Loop of Henle with its complex anatomy and even more complicated physiology has long remained an enigma to researchers all around the world. Here we discuss about the functional anatomy and the transport characteristics of Loop of Henle.
Renal blood flow (The Guyton and Hall physiology)Maryam Fida
In an average 70-kilogram man, the combined blood flow through both kidneys is about 1100 ml/min, or about 22 per cent of the cardiac output. Two kidneys makes about 0.4 % of total body weight but receive very high blood flow as compared with other body organ. The purpose of additional blood flow is to supply sufficient plasma for high rates of GF which is essential for regulating body fluid volumes & solute concentrations.
Characteristics of the renal blood flow:
1, High blood flow. 1100 ml/min, or 22 percent of the cardiac output. 94% to the cortex.
2, Two capillary beds
High hydrostatic pressure in glomerular capillary (about 60 mmHg) and low hydrostatic pressure in peritubular capillaries (about 13 mmHg)
Blood flow to renal medulla is supplied by vasa recta.
Blood flow in vasa recta of medulla is very low as compared to blood flow in cortex.
Blood flow in renal medulla is 1-2 % of total renal blood flow.
Vasa recta are important to form concentrated urine.
This is not a substitute for Books. Let it just help you understand some concepts in liver anatomy.
Continuation of this work will depend on your feedback. Stay Blessed.
Loop of Henle with its complex anatomy and even more complicated physiology has long remained an enigma to researchers all around the world. Here we discuss about the functional anatomy and the transport characteristics of Loop of Henle.
Renal blood flow (The Guyton and Hall physiology)Maryam Fida
In an average 70-kilogram man, the combined blood flow through both kidneys is about 1100 ml/min, or about 22 per cent of the cardiac output. Two kidneys makes about 0.4 % of total body weight but receive very high blood flow as compared with other body organ. The purpose of additional blood flow is to supply sufficient plasma for high rates of GF which is essential for regulating body fluid volumes & solute concentrations.
Characteristics of the renal blood flow:
1, High blood flow. 1100 ml/min, or 22 percent of the cardiac output. 94% to the cortex.
2, Two capillary beds
High hydrostatic pressure in glomerular capillary (about 60 mmHg) and low hydrostatic pressure in peritubular capillaries (about 13 mmHg)
Blood flow to renal medulla is supplied by vasa recta.
Blood flow in vasa recta of medulla is very low as compared to blood flow in cortex.
Blood flow in renal medulla is 1-2 % of total renal blood flow.
Vasa recta are important to form concentrated urine.
This is not a substitute for Books. Let it just help you understand some concepts in liver anatomy.
Continuation of this work will depend on your feedback. Stay Blessed.
1 . EXCRETION
Waste product removal e.g. nitrogenous – uric acid (mammals urea , fish ammonia)
Kidneys – secrete uric acid (product of protein metabolism)
Gastro-intestinal tract secretions e.g. bile
No sweat glands
Salt glands (water birds)
Water loss – lungs
2. URINARY SYSTEM
• Major organs are the kidneys, the ureter and the cloaca.
• No urinary bladder in bird.
3 . ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF KIDNEY
Avian kidneys are paired fitted closely the bony depression on the dorsal wall of the pelvis . Each kidney is divided into three lobes.
4 .
5 . NEPHRON
Two kinds of nephrons.
1. Reptilian nephron
2. Mammalian nephron
• 6 .
• 7. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AVIAN AND MAMMALIAN KIDNEY
8. RENAL PORTAL SYSTEM
Uric acid is formed in the liver as well as the kidneys of the birds from ammonia, which is the most toxic protein metabolic by product .
9. GLOMERULAR FILTRATION
Fluid pressure forces water and dissolved substances from glomerular blood to Bowman’s capsule .
Filtration averages 125 ml/min form two kidneys.
10 . TUBULAR REABSORPTION
Return of the useful substances from the filtrate to the blood capillaries or interstitial fluid.
11 . COUNTER CURRENT MECHANISM
This mechanism works in the loop of henle to increase water reabsorbed from the descending limb as a result of salt reabsorbed from the ascending limb .
