7.2
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The document discusses different types of radioactive decay and radiation. It describes alpha, beta, and gamma radiation, and how they interact with and penetrate matter differently due to their mass, charge, and energy. Alpha particles interact strongly, penetrate only a short distance, and produce many ion pairs. Beta particles penetrate farther than alphas as they are lighter and slower. Gamma rays interact weakly and penetrate the deepest as they are uncharged photons. The document also defines half-life as the time for half the nuclei in a sample or half the sample's activity to decay.
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7.1
The document discusses atomic structure and models of the atom. It describes J.J. Thomson's discovery of the electron and the plum pudding model. It then summarizes Rutherford's gold foil experiment, which led to the nuclear model of the atom with a small, dense nucleus surrounded by electrons. The document also discusses atomic spectra and how they provided evidence for discrete energy levels of electrons within atoms.
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7.1
This document discusses atomic, nuclear and particle physics concepts including:
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2. The Bohr model of the atom helped explain line spectra by proposing electrons orbit nuclei in fixed, quantized energy levels. Electron transitions between levels emit or absorb photons of specific energies.
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7.2
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7.3
Ernst Rutherford conducted an experiment where he had Geiger and Marsden fire alpha particles at a thin gold foil. Most passed through but some were scattered back, surprising Rutherford. He realized the positive charge in atoms must be highly concentrated in the nucleus to repel the positively charged alpha particles. This led to Rutherford's nuclear model of the atom, where the tiny, dense nucleus contains most of the atom's mass and positive charge, and electrons orbit at a relatively large distance. Later, the discovery of the neutron by Chadwick completed the picture of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus.
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7.3 structure of matter
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7.2
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12.2
Here is a semi-log plot of the data with an exponential trendline:
The equation of the trendline is:
y = 12456e-0.4693x
Taking the natural log of both sides:
ln(y) = ln(12456) - 0.4693x
The slope is -0.4693
Using the equation:
t1/2 = 0.693/λ
λ = 0.4693
t1/2 = 0.693/0.4693 = 1.5
Therefore, the half-life of the isotope is 1.5 intervals, or 1.5 x 30 s = 45 seconds.
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In these slides, I covered the following topics with PYQ's of CH-12 (Atom) of class 12th Physics:
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Here is a semi-log plot of the data with an exponential trendline:
The equation of the trendline is:
y = 12456e-0.4693x
Taking the natural log of both sides:
ln(y) = ln(12456) - 0.4693x
The slope is -0.4693
Using the equation:
t1/2 = 0.693/λ
λ = 0.4693
t1/2 = 0.693/0.4693 = 1.5
Therefore, the half-life of the isotope is 1.5 intervals, or 1.5 x 30 s = 45 seconds.
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Radioactivity, Alpha radiation, Beta radiation, Gamma radiation, Types of radiation, properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiations, Half-life of radioactive substances, Methods to measure radioactivity, Radioactive isotopes, Isotopes of Hydrogen, Isotopes of Carbon, Sodium Iodide -131, Medicinal uses of Sodium Iodide - 131, Storage of radioactive substances, Precautions in the handling of Radioactive substances, Applications of Radiopharmaceuticals
State and explain Alpha , Beta and Gamma decay
The document discusses three types of radioactive decay: alpha, beta, and gamma decay. Alpha decay occurs when a nucleus ejects an alpha particle, consisting of two protons and two neutrons. Beta decay can occur in two ways - beta minus decay where a neutron is converted to a proton and an electron is emitted, and beta plus decay where a proton is converted to a neutron and a positron is emitted. Gamma decay occurs when a nucleus in an excited state drops to a lower energy state by emitting a high energy photon.
Education.27.11 with a big boy toyzz.pdf
Radioactive decay occurs when an unstable nucleus loses energy by emitting particles or electromagnetic radiation to become more stable. There are four main types of radiation: alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, and positrons. Alpha particles have the lowest penetration power but are the most dangerous internally, while gamma rays are the most penetrating. The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time it takes for half of the nuclei to decay and is unique to each isotope.
Radioactivity
The document summarizes the history and key discoveries related to radioactivity and nuclear physics. It discusses how Becquerel discovered radioactivity in uranium in 1896, leading the Curies to isolate the elements polonium and radium. It then covers atomic structure, the different types of radioactive decay, units of radioactivity, decay processes, and nuclear reactions including fission and fusion.
B sc_I_General chemistry U-I Nuclear chemistry
1) Nuclear chemistry deals with changes that occur in the nucleus of elements, which are the source of radioactivity and nuclear power.
