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1) Neurons detect stimuli and transmit signals along their axons via electrical impulses. Neuroglial cells structurally and functionally support neurons. 2) An action potential is generated when a threshold stimulus causes voltage-gated sodium channels to open, depolarizing the neuron. Potassium channels then repolarize the membrane. 3) At a synapse, an action potential causes neurotransmitter release from the presynaptic neuron. This may excite or inhibit the postsynaptic neuron depending on the neurotransmitter.
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Presentation NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION
The neuromuscular junction is the chemical synapse between a motor neuron and muscle fiber. When an action potential reaches the motor neuron terminal, calcium ions enter and cause vesicles to release acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft. Acetylcholine then binds to nicotinic receptors on the muscle fiber, opening sodium channels and causing an endplate potential that generates an action potential in the muscle fiber, leading to muscle contraction. Acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine to terminate the signal and allow muscle relaxation.
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Describes the overview of the skeletal muscles, its description, functons, and properties. It also inccludes the gross organization of the skeletal system.
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2) Motor neurons innervate muscle fibers to produce either contraction or relaxation in response to neural signals.
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This document provides an overview of the contractile mechanism of smooth muscle. It discusses:
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2. The chemical basis being similar to skeletal muscle but without a troponin complex.
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The somatosensory pathway consists of neurons that transmit sensations from receptors to the cerebral cortex. There are different pathways depending on the type of sensory information. The first neuron has a pseudounipolar structure, transmitting signals to the spinal cord or brainstem. Signals then cross to the opposite side and ascend to the thalamus before reaching the parietal cortex. Different pathways transmit discriminative touch and proprioception, sharp pain and temperature, or crude touch and pain depending on the receptor type and neuronal myelination. Precise topographic maps are maintained throughout the pathways.
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2. The chemical basis being similar to skeletal muscle but without a troponin complex.
3. Key differences from skeletal muscle including slower cycling of myosin cross-bridges, lower energy requirements, and a "latch mechanism" allowing prolonged contraction.
4. The role of calcium ions and proteins like calmodulin in activating phosphorylation of the myosin head and initiating contraction.
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Muscle tissue is composed of cells that have the ability to shorten or contract in order to produce movement of the body parts
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Contractibility – Ability of muscle cells to shorten
Excitability – Muscle tissue responds to a stimulus delivered from neuron or hormone
Extensibility – Ability to be stretched
Elasticity – Ability to recoil back to its original length after being stretched
Structure of Muscular tissue
Muscular tissues are bundled together and surrounded by tough connective tissue known as epimysium
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Muscle fibres can contract and relax
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Skeletal muscles are attached to the skeleton
They are also known as striated muscles because of the presence of alternate patterns of light and dark bands
These light and dark bands are highly organized structures of actin, myosin, and proteins.
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They play a vital role in everyday activities
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Cardiac muscle tissue is present only in the heart
They are single celled and uninucleated
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The document provides an overview of the nervous system, including its structural and functional organization. It discusses the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Key points include:
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- Neurons are the basic functional units and come in different shapes and sizes. Glial cells provide support and protection for neurons.
- The spinal cord is part of the CNS and acts as an information conduit between the brain and body via spinal nerves. It facilitates reflexes through interconnected neurons in the gray matter
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2. It describes the motor unit as the functional unit of skeletal muscle, composed of a motor neuron and the muscle fibers it innervates.
3. The structure and function of the neuromuscular junction is explained, where an action potential triggers the release of acetylcholine from the motor neuron, causing muscle fiber depolarization and contraction.
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3) Neuromuscular transmission triggers muscle contraction through the release and binding of acetylcholine at the motor end plate, generating an action potential.
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The document discusses synaptic transmission between neurons. There are two types of synapses: electrical synapses allow direct ion flow between neurons, transmitting signals fast. Chemical synapses use neurotransmitters released into a gap and binding to receptors on the post-synaptic neuron, transmitting signals more slowly but with more complexity through different neurotransmitters. The chemical synapse process involves vesicles releasing neurotransmitters in response to an action potential, the neurotransmitters binding to receptors and opening ion channels to potentially trigger another action potential.