12 . POST RENAL URINE MODIFICATION
After the presentation of urine to cloaca their might be retrograde flow or backward flow of urine into the colon.
In the colon reabsorption of excessive amount of water as well as sodium ion takes place.
13 . HORMONES RESPONSIBLE FOR URINE FORMATION
Arginine vasotocin ,Angiotensin ׀׀ ,Aldosterone ,ANP (arterial natriuretic peptide)
Aldosterone is responsible for the reabsorption of sodium and excretion of potassium in the filtrate.
AnswerKidneys are the functional units of renal system of rom uri.pdfaquacareser
Answer:
Kidneys are the functional units of renal system of rom urine and it is essential to maintain
homeostasis. Blood is going to enter into the kidney through renal arteries followed by entry of
afferent arterioles into the \"glomerulus of nephrons\" & leave the filtrate (according to
concentration gradient) finally exists as efferent arteriole
Kidneys are the major organs of urinary system. The filtration of blood takes place in the kidneys
through the nephrons. Two ureters carry the urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. From
the bladder, urine is excreted out through the urethra. Relatable analogy is presence of \"similar
ureters\" and two bean shaped kidenys with nephrons
The different stages in glomerular filtration or urine formation are.
Filtration: The movement of water and solutes from the plasma into the renal tubules is known as
filtration. The major driving force of the filtration is hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus
capillaries.
Blood passes through the capillaries in the glomerulus, due to the hydrostatic pressure in the
Bowman’s capsule, plasma is filtered into the Bowman\'s capsule except blood proteins (this is
called ultra-filtration). This filtrate is called glomerular filtrate. Hydrostatic pressure is the
pressure exerted by the filtrate in Bowman\'s capsule (15 mm Hg).
Absorption (or reabsorption):
It is the movement of water and solutes from the renal tubule into the plasma. The process of
absorption mostly occurs in the proximal tubules (approximately 70% of the filtrate is
reabsorbed from the proximal tubules). The process of reabsorption is driven by hydrostatic and
oncotic pressure, which is strictly under hormonal regulation.
Oncotic pressure is the pressure exerted by the blood proteins, which draws water in to the
circulation.
Secretion:
Tubular reabsorption of water and other substances back to the blood occur while the glomerular
filtrate passes through the tubular portion of nephron. About 99% of water and electrolytes are
reabsorbed during this process by both active and passive reabsorption process. During tubular
secretion, substances pass from the blood into renal tubules.
Excretion:
Urine from the renal tubules enter into the collecting duct à Papillary duct à Calyx à Renal pelvis
à Ureters à Urinary bladder à Urethra (excreted out of the body.).
Normal glomerular filtration rate in the Bowman’s capsule is from 90 to 120 ml / min/1.73 m2.
Usually older people do have a bit lower normal GFR levels as it is naturally reduce with age.
Given GFR is 35mL/min/1.73 m2 (moderate decrease), it tells about the patient’s kidney
function that “a sign of chronic kidney disease” because of diabetes, high blood pressure
followed by glomerulonephritis. It is better control blood pressure by hormonal release.
The three stages of urine formation are 1. Filtration; 2. Tubular reabsorption & secretion; 3.
Water conservation
Glomerular filtration (GFR):
The formation of urine includes
1. Glomerular filtration
.
AnswerKidneys are the functional units of renal system of rom uri.pdfaquapariwar
Answer:
Kidneys are the functional units of renal system of rom urine and it is essential to maintain
homeostasis. Blood is going to enter into the kidney through renal arteries followed by entry of
afferent arterioles into the \"glomerulus of nephrons\" & leave the filtrate (according to
concentration gradient) finally exists as efferent arteriole
Kidneys are the major organs of urinary system. The filtration of blood takes place in the kidneys
through the nephrons. Two ureters carry the urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. From
the bladder, urine is excreted out through the urethra. Relatable analogy is presence of \"similar
ureters\" and two bean shaped kidenys with nephrons
The different stages in glomerular filtration or urine formation are.
Filtration: The movement of water and solutes from the plasma into the renal tubules is known as
filtration. The major driving force of the filtration is hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus
capillaries.