2) Some atoms are unstable and their nuclei spontaneously break down, releasing particles and energy. The elements whose nuclei emit radiation are radioactive.
3) There are three main types of radioactive emissions: alpha, beta, and gamma. Alpha involves emitting an alpha particle, beta involves emitting an electron, and gamma involves emitting gamma rays.
Concept of radioactivity, radioactivity counting methods with principles of d...
Concept of radioactivity, radioactivity counting methods with principles of d...AMIT RANA Ph. D Scholar
Concept of radioactivity, radioactivity counting methods with principles of different types of countersB sc i chemistry i u i nuclear chemistry a
Nuclear chemistry deals with changes that occur in the nucleus of atoms. These changes are the source of radioactivity and nuclear power. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons, called nucleons. Some atoms are unstable and their nuclei spontaneously break down, releasing particles and energy. Elements whose nuclei emit radiation are radioactive. The spontaneous breakdown of unstable atoms is called radioactive decay or disintegration. There are three main types of radioactive decay: alpha emission, beta emission, and gamma emission. Radioactive decay occurs at a constant rate described by the decay constant. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons, while isobars have the same mass number but different atomic numbers. The half-life of a radioactive
Rutherford model of atom
Ernst Goldstein discovered positive rays (protons) in 1886 by passing cathode rays through a perforated cathode. Positive rays were produced and carried a positive charge. J.J. Thomson later determined the e/m ratio of protons depends on the gas used, with hydrogen giving the maximum ratio and identifying the lightest particle as the proton. In 1932, James Chadwick discovered the neutron through bombarding beryllium with alpha particles. The neutron was later found to be neutral and able to induce nuclear reactions. Rutherford proposed atoms consisted of electrons and protons in 1911 based on alpha scattering experiments, but the planetary model was defective as it did not explain the stability of electron orbits.
Radioactivity
The document discusses ionizing radiation and its applications. It describes three types of ionizing radiation - alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. Alpha particles have the highest ionization density and shortest range, while gamma rays have the lowest ionization density and longest range. Ionizing radiation is used in applications like medical imaging, radiation therapy, smoke detectors, carbon dating, and detecting leaks. It can kill or damage living cells, making it useful for sterilization but also dangerous if not handled safely.
C18-Radioactivity_and_Nuclear_Reactions.ppt
This document provides an overview of radioactivity and nuclear reactions. It discusses the structure of the atom and nucleus, the three types of nuclear radiation (alpha, beta, gamma), radioactive decay, half-life, and methods for detecting radioactivity like cloud chambers, bubble chambers, electroscopes, and Geiger counters. Radioactive dating methods that use isotopes like carbon-14 and uranium are also summarized.
AP_Physics_2_-_CH_28_29_30_Atomic_and_Nuclear_Physics.ppt
1) Atoms are the building blocks of matter and contain protons and neutrons in the nucleus surrounded by electrons in orbitals. Different elements have different numbers of protons and electrons.
2) Electrons can move between energy levels of an atom by absorbing or emitting photons. Spectroscopy uses the characteristic wavelengths of emitted photons to identify elements.
3) Radioactive decay occurs when unstable nuclei emit particles or energy. Common types are alpha, beta, gamma decay. Applications include nuclear power, medical imaging, and homeland security scanning.
Radioactivity
This document provides information about radioactivity and atomic structure. It begins by defining the basic structure of an atom, including the nucleus, protons, neutrons, and electrons. It then discusses atomic number, mass number, isotopes, isobars, and isotones. The document outlines the three types of radioactive emissions - alpha, beta, and gamma - and provides examples. It discusses radioactive decay and isotopes. Finally, it covers applications of radioactivity in medicine, science, and industry, as well as harmful effects of radiation and safety precautions.
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CBSE Class 11 Chemistry Chapter 2 (The Structure of Atom)
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12.1
This document discusses the photoelectric effect and how it relates to classical and quantum theories of light. It begins by describing early observations of the photoelectric effect and how it works. It then outlines several predictions of classical theory that did not match experimental observations, such as intensity of light not affecting electron kinetic energy. Einstein's explanation using a quantum theory approach is then presented, introducing the concept of photons. Several actual observations from experiments are then matched to explanations using quantum theory. The document concludes by discussing de Broglie's hypothesis of matter waves and how particles can behave as waves.
