muscles (0.3 mm). • Lamina cribrosa is a sieve-like sclera from which fibres of optic nerve pass.
6. Apertures of sclera • Anterior • Anterior ciliary vessels • Middle • four vortex veins (vena verticosae) • Posterior • Optic nerve • Long & short ciliary nerves
7. Layers of sclera sclera episclera Sclera proper Lamina fusca thin, dense vascularised layer of connective tissue fibroblasts, macrophages and lymphocytes avascular structure dense bundles of collagen fibres. innermost blends with suprachoroidal and supraciliary laminae of the uveal tract. brownish in colour presence of pigmented cells.
Main physiologic function of cornea is to act as a major refracting medium, so that a clear retinal image is formed. • Normal corneal transparency is result of • 1.anatomical factor such as uniform and regular arrangement of corneal epithelium, peculiar arrangement of corneal lamella and corneal vascularity 2.Physiological factor [ie] relative state of corneal dehydration.
3. • Therefore, any process which upsets the anatomy or physiology of cornea will cause LOSS OF TRANSPARENCY to some degree.
4. FACTORS AFFECTING CORNEAL TRANSPARENCY • CORNEAL EPITHELIUM &TEAR FLIM • ARRANGEMENT OF STROMAL LAMELLA • CORNEAL VASCULARIZATION • CORNEAL HYDRATION • CELLULAR FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPARENCY
CONJUNCTIVA: ANATOMY , PHYSIOLOGY, SYMPTOMATOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION Pranay Shinde DNB Resident Deen Dayal Upadhyay Hospital,New Delhi
2. ANATOMY It is the mucous membrane covering the under surface of the lids and anterior part of the eyeball upto the cornea.
3. Parts of conjunctiva • Palpebral; covering the lids—firmly adherent. • Forniceal; covering the fornices—loose—thrown into folds. • Bulbar; covering the eyeball—loosely attached except at limbus.
4. Palpebral conjunctiva • Subtarsal sulcus 2mm from posterior edge of the lid margin. • Richly vascular. • Extremely thin. • Strongly bound to the tarsal plate.
5. Palpebral conjunctiva is subdivided into three parts: 1)Marginal 2)Tarsal 3)Orbital
6. Conjunctival fornices • Transitional region between palpebral and bulbar conjunctivae. • Superior fornix 10 mm from limbus. • Inferior fornix 8 mm from limbus. • Lateral fornix 14mm from limbus. • Medially absent. • Ducts of lacrimal glands open into lateral part of superior fornix.
q Colour Vision Deficiency Presented by : Optometrist (intern) Asma Al-Jroudi Saudi Arabia, Riyadh, King Abdulaziz University Hospital 30 Dec 14
2. • What Is Color Vision Deficiency? • Causes Of Color Vision Deficiency • Types Of Color Vision Deficiency • Tretments Of Color Vision Deficiency • Ishihara’s Test • Conclousion
3. What is Colour Blindness? • Color blindness, or color vision deficiency, is the inability or decreased ability to see color, or perceive color differences, under normal lighting conditions. •This condition results from an absence of color- sensitive pigment in the cone cells of the retina, the nerve layer at the back of the eye.
4. What is Colour Blindness? • Cones are the coulored light receptors in back of the eye: Red light receptors, Blue light receptors and Green light receptors. • Colour blindness occurs when one or more of the cone types are defected.
5. Causes of Color Blindness • Genetic: Many more men are affected than women. • Acquired : Chronic illness, Accidents, Medications and Age.
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Lecturer: Tatyana V. Ryazantseva
2. Outer eye: Eyelids The eyelids fulfill two main functions: protection of the eyeball secretion, distribution and drainage of tears
3. Lid movement The levator extends from an attachment at the orbital apex to attachments at the tarsal plate and skin. ● The lids are securely attached at either end to the bony orbital margin by the medial and lateral palpebral ligaments. Trauma to the medial ligament causes the lid to flop forward and laterally, impairing function and cosmesis.