Blood passes through the capillaries in the glomerulus, due to the hydrostatic pressure in the
Bowman’s capsule, plasma is filtered into the Bowman\'s capsule except blood proteins (this is
called ultra-filtration). This filtrate is called glomerular filtrate. Hydrostatic pressure is the
pressure exerted by the filtrate in Bowman\'s capsule (15 mm Hg).
Absorption (or reabsorption):
It is the movement of water and solutes from the renal tubule into the plasma. The process of
absorption mostly occurs in the proximal tubules (approximately 70% of the filtrate is
reabsorbed from the proximal tubules). The process of reabsorption is driven by hydrostatic and
oncotic pressure, which is strictly under hormonal regulation.
Oncotic pressure is the pressure exerted by the blood proteins, which draws water in to the
circulation.
Secretion:
Tubular reabsorption of water and other substances back to the blood occur while the glomerular
filtrate passes through the tubular portion of nephron. About 99% of water and electrolytes are
reabsorbed during this process by both active and passive reabsorption process. During tubular
secretion, substances pass from the blood into renal tubules.
Excretion:
Urine from the renal tubules enter into the collecting duct à Papillary duct à Calyx à Renal pelvis
à Ureters à Urinary bladder à Urethra (excreted out of the body.).
Normal glomerular filtration rate in the Bowman’s capsule is from 90 to 120 ml / min/1.73 m2.
Usually older people do have a bit lower normal GFR levels as it is naturally reduce with age.
Given GFR is 35mL/min/1.73 m2 (moderate decrease), it tells about the patient’s kidney
function that “a sign of chronic kidney disease” because of diabetes, high blood pressure
followed by glomerulonephritis. It is better control blood pressure by hormonal release.
The three stages of urine formation are 1. Filtration; 2. Tubular reabsorption & secretion; 3.
Water conservation
Glomerular filtration (GFR):
The formation of urine includes
1. Glomerular filtration
.
The urinary system's function is to filter blood and create urine as a waste by-product. The organs of the urinary system include the kidneys, renal pelvis, ureters, bladder and urethra.The body takes nutrients from food and converts them to energy. After the body has taken the food components that it needs, waste products are left behind in the bowel and in the blood.
The kidney and urinary systems help the body to eliminate liquid waste called urea, and to keep chemicals, such as potassium and sodium, and water in balance. Urea is produced when foods containing protein, such as meat, poultry, and certain vegetables, are broken down in the body. Urea is carried in the bloodstream to the kidneys, where it is removed along with water and other wastes in the form of urine. Kidney and urinary system parts and their functions
Two kidneys. This pair of purplish-brown organs is located below the ribs toward the middle of the back. Their function is to:
Remove waste products and drugs from the body
Balance the body's fluids
Release hormones to regulate blood pressure
Control production of red blood cells
The kidneys remove urea from the blood through tiny filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron consists of a ball formed of small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a small tube called a renal tubule. Urea, together with water and other waste substances, forms the urine as it passes through the nephrons and down the renal tubules of the kidney.
Two ureters. These narrow tubes carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Muscles in the ureter walls continually tighten and relax forcing urine downward, away from the kidneys. If urine backs up, or is allowed to stand still, a kidney infection can develop. About every 10 to 15 seconds, small amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from the ureters.
Bladder. This triangle-shaped, hollow organ is located in the lower abdomen. It is held in place by ligaments that are attached to other organs and the pelvic bones. The bladder's walls relax and expand to store urine, and contract and flatten to empty urine through the urethra. The typical healthy adult bladder can store up to two cups of urine for two to five hours.
Upon examination, specific "landmarks" are used to describe the location of any irregularities in the bladder. These are:
Trigone: a triangle-shaped region near the junction of the urethra and the bladder
Right and left lateral walls: walls on either side of the trigone
Posterior wall: back wall
Dome: roof of the bladder
Excretory Products And Their Elimination Class 11thNehaRohtagi1
Created By: NehaRohtagi1
Class 11th CBSE [NCERT]
Biology Chapter 17
Notes on the topic: Excretory Products And Their Elimination
For Class - 11th
I hope that you will found this presentation useful and it will help you out for your concept understanding.