11.2
This document discusses electromagnetic induction and how it is used to generate alternating current (AC) in generators. It explains that rotating coils within a magnetic field generate an electromotive force (EMF) that produces a current. The current flows back and forth as the coils rotate, making it an alternating current. It describes the key components of a basic AC generator, including the coil, slip rings, and brushes. The output is a sinusoidal waveform where the current is maximum when the coil's motion cuts the most magnetic field lines per unit time. It also discusses how transformers are used to change AC voltages by using the principle of electromagnetic induction.
8.2 thermal energy transfer
There are three main forms of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction involves the transfer of kinetic energy between particles in direct contact. Convection involves the transfer of heat by the movement of fluids like gases and liquids. Radiation involves the transfer of energy through electromagnetic waves and does not require a medium. Increased concentrations of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere have intensified the natural greenhouse effect, contributing to global warming by trapping more heat in the lower atmosphere. The impacts of climate change include rising temperatures, changes to climate and weather patterns, rising sea levels, and disruption of natural ecosystems.
8.1 energy sources
The document discusses various renewable and non-renewable energy sources. It provides information on how different energy sources work, including fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas, as well as renewable sources like solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal, and nuclear. It discusses the basic processes of energy conversion, emissions, costs and environmental impacts of each energy source. Sankey diagrams are also introduced to illustrate energy transfers from different fuel sources.
Stellar quantities 2018
The energy falling on a 1 m^2 surface on Earth in a year is:
Lsun x π x 1 x (1 year) = 3.90x1026 W x π x 1 x (3600 s/hr x 24 hr/day x 365.25 day/year) = 1.36x1017 J
Where Lsun is the luminosity of the Sun (3.90x1026 W) and 1 year is converted to seconds.
D3
The Big Bang model describes the origin and evolution of our universe. It postulates that approximately 13.8 billion years ago, the entire observable universe was only a few millimeters in size and extremely hot and dense. The universe has been expanding and cooling ever since. Evidence for the Big Bang includes the expansion of the universe, the cosmic microwave background radiation, and the relative abundance of light elements like hydrogen and helium.
7.2 nuclear reactions
- Nuclear fission involves splitting large nuclei like uranium, releasing energy. Fusion joins light nuclei like hydrogen, also releasing energy.
- Fission is used in nuclear power plants and bombs. Fusion powers stars and could be an energy source on Earth if containment and high temperature issues are solved.
- The binding energy curve shows that mid-sized nuclei are most stable, and that fission and fusion involving less stable nuclei release energy.
11.3
This document defines capacitance as the charge per unit voltage that a device can maintain. It describes a capacitor as a device that can store charge, consisting of two parallel plates separated by a medium like air, vacuum, or dielectric. It provides the equations for capacitance and discusses how capacitors can be arranged in series or parallel circuits. It also describes how capacitors can be used to store energy and discusses dielectrics and their effect on capacitance. Examples are given of calculating charge, capacitance, and capacitor arrangements in circuits.
11.1
This document discusses electromagnetic induction and Faraday's law of induction. It explains that an electromotive force (emf) is induced in a conductor when it moves through a magnetic field. The direction of the induced current is determined by Lenz's law, which states that the induced emf will oppose the change in magnetic flux that creates it. Faraday's law quantifies the relationship between the induced emf and the rate of change of the magnetic flux through the conductor.
10.2 fields at work 2017
Here are the steps to solve these problems:
1) Given: Distance above earth's surface = 1000km
Use equation: V = -GM/R
= - (6.67x10-11 Nm2/kg2)(5.98x1024 kg)(1000km)
= -6.3x1010 J/kg
2) Given: ∆V = Vf - Vi = -60 - (-20) MJ/kg = -40 MJ/kg
∆E = mg∆h = m∆V
∆V = ∆E/m = -40x106 J/kg / 50 kg = -800 m/s
3)
10.1 describing fields 2017
1) Gravitational and electric fields can be described by their field strength, which is defined as the force exerted per unit mass or charge.
2) Coulomb's law and Newton's law of gravitation describe the relationship between field strength and distance from the source of the field. Field strength decreases with the inverse square of the distance.
3) Electric and gravitational potential are scalar quantities that represent the potential energy per unit mass or charge. Potential increases as distance from the source decreases. Equipotential lines represent regions of constant potential.