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Skeletal muscle is composed of long cylindrical muscle fibers that contain contractile filaments called myofibrils. Myofibrils contain regularly arranged thick and thin filaments that allow for muscle contraction via the sliding filament mechanism. Thick filaments are composed of myosin and thin filaments are composed of actin. When calcium levels rise, myosin heads bind to actin and the power stroke causes thin filaments to slide inward, shortening the sarcomere and muscle fiber. Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum via T-tubules in response to neural stimulation.
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The document discusses the human senses and how they work. It explains that there are more than eight senses that detect various forms of energy like sound, light, heat, pressure, and chemicals through specialized receptor cells. The stimuli are converted into neural impulses that are transmitted to the brain for perception. Thresholds refer to the minimum amount of stimuli needed to activate a sense. The document then focuses on the anatomy and functions of the eye and ear in more detail.
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This document summarizes a lecture on cell physiology given by Dr. Nilesh Kate on February 20, 2015. The lecture covers cell structure, including the cell membrane, organelles like mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum, and intercellular junctions. It describes the basic components and functions of cells, provides a brief history of cell discovery, and discusses various cellular structures like organelles, the cytoskeleton, the nucleus, and the plasma membrane in detail.
Introduction to nervous system
The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord, which coordinate incoming and outgoing information. The PNS connects the CNS to organs and sensory receptors, carrying signals to and from the CNS. Neurons are the basic functional units and come in sensory, motor, and interneuron types that differ in their dendrite and axon structures. Sensory neurons carry signals to the CNS while motor neurons carry signals away, and interneurons connect signals within the CNS.
Neuromuscular junction
This document provides an overview of the neuromuscular junction. It defines the neuromuscular junction as the junction between the terminal branch of a nerve fiber and a muscle fiber. It describes the structure of the neuromuscular junction including the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes separated by a synaptic cleft. It explains the process of neuromuscular transmission from the release of acetylcholine to the destruction of acetylcholine and the development of end plate potentials. It discusses neuromuscular blockers and stimulators and their uses. It also covers motor units, recruitment of motor units, and some applied physiology concepts like myasthenia gravis and Eaton-Lambert syndrome.
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The document discusses the structure and function of the nervous system. It describes that the nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which includes nerves connecting to the CNS. Within the CNS, the brain is divided into regions including the cerebrum, cerebellum, and spinal cord. The CNS contains gray matter with neuron cell bodies and white matter with myelinated axons. Glial cells like astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells support neurons in the CNS.
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This document summarizes nervous tissue, including its cells and classification. It describes the two main cell types: neurons, which transmit electrical signals, and neuroglia cells, which support and protect neurons. Neurons are composed of a cell body, dendrites that receive signals, and an axon that transmits signals. There are different types of neurons classified by their structure. Neuroglia include oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, ependymal cells, microglia, Schwann cells, and satellite cells that each have distinct functions in supporting the nervous system. Together, neurons and glia allow the nervous system to coordinate voluntary and involuntary body functions through electrical signaling.
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definition and function bone
classification of bone according to shape, development, region and structure
gross structure of long bone
parts of a bone (epiphysis, diaphysis, metaphysis and epiphysial plate of cartilage)
blood supply of bone
growth of a long bone
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The document summarizes the structure and function of the neuromuscular junction. It describes the key components of the presynaptic axon terminal, synaptic cleft, and postsynaptic membrane. It then explains the series of events that occur during neuromuscular transmission, including the propagation of the action potential, release of acetylcholine, binding to nicotinic receptors, and generation of the endplate potential. It concludes by discussing acetylcholine degradation and reuptake, neuromuscular blockers and stimulators, and the pathology of myasthenia gravis.
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Ion channels are pore-forming membrane proteins that selectively transport ions across cell membranes. They are classified based on their gating mechanism (voltage-gated or ligand-gated), the type of ion transported, and their localization. Voltage-gated channels open and close in response to changes in membrane potential, while ligand-gated channels open when specific ligands bind. Dysfunctions in ion channels can cause diseases. Ion channels are important drug targets, and several drugs like tetrodotoxin, ziconotide, benzodiazepines, and lidocaine act by modulating specific ion channels.
Nerve Impulse
An action potential occurs when a neuron reaches its membrane threshold. This causes sodium channels to open, allowing sodium ions to enter the neuron and depolarize the membrane. Then, potassium channels open, allowing potassium ions to exit the neuron and repolarize the membrane back to its resting potential. This process of depolarization and repolarization propagates as a self-sustaining wave along the neuron, conducting the nerve impulse. Myelinated neurons enhance conduction velocity through salutatory conduction, where the action potential jumps between nodes of Ranvier.