Thank You!
Please give feedbacks and suggestions to get presentations on more interesting topics.
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
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These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
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micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
ABDOMINAL TRAUMA in pediatrics part one.drhasanrajab
Abdominal trauma in pediatrics refers to injuries or damage to the abdominal organs in children. It can occur due to various causes such as falls, motor vehicle accidents, sports-related injuries, and physical abuse. Children are more vulnerable to abdominal trauma due to their unique anatomical and physiological characteristics. Signs and symptoms include abdominal pain, tenderness, distension, vomiting, and signs of shock. Diagnosis involves physical examination, imaging studies, and laboratory tests. Management depends on the severity and may involve conservative treatment or surgical intervention. Prevention is crucial in reducing the incidence of abdominal trauma in children.
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
1. ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY OF RENAL
SYSTEM
Moderator: Dr. Anupama Gupta
Presenter :Dr. Mahendra Kumar Sood
2. Kidneys
Kidneys are a pair of excretory organs situated on the
posterior abdominal wall, extending from upper
border of T12 to L3 vertebra
Right kidney is slightly lower than the left
Each kidney is 11 cm long, 6 cm broad and 3 cm
thick, weight 150 g in males and 135 g in females
Capsules or coverings of kidneys - Fibrous capsule,
Peri-renal fat, Renal fascia and Para-renal fat
Coronal segment – cortex; medulla; renal sinus
3. Renal cortex
Cortical lobules -
which form caps over
the bases of the
pyramids
Renal columns -
which dip in between
the pyramids
Renal medulla
has 10 conical masses
called renal pyramids,
their apices form renal
papillae
Renal sinus
Space that extends into kidney from hilus
Contains branches of renal artery and renal vein
Renal pelvis divides into 2-3 major calices and these in turn divide
into 7-13 minor calices, each minor calyx (cup of flower) ends in an
expansion which is indented by 1-3 renal papillae
4. Histologically, each kidney is composed 1-3 million
uriniferous tubules. Each consists of secretory part
which functional unit of kidney.
Nephrons open in to collecting tubules. Many such tubules
unite to form the ducts of Bellini which open into minor
calices
Arterial Supply
One renal artery on each side arising from abdominal
aorta
At or near hilus, renal artery divides into anterior and
posterior branches giving rise to segmental arteries
Lymphatics
Lateral aortic nodes
Nerve Supply
Renal plexus (an off shoot of coeliac plexus, T10-L1)
11. Sodium reabsorption in PCT (65-75% of filtered Na+
load reabsorbed)
Na+ is actively transported out of proximal tubular cells at
their capillary sides by membrane bound Na+_ K+ ATPase
Resulting low intracellular concentration of Na+
Passive movement of Na+ down its gradient from tubular
fluid into epithelial cells
Na+ reabsorption is coupled with reabsorption of other
solutes and secretion of H+ reabsorption of 90% of
filtered HCO3 ions
Chloride absorption passive follows concentration
gradient transverse tight junctions between adjacent
tubular epithelium
12. Water specialised channels composed of
membrane protein aquaporin-1 (apical membrane)
facilitate water movement passively along osmotic
gradients
Secretion :
Cations ( Creatinine, cimetidine, quinidine,) : share
same pump mechanism and interfere in excretion of
one another
Anions include Urate, ketoacids, penicillins,
cephalosposins, diuretics, salicyclates and most x-ray
dyes
13. Loop of Henle
Consists of descending and ascending portions.
Maintaining a hypertonic medullary interstitium.
The ascending portion consists of thin ascending limb, a
medullary thick ascending limb and a cortical thick
ascending limb.