5.1 electric fields
Electric fields arise from electric charges and can be represented by electric field lines. A positive test charge experiences a force when placed in an electric field, allowing the field strength to be calculated. The field is strongest closest to the charged object and decreases with distance. Materials are classified as conductors, insulators or semiconductors based on how easily their electrons can move. Coulomb's law defines the force between two point charges as directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
5.2 heating effect of currents
The document discusses electricity and magnetism, specifically resistance and heating effects of currents. It explains that resistance depends on the material and structure of a conductor, with tungsten filament lamps having high resistance and copper wires having low resistance. It also covers Ohm's law, defining resistance as the ratio of potential difference to current, and how resistors, circuits, and resistor combinations work based on this relationship. Kirchhoff's laws for analyzing electric circuits are also summarized.
5.4 magnetic effects of currents
This document discusses magnetic fields created by electric currents. It begins by introducing magnetic fields and magnets. It then explains that a current-carrying wire creates a circular magnetic field, as shown by iron filings. The direction of the field depends on the current direction. A flat coil and solenoid also produce magnetic fields, with the solenoid's field resembling that of a bar magnet. Current-carrying wires and charged particles experience forces in magnetic fields according to Fleming's left-hand rule. Parallel wires with the same/opposite currents attract/repel each other due to their magnetic fields. The ampere is defined based on the force between parallel current-carrying wires. Magnetic field strength B is directly
5.3 electric cells
1. Batteries work by using a chemical reaction to create a difference in electrolytic potential between two terminals placed in an electrolyte. This potential difference causes ions to flow from one terminal to the other.
2. Primary cells cannot be recharged, while secondary cells can be recharged by applying an external voltage to reverse the chemical reaction.
3. The electromotive force (EMF) of a source is the electrical potential energy, measured in volts, that is transferred to each coulomb of charge passing through the source. Common examples of sources that provide EMF include dry cells, dynamos, and solar cells.
4.4
The document discusses wave behavior and reflection and refraction of waves. It provides examples of reflection at fixed and free boundaries and how this causes inversion or no inversion of pulses. It introduces the law of reflection where the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Refraction is discussed where the speed and wavelength change upon entering a new medium. Snell's law is derived relating the sines of the angles of incidence and refraction to the refractive indices of the media. Total internal reflection at the critical angle is also mentioned.
4.5
Standing waves are formed when two waves of equal amplitude and wavelength traveling in opposite directions interfere. A standing wave has points called nodes where the disturbance is always zero, and amplitudes called antinodes. When the frequency is increased, different standing wave patterns called harmonics are formed. The fundamental harmonic has a half wavelength, and higher harmonics have wavelengths that are fractions of the total length. Standing waves can also be produced in open and closed pipes, with the harmonic frequencies following specific patterns in each case.
4.2
This document discusses different types of waves including transverse waves, longitudinal waves, and electromagnetic waves. It defines key wave properties such as amplitude, wavelength, frequency, speed, and period. It provides examples of calculating wavelength, frequency, and speed using the wave equations. The document also covers the electromagnetic spectrum and properties of different regions including gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, microwaves, and radio waves.
4.3
1. Polarized light can be used in stress analysis by placing a photoelastic material such as glass or celluloid between crossed polarizers. When stress is applied, bright and dark fringes appear where stress is greatest, allowing stresses to be analyzed.
2. Certain solutions have the property of optical activity, meaning they rotate the plane of polarization of polarized light passing through them. The angle of rotation depends on concentration. A polarimeter can measure this rotation and determine concentration.
3. Liquid crystal displays use the optical activity of liquid crystals. Crystals are aligned between polarizers in pixels. Applying electric fields changes crystal twist and the polarization angle for each pixel, controlling brightness.
4.1
Oscillations and waves can be described by key parameters including amplitude, period, and frequency. Amplitude refers to the maximum displacement from equilibrium, period is the time for one full oscillation, and frequency is the number of oscillations per second. Common examples of oscillations include a pendulum, mass on a spring, and ocean tides. For an object to undergo simple harmonic motion, it must experience a restoring force proportional to and directed towards its displacement from equilibrium.
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7.2
- 1. Atomic and Nuclear Physics Topic 7. 2 Radioactive Decay
- 5. Alpha, Beta and Gamma
- 6. Properties
- 7. Properties 2 The diagram on the right shows how the different types are affected by a magnetic field. The alpha beam is a flow of positively (+) charged particles, so it is equivalent to an electric current. It is deflected in a direction given by Fleming's left‑hand rule ‑ the rule used for working out the direction of the force on a current‑carrying wire in a magnetic field.
- 43. To begin with, there are 40 million undecayed nuclei. 8 days later, half of these have disintegrated. With the number of undecayed nuclei now halved, the number of disintegrations over the next 8 days is also halved. It halves again over the next 8 days... and so on. Iodine‑131 has a half‑life of 8 days.