ACTION POTENTIAL - IONIC BASIS AND RECORDING
The document discusses the ionic basis and recording of action potentials. It begins with an introduction to excitable tissues and how they generate electrical signals. It then covers the history of discoveries in this area including Galvani's work in the 18th century and seminal contributions from Hodgkin, Huxley, Eccles and Neher and Sakmann who won the Nobel Prize. The document discusses the resting membrane potential and how it is maintained, as well as graded and action potentials. It details the ionic basis of the action potential involving sodium, potassium and other ion channels. Finally, it addresses recording techniques, types of action potentials, and some applied aspects and clinical correlates.
What is HPLC
HPLC is a type of liquid chromatography that can separate mixtures of chemicals. It works by pumping a pressurized liquid solvent (mobile phase) through a column containing a solid material (stationary phase). Samples are injected and the different compounds interact differently with the phases, causing them to elute from the column at different retention times, allowing separation. HPLC has advantages over other methods like higher separation efficiency, reproducibility, and ability to analyze a wide range of compounds dissolved in liquid. It is used in various fields like medicine, food, environment, and industry.
Nerve Impulse
1) Nerve impulses propagate along axons via the movement of sodium and potassium ions across the axon membrane.
2) At rest, the axon maintains a negative charge due to higher concentrations of potassium and organic ions inside the axon and higher concentrations of sodium and chloride ions outside.
3) When an impulse is generated, the permeability of the axon membrane to sodium briefly increases, allowing sodium to flow inside and depolarize the membrane. This creates an electrical signal called an action potential.
Ion channels, types and their importace in managment of diseases
This topic covers voltage gated type of ion channel, general structure and functioning of ion channels and involvement of different ion channel types in the pathogenesis as wella as a target for the development of various diseases.
General Physiology - Action potential
The document summarizes membrane potentials and action potentials in nerve cells. It discusses:
1) The concentration gradients that give rise to resting membrane potentials via the Nernst equation and Goldman equation. Key ions like sodium, potassium and chloride contribute to a resting potential of around -90mV.
2) How action potentials are initiated when the membrane reaches a threshold potential, causing voltage-gated sodium channels to open and depolarize the membrane. Potassium channels then open to repolarize the membrane.
3) The roles of other ions like calcium and various ion pumps and channels in maintaining resting potentials and propagating action potentials down nerve fibers via saltatory conduction. Action potentials rely on precise ion concentration gradients maintained
163 ch 08_lecture_presentation
The document describes the nervous system and its divisions. It includes:
1) The nervous system has two main divisions - the central nervous system (CNS) made up of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) made up of nerves outside the CNS.
2) Neurons are the basic functional units and come in sensory, motor, and interneuron types. Neuroglia are supportive glial cells like astrocytes and oligodendrocytes.
3) The CNS contains gray matter with neuron cell bodies and white matter with myelinated axon tracts. The PNS contains ganglia with neuron cell bodies and nerves with bundled axons.
Nerve impulse conduction
Nerve impulse conduction involves the generation and propagation of action potentials along neurons. At rest, neurons maintain a negative resting potential due to an unequal distribution of ions across the cell membrane. When stimulated, the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels causes rapid depolarization and the generation of an action potential. This potential then propagates along the axon as adjacent regions are depolarized, triggering their own action potentials. At synapses, the action potential is converted to a chemical signal via neurotransmitter release, which can then trigger a new action potential in the post-synaptic cell. Myelination and large axon diameters increase conduction velocity.
Action Potential
The document discusses action potentials and their propagation in excitable tissues. It begins by stating the objectives of understanding the mechanisms of action potential production and propagation. It then lists the main contents that will be covered, including the definition of action potential, its typical stages in large myelinated nerve fibers, the ion channels involved, propagation, and different types of action potentials. The document provides detailed explanations and diagrams of these topics. It emphasizes that action potentials are rapid changes in membrane potential that transmit signals through tissues via the coordinated opening and closing of sodium and potassium ion channels.