4. Innervation - Sensory innervation is from the trigeminal (fifth) cranial nerve, via the ophthalmic division (upper lid) and maxillary division (lower lid). - The orbicularis oculi is innervated by the facial (seventh) nerve. - The levator muscle in the upper lid is supplied by the oculomotor (third) nerve.
5. Blood supply and lymphatics The eyelids are supplied by an extensive network of blood vessels which form an anastomosis between branches derived from the external carotid artery via the face and from the internal carotid artery via the orbit.
6. Blood supply and lymphatics Lymphatic fluid drains into the preauricular and submandibular nodes. Preauricular lymphadenopathy is a useful sign of infective eyelid swelling (especially viral).
Anatomy and Physiology of Aqueous Humor Sumit Singh Maharjan
2. Anatomy
3. Angle of anterior chamber
4. Angle of the Anterior chamber
5. Gonioscopic grading of Angle
6. Aqueous Outflow system
7. Trabecular meshwork
8. Functions of Aqueous Humor • Maintenance of Intraocular pressure • Metabolic role cornea lens vitreous and retina • Optical function • Clearing function
9. Physicochemical properties • volume: 0.31ml (0.25ml in Ant. Chamber and 0.06 in post chamber) • Refractive index: 1.336 • Density: slightly greater than water, its viscocity is 1.025-1.040 • Osmotic pressure: slightly hyperosmotic to plasma by 3-5mosm/l • PH: 7.2 • Rate of formation: 2-2.5microliter/min
10. Biochemical composition • Water: 99.9% • Proteins: 5-16mg/100ml • Amino acids: aqueous/plasma concentration varies from 0.08-3.14 • Non colloidal constituents: conc. of ascorbate, pyruvate, lactate in higher am
Vitreous humour
1. Vitreous Humour
2. General features Vitreous humour is an inert ,transparent , colourless, jellylike, hydrophilic gel that serves the optical functions and also acts as important supporting structures for the eyeball. The vitreous cavity is bounded by anteriorly by the lens and ciliary body and posteriorly by the retina Its weighs nearly 4g Vitreous is an extacellular material composed of approximately 99 per cent water
3. Structure The vitreous body is the largest and simplest connective tissue present as a single piece in the human body Divided into three parts- 1. The hyaloid layer or membrane 2. The cortical vitreous and 3. The medullary vitreous
Vitamins all
1. Vitamins. Definition - Organic compound required in small amounts. Vitamin A Vitamin B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, B12 Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin K A few wordsabout each.
2. Sourcesin diet - Many plants(photoreceptors), also meat, especially liver. Fat soluble, so you can get too much, or too littleif absorption isaproblem. Vitamin A - Retinol Retinol (vitamin A) Someuses: Vision (11-cis-retinol bound to rhodopsin detectslight in our eyes). Regulating genetranscription (retinoic acid receptorson cell nuclei arepart of a system for regulating transcription of mRNAsfor anumber of genes).
Tear film
1. TEAR FILM
2. The outer most layer of the cornea. It is the exposed part of the eyeball. FUNCTION It provide smooth optical surface It serves to keep the surface of cornea and conjunctiva moist. It serves as a lubricant for the preocular surface and lids It transfer oxygen from the air to the cornea Prevent infection due to the presence of antibacterial substance like lysozymes,and other protein. It wash away debris and irritants Provides pathway to WBC in case of injury.
3. LAYERS OF TEAR FILM It consist of three layers: 1.Lipid layer 2.Aqueous layer 3.Mucoid layer 1.LIPID LAYER
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
1. ANATOMY OF BONE
PRESENTED BY: SHEERSHA
PRAMANIK(NIPERA1719MD10)
COURSE INSTRUCTOR: DR. AKSHAY SRIVASTAVA
2. BONE – AN INTRODUCTION
A bone is a rigid organ that constitutes part of the vertebrate skeleton.
There are around 270 to 300+ bones in Infants which gets reduced to 206 bones in adults.
Bones are dynamic structures that are undergoing constant change and remodelling in
response to the ever-changing environment.
Bones support and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells,
store minerals, provide structure and support for the body, and enable mobility.
It has a honeycomb-like matrix internally, which helps to give the bone rigidity.
The largest bone in the body is the femur or thigh-bone, and the smallest is the stapes in
the middle ear.
