Nervous System is a uniquely designed organ system of our body. This presentation is highlighting over the cellular configuration of this system. Neurons & Neuroglia are the two main players of the system. Neuron is the structural & functional unit of the system, while, Neuroglia are the supporting elements. At the end of this presentation, the young learner would be able to recognize different cell types of the Nervous system & their exclusive function.
Introduction to the histology and pathology of the nervous system. Brief overview of most common brain cancers and histological changes of neurons and glial cells
Nervous System is a uniquely designed organ system of our body. This presentation is highlighting over the cellular configuration of this system. Neurons & Neuroglia are the two main players of the system. Neuron is the structural & functional unit of the system, while, Neuroglia are the supporting elements. At the end of this presentation, the young learner would be able to recognize different cell types of the Nervous system & their exclusive function.
Introduction to the histology and pathology of the nervous system. Brief overview of most common brain cancers and histological changes of neurons and glial cells
Define what is neuron .
Describe the anatomy of neuron .
Enumerate the constituents of neuron.
Enlist the types of neuron .
Describe the function of neuron .
09.22.08: Histology of the Peripheral Nervous SystemOpen.Michigan
Slideshow is from the University of Michigan Medical School's M1 Cells and Tissues Sequence
View additional course materials on Open.Michigan:
openmi.ch/med-M1CellsTissues
Define what is neuron .
Describe the anatomy of neuron .
Enumerate the constituents of neuron.
Enlist the types of neuron .
Describe the function of neuron .
09.22.08: Histology of the Peripheral Nervous SystemOpen.Michigan
Slideshow is from the University of Michigan Medical School's M1 Cells and Tissues Sequence
View additional course materials on Open.Michigan:
openmi.ch/med-M1CellsTissues
This is the ppt that describes about organization of nerve in central nervous system. It also classify the nerves in various ways. Functions of different nerves and its characteristics are also described in this ppt.
This power point presentation was made for a second year lecture class of neuroanatomy. It was based on answers of different questions regarding neuroanatomy. The class was taken by Dr. Zobayer Mahmud Khan, Lecturer, Department of Anatomy, Sir Salimullah Medical College, Dhaka.
types of neurons, structure and functions, types of glia cells, their structure and function, functioning of a neuron - resting potential, action potential, graded potential, absolute and relative refractory period.
This informative slide will helpful for the pharmacy as well as all biology students. And this slide contain CNS,PNS, Impulse generation and conduction.
The nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord, and a complex network of nerves. This system sends messages back and forth between the brain and the body.
The brain is what controls all the body's functions. The spinal cord runs from the brain down through the back. It contains threadlike nerves that branch out to every organ and body part. This network of nerves relays messages back and forth from the brain to different parts of the body.What Are the Parts of the Nervous System?
The nervous system is made up of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system:
The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord.
The peripheral nervous system includes the nerves that run throughout the whole body.How Does the Nervous System Work?
The nervous system uses tiny cells called neurons (NEW-ronz) to send messages back and forth from the brain, through the spinal cord, to the nerves throughout the body.
Billions of neurons work together to create a communication network. Different neurons have different jobs. For example, sensory neurons send information from the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin to the brain. Motor neurons carry messages away from the brain to the rest of the body to allow muscles to move. These connections make up the way we think, learn, move, and feel. They control how our bodies work — regulating breathing, digestion, and the beating of our hearts.
NERVOUS SYSTEM// Brain & Spinal cord //CRANIAL NERVES//Neuron Wasim Ak
Nervous system is composed of CNS & PNS . The nervous system is made up of nervous tissues formed by neuron and neuroglia. This is mechanical coordination of the human body .