The Resting Potential And The Action Potential
An action potential occurs when a neuron is stimulated enough to reach its threshold of excitation. This causes sodium channels to open, allowing sodium to rush into the neuron and depolarize it. The neuron then repolarizes as potassium leaves and the sodium-potassium pump restores the ion gradients. After an action potential, the neuron enters an absolute refractory period where it cannot fire again, followed by a relative refractory period where a stronger stimulus is needed to trigger another action potential. This process allows neurons to rapidly transmit signals down axons to synapse with other neurons.
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Ion channels, types and their importace in managment of diseases
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The nervous system consists of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (nerves). It detects internal and external changes, processes sensory information, and initiates motor responses. The nervous system has three main functions - sensory input, integration of input, and motor output responses. It works through neurons, which communicate via electrochemical signals called nerve impulses.
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The nervous system has three main functions: sensory, integration, and motor. It is divided into the central nervous system (CNS; brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains neurons and neuroglia. Neuroglia provide support and protection for neurons. There are two types of neurons - sensory neurons transmit sensory information to the CNS, and motor neurons transmit signals from the CNS to effectors like muscles. Neurons communicate via electrical or chemical synapses using neurotransmitters like acetylcholine, GABA, glutamate, and catecholamines.
Anatomy & Physiology Lecture Notes - The nervous system
website: http://am-medicine.com
Youtube Channel : https://www.youtube.com/user/ammedicine
Facebook group: https://www.facebook.com/groups/am.medicine
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Ch 13 lecture_outline_a
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The nervous system has two main divisions - the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS is made up of the brain and spinal cord, which act as integrative and control centers. The PNS includes nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body and transmit sensory information to the CNS and motor commands from the CNS. Neurons are the basic functional units and come in sensory, motor, and interneuron types. Supporting glial cells insulate and protect neurons. The nervous system uses electrical and chemical signals to sense the environment, integrate information, and coordinate responses via pathways like ascending and descending tracts in the spinal cord and reflex arcs.
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Nervous system
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The nervous system can be divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord and is responsible for integrating sensory information and coordinating motor commands. The PNS has two parts - the cerebrospinal part made up of cranial and spinal nerves, and the autonomic nervous system. There are two main cell types in the nervous system - neurons, which transmit signals, and neuroglia, which provide support and insulation. The autonomic nervous system has two divisions - the parasympathetic and sympathetic systems, which work in opposition to activate "rest and digest" and "fight or flight" responses respectively.
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Anatomy lab. 7 nervous sys.
The nervous system controls and coordinates the body's activities. It has two main parts:
1. The central nervous system (CNS) consisting of the brain and spinal cord which acts as the control center.
2. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consisting of nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body and allows communication.
The nervous system receives sensory input, integrates the information, and causes motor responses via output from the CNS to muscles and glands. It works through neurons, which are specialized cells that transmit electrochemical signals, and neurotransmitters which allow communication between neurons.
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7 neurons
- 2. Neural Signaling Response to stimulus involves: •detection of stimulus •conduction of signal •processing •response
- 3. receives information nucleus & organelles integrates info carries signal to other cells neuroglial cell synaptic terminal
- 4. p887 Speed of impulse – 30-90 m/sec
- 5. p887
- 6. Neuroglia • structural & functional support of neurons (surround axons) • two important neuroglial cells: -Schwann cells (PNS) -oligodendrocytes (CNS) •Cells wrap around axons several times to form myelin sheath (Figure). Function? •Nodes of Ranvier (1-2 mm apart) Louis Antoine Ranvier 1878 discovered myelin and nodes.
- 7. CNS -brain -spinal cord PNS (peripheral nervous system) -sensory neurons -motor neurons Interneurons link CNS & PNS p886
- 8. p894
- 9. Ganglion Cell bodies Myelin sheath Artery Vein Axon 100 µm Nerve-consists of hundreds (thousands) of axons wrapped together in connective tissue. bullfrog -A mass of nerve cell bodies.
- 10. Initiation of action potential all or nothing must reach a threshold -Membrane potential is the voltage difference across a cell’s membrane (cytoplasm is more negative than outside the cell – resting potential is -70mV) -Nerve impulses are detected as a wave of electrical activity. (electrochemical change) -With an all or nothing response, how is intensity detected?