3. CLASSIFICATION OF BONE
According to position :
1. Axial Skeleton = The axial skeleton is the part of the skeleton
that consists of the bones of the head and trunk of a vertebrate.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_skeleton
4. Contd.
2. Appendicular Skeleton : The appendicular skeleton is composed of the upper limbs, lower limbs,
pectoral girdle, and pelvic girdle. The appendicular skeleton functions to anchor the limbs to the axial
skeleton.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appendicular_skeleton
5. CONTD.
2. According to Size and Shape :
Long bones –
A. DIAPHYSIS: Portion of long bone between two cartilaginous
ends.
- Shaft of long bone.
Consist of Adipose tissue and bone marrow.
Consist of Nutrient Foramen directed away from the growing end.
- Primary Ossification occurs in this region.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaphysis
6. CONTD.
B. EPIPHYSIS : The epiphysis is the rounded end of a long bone,
at its joint with adjacent bone(s).
Epiphyseal Line: The epiphyseal plate ( growth plate) is a hyaline
cartilage plate in the metaphysis at each end of a long bone. It is the part
of a long bone where new bone growth takes place.
Ends of epiphyses are covered with hyaline cartilage("articular cartilage").
C. METAPHYSIS : Metaphysis is the narrow portion of a long bone
between the epiphysis and the diaphysis.
- It consists the growth plate.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_bone
8. CONTD.
Short Bones : Short bones are those bones that are as wide as they are long. Their primary
function is to provide support and stability with little to no movement.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_bone
9. CONTD.
Flat bones : Flat bones are bones whose principal function is either extensive protection or the
provision of broad surfaces for muscular attachment.
They are thin with parallel surface.
Present between two compact bone.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flat_bone
10. CONTD.
Irregular Bones : The irregular bones are bones which form their peculiar form.
-Have complex shapes.
Irregular bones serve various purposes in the body, such as protection of nervous tissue (such as
the vertebrae protect the spinal cord), and maintaining pharynx and trachea support, and tongue attachment
(such as the hyoid bone).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irregular_bone
11. CONTD.
Pneumatic Bones : Certain irregular bones contain large air spaces lined by epithelium.
- Make the skull light in weight,
- Helps in resonance of voice.
- Act as air conditioning chambers for the inspired air.
Examples : Maxilla, Sphenoid etc.
http://infinitespider.com/pneumatic-bones-birds-and-you/
12. CONTD.
Sesamoid Bones : It is the bone which is embedded within a tendon or muscle.
Sesamoids act like pulleys, providing a smooth surface for tendons to slide over, increasing the
tendon's ability to transmit muscular forces.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesamoid_bone
14. STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION (Macroscopically)
1. Compact Bone : Cortical bone, also known as compact bone, forms the hard outer shell of all bones. It is the
strongest and densest form of bone in the body.
- Strong dense (80% of the skeleton)
- Best developed in the cortex of long bones
- The functional unit is Osteon (Haversian System) which contains osteoblasts and arteriole supplying the osteon.
OSTEONS : They are cylindrical, parallel to bone, and are group of hollow tube. Each osteon consists of concentric
layers (Lamellae), of compact bone tissue that surround a central canal, the Haversian canal.
https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/6-skeletal-system/deck/7962817 https://www.dreamstime.com/
15.
16. Microscopically
1. HAVERSIAN CANAL : Haversian canals are a series of microscopic tubes in the outermost
region of bone called cortical bone that allow blood vessels and nerves to travel through them.
- Each Haversian canal generally contains one or two capillaries and nerve fibres.
- The channels are formed by concentric layers called lamellae.
2. LACUNAE : Small spaces between lamellae, each containing a bone cell.
A lacuna never contains more than one osteocyte.
Example : Sinuses
https://www.embibe.com/
17. CONTD.
3. LAMELLAE :
a. Interstitial Lamellae : The space between osteons is occupied by interstitial lamellae, which are the
remnants of osteons that were partially resorbed during the process of bone remodelling.
b. Concentric Lamellae : Thin plates of bony tissue consisting of ground substance or matrix of
collagen fibres lying in a calcified material. They are arranged concentrically around the haversian
canal.
c. Circumferential Lamellae : Found at inner and outer periphery of cortex.
http://studydroid.com
18. CONTD.
4. Bone Canaliculi : Bone canaliculi are microscopic canals between the
lacunae of ossified bone.