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
The Gram stain is a fundamental technique in microbiology used to classify bacteria based on their cell wall structure. It provides a quick and simple method to distinguish between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, which have different susceptibilities to antibiotics
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
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2. BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO
NERVOUS SYSTEM
CELLS IN NERVOUS
SYSTEM
HISTOLOGY OF
PERIPHERAL NERVE
HISTOLOGY OF
SYMPATHETIC & SPINAL
GANGLION
3. NERVOUS TISSUE - INTRODUCTION
ONE OF THE 4 BASIC
TISSUES IN THE BODY
4 BASIC TISSUES IN
THE BODY
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
NERVOUS TISSUE
MUSCULAR TISSUE
4. FUNCTIONS
COORDINATING &
CONTROLLING MANY
BODY ACTIVITIES
STIMULATE MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
CREATES AWARENESS OF
THE ENVIRONMENT
MAJOR ROLE IN
EMOTIONS, MEMORY &
REASONING
NERVOUS TISSUE - INTRODUCTION
6. NERVOUS TISSUE - INTRODUCTION
ANATOMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF NERVOUS TISSUE
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
BRAIN & SPINAL CORD
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• 12 PAIRS OF CRANIAL NERVES ARISING
FROM THE BRAIN
• 31 PAIRS OF SPINAL NERVES ARISING
FROM THE SPINAL CORD &
ASSOCIATED GANGLIA
7. NERVOUS TISSUE - INTRODUCTION
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF NERVOUS TISSUE
AFFERENT DIVISION /
SENSORY
BRINGS INFORMATION TO CNS
EFFERENT DIVISION /
MOTOR
GIVES MOTOR COMMANDS TO MUSCLES AND GLANDS
SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
INNERVATE SOMATIC
STRUCTURES LIKE MUSCLES –
RESPONSIBLE FOR VOLUNTARY
MOTOR ACTIVITIES.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
INNERVATE VISCERAL STRUCTURES
LIKE CARDIAC MUSCLES, SMOOTH
MUSCLES & GLANDS – RESPONSIBLE
FOR INVOLUNTARY ACTIVITIES
SUBDIVIDED INTO SYMPATHETIC AND
PARASYMPATHETIC
8. NERVOUS TISSUE - INTRODUCTION
MOTOR
NEURONS ARE
MULTIPOLAR
NEURONS.
SENSORY
NEURONS ARE
PSEUDO –
UNIPOLAR
NEURONS.
9.
10. SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
THIS DEALS WITH THE CHANGES IN THE EXTERNAL
ENVIORNMENT – EXTEROCEPTION OR PROPRIOCEPTION AND
GIVES A RESPONSE BY REFLEX ACTIVITIES WHICH ARE GENERALLY
EXPRESSED BY THE MOVEMENT OF SKELETAL MUSCLES OR BY
ALTERATION OF EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOUR. SOMATIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM INNERVATES SOMATIC STRUCTURES LIKE MUSCLES –
RESPONSIBLE FOR VOLUNTARY MOTOR ACTIVITIES.
14. THREE TYPE OF NEURONS IN
SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
A SENSORY NEURON – PSEUDO-UNIPOLAR
NEURON IN DORSAL ROOT GANGLION IN
SPINAL NERVE.
A CONNECTOR – INTERNEURON IN THE
GREY COLUMN OF THE SPINAL CORD.
AN EFFECTOR – MOTOR NEURON –
MULTIPOLAR NEURON IN THE ANTERIOR
GREY COLUMN OF THE SPINAL CORD.
15.
16. THE MOTOR RESPONSE OF THE
SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM MAY BE
REFLEXLY ORIENTED OR MEDIATED
UNDER VOLUNTARY CONTROL.
17. VOLUNTARY ACTION
IS CONTROLLED BY
BRAIN. IT REQUIRES
THINKING. THUS IT IS
SLOWER. SUITABLE
FOR EVERDAY
ACTION.
INVOLUNTARY
ACTION IS USALLY
CONTROLLED BY
SPINAL CORD. TAKES
PLACE WITHOUT
THINKING. IT IS FAST
AND RAPID. ALSO LIFE
SAVING ACTION.
18. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
IT DEALS WITH THE CHANGES IN THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
AND GIVES A RESPONSE BY REFLEX ACTIVITIES TO MAINTAIN CONTANT
INTERNAL ENVIORNMENT. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM REGULATES
THE BODY TEMPERATURE, BLOOD PRESSURE, CARDIO-RESPIRATORY
RATE, GASTO-INTESTINAL MOTILITY AND GLANDULAR SECRETION.
