This document discusses carbohydrates and their classification. It begins by explaining that carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They can be simple sugars like glucose, or complex carbohydrates like starch and cellulose. Starch is made of amylose and amylopectin, long chains of glucose. Cellulose makes up plant cell walls. The document also discusses glycogen, the form in which humans and animals store glucose, and recommends eating a diet high in complex carbohydrates and whole grains for good nutrition.

1. The Science Behind Health
With Doctor Bones (Don R. Mueller, Ph.D.)
The Funny Man of Health
Educator
Entertainer
J
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Scientist

2. Carbohydrates (Sugars)
Carbohydrates contain carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and
oxygen (O). They are more familiar to us as a variety of
sugars, starch and cellulose (fiber). Sugars are the
simplest carbohydrates. Starch and cellulose are called
complex carbohydrates, but they are really just long
chains of simple carbohydrates (sugars).
French scientists in
the early days of
sugar chemistry,
used the term
'hydrate de carbone‘
for carbohydrate.

3. The name "carbohydrate" was originally chosen because it
was first thought that carbohydrates were hydrated (water)
carbon compounds based on their empirical formula
Cn(H2O)n. However, if we examine the molecular structure of
glucose, we find that it isn't H2O that is bonded directly to
carbon, but instead it is OH and H.
Glucose (C6H12O6)
Via photosynthesis, plants use carbon
dioxide (CO2), water (H2O) and sunlight
to construct carbohydrates such as
glucose (C6H12O6) as the following
chemical reaction illustrates:
6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2

4. Simple Sugars (Monosaccharides)
Glucose, Galactose and Fructose are all simple sugars. They
are also called monosaccharides because they have only one
sugar unit. Although the three sugars have the same
molecular formula (C6H12O6) they differ in molecular
structure (positions of the individual atoms). All three sugars
are known as "hexoses" as they all have six carbon atoms.

5. Sucrose, more commonly known
as Table Sugar, is a disaccharide
because it has two sugar units: a
Glucose ring and a Fructose ring.
Sugars made from 2 or 3 sugar
units are called oligosaccharides.
Lactose (milk sugar) is yet
another example of a
disaccharide. It is made from
one glucose molecule and
one galactose molecule.
Disaccharides: two sugar units joined by a glycosidic bond.

6. The 3-D molecular structures of several sugars are shown
in the next two frames. The black-colored spheres are
carbon atoms, the red ones are oxygen and the smaller
white-colored spheres represent hydrogen atoms.
Lactose
Glucose

7. Glucose
From
Indigo.com
Sucrose
From
Indigo.com
Fructose

8. In 1747, the German pharmacist Andreas Marggraf,
extracted glucose from grapes and sucrose from
beets.
In 1838, the French chemist Jean Baptiste Andre
Dumas, coined the name glucose from the Greek
word "glycos," meaning sugar or sweet.
The molecular structures of glucose, fructose,
galactose and mannose were determined by the
German chemist Emil Fischer, the “Father of
carbohydrate chemistry."

9. Complex Carbohydrates (Starch and Cellulose)
Starch and cellulose are both polymers of glucose. Scientists call
them polysaccharides (many glucose units), whereas the general
public simply refers to them as, "complex carbohydrates."
There are two basic types of starch molecules: amylose (linear,
unbranched chains of hundreds of glucose units) and amylopectin,
which differs from amylose as it is highly branched.
Amylose

10. Potatoes are rich in starch. Grains such as wheat, rice
and corn are also good sources of starch as are beans,
legumes and various fruits and vegetables.
Why did the potato cross the road?
Because he saw the fork up ahead.

11. Cellulose is a linear polysaccharide and is the major
component in the cell walls of plants. Wood is
constructed largely of cellulose. Both cotton and paper
are nearly pure cellulose.
Humans are unable to digest cellulose because we lack
the necessary enzymes to break its sugar linkages. As a
consequence, cellulose serves solely as fiber in our diet.

12. Glycogen – the intermediate “energy storage” molecule
Humans and animals can store excess glucose in a molecular form
called glycogen, which is stored predominantly in the liver and the
skeletal muscles. Muscle and liver glycogen stores can be used up
in less than a day when carbohydrates are not being consumed.
The following frame illustrates a glycogen molecule. The numbers
given in red specify the positions of the carbon atoms in the
glucose molecule, which contains 6 carbon atoms.
The figure also illustrates the two different ways in which the
glucose rings are linked together in glycogen. Linkages are
designated, 1-4 and 1-6, meaning that carbon atom 1 in one
glucose ring is connected either to carbon atom 4 or carbon atom 6
in the other glucose ring, respectively.

13. Glycogen
It should be noted that the 1-4
linkages are found in the straight
chains and the 1-6 linkages, form
the branches in glycogen, which is
a highly-branched molecule.

14. Diets Rich in Complex Carbohydrates:
If necessary, glucose can be made from protein. This is a process
known as gluconeogenesis, which utilizes non-carbohydrate
sources to synthesize glucose. However, unless you are eating a
diet rich in protein, this generally means breaking down muscle
protein. In other words, you will be sacrificing your muscle tissue
for energy in the form of glucose.
Because the human brain runs on glucose, it needs a steady supply
throughout the day. Your best bet is to eat a diet rich in complex
carbohydrates. There are many foods to choose from. Enjoy!

15. Mr. Whole Grains says,
"Try Whole Grain products for better nutrition."

16. Whole-grain breads, cereals and pasta are more nutritious than
their refined grain counterparts. Whole-grain brown rice, oats,
wheat and corn are more nutrient dense and have much more fiber
than those grains that have been refined by milling.
Whole grains have three basic parts:
(1) Bran, (2) Endosperm, and (3) Germ.
The refining (milling) process largely strips
whole grains of the bran and germ,
stripping away nearly all of the fiber and
much of the nutrients. The refined grain
products must then be fortified with
vitamins and minerals. Go whole grain!
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