- They are the fine radiating channels which connects lacunae with each other and
Central Haversian Canal.
- Osteocytes do not entirely fill up the canaliculi. The remaining space is known as
the periosteocytic space, which is filled with periosteocytic fluid.
https://fatunmbi.wordpress.com
http://antranik.org/cartilage-and-bones/
19. CONTD.
5. Volkmann's Canal : Volkmann's canals, also known as perforating holes or channels, are atomic
arrangements in cortical bones.
- Oblique canals running at right angles to the long axis of the bone.
- Contains the neurovascular bundle and connect Haversian canals with the medullary cavity and
surface of the bone.
http://slideplayer.com
20. CONTD.
6. Periosteum : The periosteum is a membrane that covers the outer surface of all bones except
at the joints of long bones.
- consists of dense irregular connective tissue.
- Consists of two layers : a. Outer Fibrous layer (contain Firoblasts)
b. Inner Cambium layer ( Contains osteogenic cells)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periosteum
21. CONTD.
7. Endosteum : Endosteum (plural endostea) is a thin vascular membrane of connective
tissue that lines the inner surface of the bony tissue that forms the medullary cavity of
long bones.
- To prevent the bone from becoming unnecessarily thick, osteoclasts resorb the bone from the
endosteal side.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosteum
22. CANCELLOUS BONE
It is the internal tissue of the skeletal bone and is an open cell porous network.
- Cancellous bone has a higher surface-area-to-volume ratio than cortical bone because it is less dense.
- This makes it softer, and weaker but more flexible. The greater surface area also makes it suitable for
metabolic activities such as the exchange of calcium ions.
- Does not have osteons.
- The primary anatomical and functional unit of
cancellous bone is the trabecula.
- Trabeculae has no blood vessels.
https://image.slidesharecdn.com
23. COMPOSITION OF BONE
A. Organic matrix (25%)
B. Inorganic Materials (65%)
C. Water (10%)
ORGANIC MATRIX
BONE CELLS INTERCELLULAR MATRIX
Mesenchymal precursor cells
Osteogenic Cells Collagen
Osteocyte Protein peptides
Osteoblast Proteoglycans
Osteoclast Lipids
Bone lining cells
24.
25. OSTEOPROGENITOR CELLS
These are the mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) that divide to form osteoblasts in bone marrow.
Runx2 (which may also be known as Cbfa1), and Osx (a zinc finger containing transcription
factor) are necessary for osteochondroprogenitor cells to differentiate into the osteoblast cell
lineage.
Runx2 : Runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) also known as core-binding factor
subunit alpha-1 (CBF-alpha-1) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the RUNX2 gene.
OSX : Transcription factor Sp7, also called Osterix (Osx), is a protein that in humans is encoded
by the SP7 gene.
These cells are present in endosteum, periosteum, stromal component of Bone matrix.
26. CONTD.
The pathways which are responsible for osteoblast differentiation are :
WNT SIGNALLING
BMP PATHWAY
TGF-β PATHWAY
FGF PATHWAY
PDGF PATHWAY
IGF PATHWAY
27. SIGNALLING PATHWAYS
1. WNT SIGNALLING : The Wnt signaling pathways are a group of signal transduction pathways
made of proteins that pass signals into a cell through cell surface receptors.
The canonical pathway is responsible for the osteoblast differentiation.