IT INNERVATE VISCERAL STRUCTURES LIKE CARDIAC MUSCLES, SMOOTH
MUSCLES & GLANDS – RESPONSIBLE FOR INVOLUNTARY ACTIVITIES.
SUBDIVIDED INTO SYMPATHETIC AND PARASYMPATHETIC
19. THE AUTONOMIC SYSTEM HAS BOTH SENSORY AND MOTOR COMPONENTS.
THE MOTOR COMPONENT HAS TWO SET OF NEURONS. PREGANGLIONIC AND
POSTGANGLIONIC NEURONS.
32. CELL BODY / SOMA /
PERIKARYON
CELL BODIES ARE
MOSTLY SITUATED IN THE
GREY MATTER OF THE
BRAIN AND THE SPINAL
CORD. ALSO FOUND IN
DORSAL ROOT GANGLIA.
33. THE CELL MEMBRANE OF THE
CELL BODY IS TRILAMINAR –
HAS 3 LAYERS. OUTER AND
INNER PROTEIN LAYER. MIDDLE
BIMOLECULAR LIPID LAYER.
NUCLEUS IS IN THE CENTER.
LARGE AND CONTAIN
PROMINENT NUCLEOLUS.
34. IN CASE OF INJURY OR
FATIGUE OF THE NERVE
CELL, THE NUCLEUS WILL BE
ECCENTRIC IN POSITION.
HOWEVER IN HEALTHY
SYMPATHETIC GANGLION
CELLS HAS ECCENTRIC
NUCLEUS.
IN FEMALES, BARR BODY IS
PRESENT BENEATH THE
NUCLEAR MEMBRANE.
35.
36.
37. THE CYTOPLASM OF THE
CELL BODY HAS
FOLLOWING
STRUCTURES:
NISSL SUBSTANCE
GOLGI COMPLEX
MITOCONDRIA
NEUROFIBRILS
NEUROFILAMENTS
MICROTUBULES
LYSOSOMES
LIPOFUSIN
MELANIN GRANULES
ETC
38.
39.
40. NISSL SUBSTANCE ARE
GRANULES THAT ARE
DISTRIBUTED THROUGHOUT
THE CYTOPLASM OF THE CELL
BODY EXCEPT IN THE REGION
CLOSE TO AXON – AXON
HILLOCK. NISSLE GRANULES
ARE COMPOSED OF ROUGH
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM.
THEY ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS.
41. CHROMATOLYSIS is a cell body
reaction to neuronal injury, such
as mechanical injury or by toxic
agents. Features of neuron
chromatolysis include a swollen
cell body, eccentric nucleus, and
loss of Nissl substance except
along the margins of the cell
body. Chromatolysis is
reversible, if the normal
condition is restored within
reasonable time. PICS: Two
chromatolytic cell bodies (C) are
adjacent to a normal cell body (N).
42. NEUROFIBRILS : THESE
ARE ULTRAMICROSCOPIC
FINE FIBRILS, ARRANGED IN
A PLEXIFORM MANNER IN
THE CELL BODY AND EXTEND
IN ALL PROCESSES.
NEUROFIBRILS ARE
CROWDED TOGETHER IN
AXON HILLOCK.
THESE FIBRILS ACT AS
INTERNAL SUPPORT OF THE
NEURONS BUT DO NOT HELP
IN THE CONDUCTION OF THE
NERVE IMPULSE.
43. DENDRITES ARE THE
SHORT PROCESSES OF THE CELL
BODIES. THEY BRANCHES
PROFUSELY.
CYTOPLASM OF THE DENDRITES
CLOSELY RESEMBLES THAT OF
CELL BODIES AND CONTAIN NISSL
GRANULES, MITOCHONDRIA,
MICROTUBULES ETC.
DENDRITES SHUD BE REGARDED
AS AN EXTENSION OF THE CELL
BODY. THEY CONDUCT IMPULSE
TOWARDS THE CELL BODY.