25-30% of ultrafiltrate reaches loop of Henle
Only,15-20% filtered Na+ load is reabsorbed
Solute and water reabsorption is passive and follows
concentration and osmotic gradients (except thick
ascending loop)
14. In Ascending thick segment,
Sodium reabsorption is coupled to both K+ and Cl-
reabsorption
Impermeable to water
Important site for calcium and magnesium
reabsorption
Parathyroid hormone calcium reabsorption at this
site
Loop diuretics inhibit Na+ and Cl- reabsorption in
TAL compete with Cl- for its binding site on carrier
protein
16. Distal tubule
Very tight junctions between tubular cells
relatively impermeable to water and Na+
5% of filtered Na+ load reabsorbed
Major site of parathyroid hormone and Vit D
mediated calcium reabsorption
The late distal segment (collecting segment)
Hormone mediated Ca+2 reabsorption
Aldosterone mediated Na+ reabsorption
17. Collecting tubule
divided into cortical and medullary portions
5-7% of filtered Na+ load is reabsorbed
Cortical collecting tubule – consists of
two types of cells:
Principal cells secrete K+ and
aldosterone mediated Na+ reabsorption
Intercalated cells acid base regulation
18. Secretion of hydrogen and reabsorption of
bicarbonate and potassium in cortical collecting
tubule
19. Aldosterone
Enhances Na+ -K+ ATPase activity by number of
open Na+ & K+ channels in luminal membrane
Enhances H+ secreting ATPase on the luminal border
intercalated cells
Because principal cells reabsorb Na+ via an
electrogenic pump
Either Cl- must be reabsorbed
K+ must be secreted to maintain electroneutrality
intracellular K+ favours K+ secretion
20. K+ sparing diuretics
Competitive
Spironolactone – aldosterone receptor antagonist
Inhibits aldosterone mediated sodium reabsorption
and potassium secretion in collecting tubule
Non-competitive
Triamterene and amiloride inhibits sodium
reabsorption and potassium secretion by decreasing
number of open channels in luminal membrane of
collecting tubule
21. Medullary collecting tubule
Site of action of ADH or AVP (arginine vasopressin)
stimulates expression of water channel protein,
aquaporin-2, in the cell membrane
Dehydration ADH secretion luminal
membrane becomes permeable to water water is
osmotically drawn out of tubular fluid passing
through the medulla concentrated urine (upto 1400
mos)
Adequate hydration – suppressed ADH secretion
fluid in collecting tubule passes through medulla
unchanged and remains hypotonic (100-200 msom/l)
Hydrogen ion secreted are excreted in the form of
titrable acids (phosphates) and ammonium ions
22. Countercurrent mechanism:
Regulates tonicity of
tubular fluid and
medullary interstitium.
Counter current
multiplier (loop of
Henle)
Counter current
exchangers (cortical
and medullary
collecting tubules and
their respective
capillaries – vasa recta)
23. Tubular fluid enters the distal PCT iso-osmotic with plasma (300
mOsm/kg) (1).
Descending limb of Henle (2) water rapidly diffuses out into
the increasingly hypertonic medulla and is removed by the vasa
recta
Tubular fluid becomes hypertonic, largely because of conc. of
NaCl.
Urea diffuses in from the hypertonic interstitium, further
increasing tubular fluid osmolality (1200 mOsm/kg).
Thin ascending loop of Henle (3), NaCl passively diffuses into the
interstitium along its concentration gradient
But water is trapped in the water-impermeable tubule, which
progressively decreases tubular fluid osmolality.
Urea passively diffuses into the tubular fluid (urea recycling).
Tubular dilution is accelerated by active reabsorption of NaCl in
the thick ascending loop and proximal distal tubule (4).
24. Fluid entering distal tubule is quite hypo-osmotic (100 mOsm/kg)
In the collecting segment (5), the osmolality of the tubular fluid
returns to that of plasma (300 mOsm/kg)
But contents of the proximal tubule, the solute component consists
largely of urea, creatinine, and other excreted compounds.
Increased plasma antidiuretic hormone (ADH) renders the cortical
and medullary collecting ducts (6) permeable to water, which
passively diffuses into the hypertonic medullary interstitium.
Some urea diffuses out into the medulla, the maximal osmolality
of concentrated urine (7) approaches that of the hypertonic
medullary interstitium, about 1200 mOsm/kg
In the absence of ADH, the collecting ducts remain impermeable
to water, and the urine is diluted.
25. Counter Current Exchange by Vasa Recta
• Is important component of
countercurrent mechanism and
maintain Hypertonicity of
countercurrent exchange.