- 12. Resting Membrane Potential-Polarized K+ leak Na+ /K+ ATP channel pump K+ leak channels maintain negative voltage inside the cell. There are few Na+ leak channels.
- 13. p893
- 14. p893
- 15. & Potassium Channel 1. 2. 3. 4. channel inactivated
- 16. Propagation of nerve impulse polarized depolarized repolarized
- 17. Voltage gated Na+ channel How do voltage gated channels work?
- 19. Area of depolarization Potassium channel Sodium channel Area of repolarization Area of depolarization Action potential Action potential
- 20. Resting state Depolarization Repolarization Return to resting state Extracellular fluid Sodium channel Potassium channel Cytoplasm 1 2 3 4 2 1 3 4
- 21. Na+ /K+ ATP Pump -Average neuron contains 1,000,000 pumps. -Speed – 200 Na+ ions & 135 K+ ions per second.
- 22. Fig. 44.11 p878
- 23. p894
- 25. Synaptic vesicles Neurotransmitter molecules Receptor Plasma membrane of postsynaptic neuron Presynaptic terminal Synaptic cleft Na+ 0.25 µm presynaptic neuron postsynaptic neuron synaptic terminal What happens to the neural transmitter? 20 nM (10-9 M)
- 28. p896
- 29. Excitatory Neurotransmitter Promotes Depolarization of Postsynaptic Neuron
- 31. p898
- 32. Green = excitatory Rust = inhibitory
- 33. Events at the Synapse p897
- 34. Cocaine -Binds the dopamine transporters and prevents reuptake of the neurotransmitter. -Dopamine continues to stimulate the postsynaptic cell.
- 35. Effect of Alcohol on the NS •Increases absorbance of K+ -neuron cannot repolarize -no repolarization - prevents propagation of action potential. -no action potential, no influx of Ca+2 , hence no release of neural transmitter. •Leads to slurred speech, slow reflexes, blurred vision & loss of inhibition.
- 36. Sensory Receptors •Mechanoreceptors - pressure •Energy Detecting Receptors heat cold light - photoreceptors •Chemoreceptors concentration of a particular compound How do they work? mechanoreceptors – stretch receptors -fire when stimulated - no adaptation sensory receptors – fire at a continuous basal level - undergo adaption Ex. – chemoreceptors & photoreceptors thermal
- 38. Ruffini corpuscle (pressure) Dermis 500 µm Pacinian corpuscle (deep pressure, touch) Hair follicle receptor (hair displacement) Merkel disc (touch, pressure) Meissner corpuscle (touch, pressure) HairFree nerve endings (pain) Epidermis Subcutaneous tissue
- 40. papilla – location of taste buds. “wall-like” “leaf-like” “mushroom-like”
- 41. Taste buds – a collection of chemosensitive epithelial cells associated with a sensory neuron. Circumvallate papilla
- 42. Each taste bud is “onion” shaped structures of between 50-100 taste cells. Molecules in the food dissolve in saliva and contact the taste receptors through the taste pores.
- 44. Smith &Margolskee Scientific American March 2001 Salts Na+ ions enter Na+ channels & depolarize the cell. The cell repolarizes by opening K+ gates.
- 45. Smith &Margolskee Scientific American March 2001 Sour - Acids 1. H+ directly enter channels. 2. H+ bind to Na+ channels causing them to open. 3. H+ bind to K+ channels and close these channels (no K+ leaves). Taste Cell
- 46. Smith &Margolskee Scientific American March 2001 Sugar molecules bind to a receptor. This activates a G-protein & and the secondary messenger cAMP causing K+ leak channels to close. The Na+ leak channels allow Na+ in a & the neuron depolarizes.
- 47. G protein GTP K+ channel open Adenylyl cyclase Protein kinase A Sugar molecule Receptor K+ channel closes activates 1 2 3 4 5 6 Gustducin cAMP closes K+ leak channels, but Na+ leak channels stay open.
- 48. The Tongue Taste Map Smith &Margolskee Scientific American March 2001 1. Although each neuron responds more strongly to one type of tastant, it can also generate a stimulus to other dissimilar molecules. 2. Specific tastes might be distinguished by the brain due to a pattern of activity across neural networks. 3. Smith & Margolskee claim that taste discrimination depends on the relative activity of different neuron types, each of which must contribute to the overall pattern of activity in order to distinguish between different stimuli.