Accumulation of β-catenin in cytoplasm
DSH becomes activated via phosphorylation and its
DIX and PDZ domains inhibit the GSK3 activity of the destruction complex
Act as transcriptional co- activator
of transcription factors (TCF/LEF Fam)
Axin becomes de-phosphorylated and its stability and levels decrease
WNT causes the translocation of the negative WNT regulator, Axin
WNT binds to FZ and its co receptor LRP 5/6
Accumulation of β-catenin in cytoplasm Translocation to the nucleus
Act as a transcriptional co-activator
Of transcription factors (TCF/LEF FAM)
28. BMP PATHWAY
Homomeric dimers of type II
BMP receptors binds to
homomeric dimers of type I
BMP receptors
Induce trans
phosphorylation of type 1
receptors
Induce Signal transduction
through SMAD AND MAPK
Activates transcription of
target genes
29. TGF-β PATHWAY
TGF signaling elicit their cellular response via binding to a tetrameric receptor complex comprising
two TGF-β1(TβR1) and two type II kinase receptors (TβR II).
SMAD are the proteins that are the main signal transducer for receptor of Transforming Growth
Factor (TGF-β).
TβR II
transphosphorylase
TβR I
Phosphorylation of
receptor activated
SMADS
R-SMAD & CO-
SMAD interaction
Translocation to the
nucleus
Recruit co-factors
to regulate gene
30. FGF PATHWAY
FGF binds to FGF
receptors
Receptor dimerization and
phosphorylation of intrinsic
Tyrosine residues.
Activation of signal
transduction pathways like
MAPK, Extracellular signal
related kinase (ERK 1/2 )
Osteoblast gene
expression
31. PDGF PATHWAY
The Platelet derived growth factor has two receptors – α type and β type.
The alpha type binds to PDGF-AA, PDGF-BB and PDGF-AB, whereas the beta type PDGFR binds
with high affinity to PDGF-BB and PDGF-AB.
PDGF activates the receptor causing
dimerization of the receptors
"switched on" by auto-
phosphorylation of several sites
on their cytosolic domains
serve to mediate binding of cofactors
and subsequently activate signal
transduction, through PIK3 Pathway
Regulates the gene expression
32. IGF PATHWAY
IGF binds to IGF
1R (Type II
Tyrosine Kinase)
Auto phosphorylation
of Tyr residues in
kinase domain
Phosphorylation
of Tyr 950 in
juxtamembrane
domain.
It activates Insulin
receptor substrate
(IRS) and Shc by
tyrosine
phosphorylation
In IGF-1 induction, IRF-1
activates PI3K, MAPK/ERK ,
by binding to Shc and Grb2
34. VITAMIN D3
VITAMIN D3
ANABOLIC EFFECT CATABOLIC EFFECT
primary function in Ca
absorption from intestine
Stimulate bone resorption
Supresses Collagen
production
36. THYROID HORMONE
THYROID HORMONE – ANABOLIC EFFECT – affects the endochondral bone formation by its
action on cartilage formation.
37. OSTEOBLAST
Osteoblast are the cells with a single nucleus that synthesizes bone.
Osteoblasts are specialized, terminally differentiated products of mesenchymal stem cells.
They synthesize dense, crosslinked collagen and specialized proteins in much smaller quantities,
including osteocalcin, osteonectin, osteopontin, which compose the organic matrix of bone.
As Osteocalcin {bone gamma-carboxyglutamic acid-containing protein (BGLAP)} is produced
by osteoblasts, it is often used as a marker for the bone formation process.
Osteopontin (OPN), also known as bone sialoprotein I (BSP-1 or BNSP), secreted phosphoprotein
1 (SPP1), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SPP1 gene.
Osteonectin (ON) also known as secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC) is
a protein that in humans is encoded by the SPARC gene.
Before the organic matrix is mineralized, it is called the osteoid.
38. OSTEOCYTE
Osteocytes are the cells that generally helps in bone remodeling and detect micro damage in
bone.
When osteoblasts become trapped in the matrix that they secrete, they become osteocytes.
Osteocytes are networked to each other via long cytoplasmic extensions that occupy tiny
canals called canaliculi, which are used for exchange of nutrients and waste through gap
junctions.
It also helps to maintain the protein and mineral content of the matrix.
39. OSTEOCLAST
Osteoclasts are the cells that helps in bone resorption or the cells that break down the bone
tissue.
Osteoclasts are found in pits in the bone surface which are called resorption bays,
or Howship's Lacunae.
40. FORMATION OF BONE
Mainly there are two types of ossification :
1. Intramembranous ossification
2. Endochondral ossification
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