• Permeable to salt, H20 (via
aquaporins), & urea
• Recirculates salt, trapping some
in medulla interstitial fluid
• Reabsorbs H20 coming out of
descending limb
• Descending section has urea
transporters
• Nacl and Water diffuse into
descending limb and diffuse
back into medullary tissue fluid.
26. Juxtaglomerular apparatus
Macula densa – modified
portion of thick ascending limb
which is applied to glomerulus
at the vascular pole between the
afferent and efferent arterioles
containing chemoreceptor cells
which sense tubular
concentration of NaCl
Granular cells – lies in wall of
afferent arteriole close to
macula densa.
Produce renin, which catalyses
the formation of angiotensin
modulates efferent and afferent
arterial tone and GFR
27. Functions
Nephron regulates
Intravascular volume, osmolality, acid base
balance, excrete the end product of metabolism
and drugs
Urine is formed by combination of glomerular
ultrafiltration + tubular reabsorption and secretion
Nephron produces hormones
Fluid homeostasis (renin, prostaglandins, kinins)
Bone metabolism (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol)
Hematopoiesis (erythropoietin) – produced by
interstitial cells in peritubular capillary bed (85%
stimulus hypoxia
28. Circulation of renal blood flow Renal artery divides
serially into – interlobar
artery arcuate
interlobular arteries
afferent arterioles
capillary tufts of renal
glomeruli into outer
cortex efferent
arterioles in
juxtamedullary zone
arterioles become vasa
recta (closely applied to
loop of henle)
Venous drainage:
Stelate veins
interlobular veins
arcuate veins
interlobar veins
29. Cortex Medulla
Percent renal blood flow 94 6
Blood flow (mL/min/g) 5.0 0.03
PO2 (mm Hg) 50 8
O2 extraction ratio (VO2 /DO2 ) 0.18 0.79
Distribution of renal blood flow between the cortex &
medulla
The renal medulla receives only a small fraction of the total
renal blood flow, and flow rates are extremely slow
As a result, tissue oxygen tension is extremely low, and the
medulla extracts almost 80% of the oxygen delivered to it
A very mild reduction in total and cortical renal blood flow
may therefore induce ischemia and hypoxia in the renal
medulla
DO2 = Oxygen delivery, VO2 = Oxygen consumption
30. RENAL BLOOD FLOW AND
GLOMERULAR FILTERATION
CLEARANCE:
o The renal clearance of a substance is the volume of
blood that is completely cleared of that substance
per unit time.
o Used in measurement of RBF and GFR.
RENAL BLOOD FLOW:
o Renal plasma flow(RPF) is most commonly
measured by p-aminohippurate(PAH) clearance.
o PAH at low plasma cone, assumed to be completely
cleared from plasma by filtration and secretion in
one passage through the kidneys.
33. o The ratio of GFR to RPF is called the filtration
fraction(FF) and is normally 20%.
o GFR is dependent on the relative tones of both the
afferent and efferent arterioles.
o Afferent arteriolar dilation or efferent arteriolar
vasoconstriction increase the FF and maintain GFR,
when RPF decreases.
34. Renal autoregulation
Enables the kidney to maintain solute and water
regulation independently of fluctuations in arterial
blood pressure
Kidney maintains a constant renal blood flow and
GFR through renal arterial range of 80-180 mmHg
35. Intrinsic Myogenic Regulation
Renal vascular resistance
Mediated by variable resistance of afferent arterioles
mean arterial pressure
renal vascular resistance
( tone, dilatation of afferent arterioles)
Myogenic response
Renal blood flow and GFR maintained
Vice versa, afferent arterioles constrict in response to MAP
36. Tubuloglomerular feedback
GFR
delivery of NaCl to distal tubule
Cl- sensed by macular Densa cells
Release of renin (from afferent arterioles)
Angiotensin II
Arteriolar constriction
GFR and RBF
37. Normally, a balance is present between systems promoting
renal vasoconstriction and sodium retention versus systems
promoting renal vasodilation and sodium excretion.
Surgical stress, ischemia, and sepsis tip the balance in favor
of vasoconstriction and sodium retention.
On the other hand, hypervolemia (or induction of atrial
stretch) tips the balance in favor of vasodilation and sodium
excretion.
Hormonal Regulation
38. Angiotensin II causes generalised arterial
vasoconstriction and reduces RBF.
Renal synthesis of vasodilating
prostaglandins(PGD2, PGE2 , PGI2 ) is an
important protective mechanism during periods
of systemic hypotension and renal ischemia.
ANP released from atrial myocytesin response
to atrial distension, antagonizes the
vasoconstrictive action of angiotensin II and
relaxes mesangial cells, effectively increasing
GFR.
39. Neuronal Regulation
Sympathetic outflow from spinal
cord(T4-L1)
Celiac & renal plexus
Innervate the JG apparatus (β1 )
and renal vasculature (α1 )
α1 –receptors enhance sodium
reabsorption in PCT, whereas α2 –
receptors decrease reabsorption and
promote water excretion
40. Autoregulation impaired in
Severe sepsis
ARF
During cardiopulmonary bypass
Autoregulation is not abolished by most anaesthetic
agents
41. Regulation of Blood pressure and fluid balance by
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
42. The Ureters
Pair of muscular tubes
Extend from renal pelvis to the bladder
Peristaltic contractions force urine from the kidneys to the
urinary bladder
Oblique entry into bladder prevents backflow of urine
43. Urinary Bladder
A collapsible muscular
sac
Stores and expels urine
Full bladder – spherical
Expands into the abdominal
cavity
Empty bladder – lies
entirely within the pelvis
Figure 23.13
44. The urethra
Extends from the urinary bladder to the exterior of the body
Passes through urogenital diaphragm (external urinary sphincter)
Differs in length and function in males (18-20cm)and females(4cm)
Internal urethral sphincter - involuntary smooth muscle
External urethral sphincter - voluntarily inhibits urination, relaxes when one
urinates
45. Effects Of Anesthesia And Surgery On
Renal Function
Reversible decreases in RBF, GFR, urinary flow and
sodium excretion occur during both regional and
general anesthesia.
Most of changes are indirect and are mediated by
autonomic and hormonal responses to surgery and
anesthesia.
INDIRECT EFFECTS
Cardiovascular: most inhalation and intravenous
agents and sympathetic blockade in spinal or epidural
anesthesia may cause drop in systemic blood pressure.
46. Decreases in blood pressure below limits of
autoregulation reduce RBF, GFR, urinary flow and
sodium excretion.
Neurologic: incresed sympathetic activity in
perioperative period due to anxiety, pain , light
anesthesia and surgical stimulation increases renal
vascular resistence and activates hormonal systems,
reducing RBF, GFR and urine output.
Endocrine : stress response to anxiety, pain, surgical
stimulation, hypoxia, acidosis and hypothermia
increases epinephrine, norepinephrine, renin,
angiotensin II, aldosterone, ADH, cortisol.
47. DIRECT ANESTHETIC EFFECTS
Volatile agents decrease renal vascular
resistence.
Ketamine minimally affects renal function and
preserve renal function during hemorrhagic
hypovolemia.
NSAIDs prevents renal production of
vasodilatory prostaglandins.
ACE inhibitors block the protective effects of
angiotensin II and may result in reduction in
GFR during anesthesia.
48. DIRECT SURGICAL EFFECTS
The pneumoperitoneum produced during laproscopy
alter renal physiology.
The increase in intraabdominal pressure typically
produces oliguria or anuria that is proportional to
insufflation pressure due to venous compression,
renal parenchymal compression, decreased cardiac
output, and increase in plasma renin, aldosterone and
ADH.
Other surgical procedures that alter renal function
are:-
Cardiopulmonary bypass
Cross clamping of aorta
Dissection near the renal arteries.
49. References
Miller’s Anaesthesia, 6th ed. Functional anatomy and
renal physiology.
Wylie and Churchill Davidson’s. Functional anatomy and
renal physiology, 7th ed.
Barash Clinical Anaesthesia, Functional anatomy and
renal physiology, 5th ed.
Morgan. Clinical Anaesthesiology, 4th ed.
Ganong WF. Review of Medical Physiology, 20th ed.