44. NUMEROUS THORN-LIKE
DENDRITIC SPINES KNOWN AS
GEMMULES PROJECT FROM
THE TERMINAL BRANCHES OF
DENDRITES.
THESE DENDRITIC SPINES
INCREASE THE AREA OF
CONTACT WITH THE AXONS OF
THE ADJACENT NEURONS AT
THE SYNAPTIC JUNCTION.
45. Dendritic spines are a
preferential site of synaptic
axodendritic contact; they
are sparse or absent in
some types of nerve cells
(motor neurons, the large
cells of the globus pallidus,
and stellate cells of the
cerebral cortex), and
exceedingly numerous in
others such as the
pyramidal cells of the
cerebral cortex and the
Purkinje cells of the
cerebellar cortex.
46. Dendritic spines are known to
change shape, to the extend of
appearing and disappearing
entirely. It has long been
hypothesised that such changes
may be the basis of learning and
memory formation itself.
Dysregulation of spine
morphology is seen in several
neurological disorders such as
Alzheimer’s disease and fragile
X syndrome.
49. AXON
LONGEST PROCESS OF THE CELL
BODY. ARISE FROM THE AXON
HILLOCK. THEY ARE DEVOID OF
NISSL GRANULES. AXON IS
TUBULAR AND UNIFORM IN
DIAMETER. DISTAL ENDS OF THE
TERMINAL BRANCHES ARE
ENLARGED KNOWN AS
TERMINALS.
50. PLASMA MEMBRANE
OF AXON IS CALLED
AXOLEMMA. THE
CYTOPLASM OF AXON
IS CALLED AXOPLASM.
AXOPLASM HAS NO
NISSL GRANULES AND
GOLGI COMPLEX.
55. THE SYNAPSE
SYNAPSES ARE SPECIALIZED
JUNCTION BETWEEN TWO
OR MORE ADJACENT
NEURONS.
BOUTONS TERMINAUX OF
ONE NEURON COME IN
CONTACT WITH DENDRITES
OR CELL BODY OF OTHER
NEURON.
58. SYNAPSE CLASSIFICATION BASED
ON THE ULTRASTRUCTURE Asymmetric synapses
include axons that contain
predominantly round or
spherical vesicles and
form synapses that are
distinguished by a
thickened, postsynaptic
density. In contrast,
Symmetric synapses
involve axons that contain
clusters of vesicles that
are predominantly
flattened or elongate in
their appearance. The
pre-and postsynaptic
membranes are more
parallel than the
surrounding nonsynaptic
membrane, and the
synapse does not contain
a prominent postsynaptic
density.
59.
60. CELLS IN THE
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
NEURONS NEUROGLIA
ACCORDING TO POLARITY
• UNIPOLAR
• BIPOLAR
• PSEUDO UNIPOLAR
• MULTIPOLAR
ACCORDING TO FUNCTION
• SENSORY/RECEPTOR
NEURON
• INTERNUNCIAL NEURON
• MOTOR OR EFFECTOR
NEURON
ACCORDING TO THE
RELATIVE LENGTHS OF
AXONS & DENDRITES
• GOLGI 1 TYPE
• GOLGI 2 TYPE
62. UNIPOLAR
NEURON
NEURONS FIRST DEVELOP
AS UNIPOLAR CELLS AND
SEND OUT A SINGLE
PROCESS.
MESENCEPHALIC NUCLEUS OF
TRIGEMINAL NERVE IS
CONSIDERED AS UNIPOLAR
NEURON.
63. BIPOLAR
NEURON
OLFACTORY CELLS OF NASAL MUCOUS
MEMBRANE, SOME CELLS OF RETINA AND
GANGLION CELLS OF AUDITORY NERVE ARE
BIPOLAR NEURONS
64. PSEUDO UNIPOLAR
NEURON
BIPOLAR NEURONS FURTHER
DIFFERENTIATE TO FORM
PSEUDO UNIPOLAR NEURON.
IT POSSESS A SINGLE PROCESS
BIFURCATING IN A ‘T’ SHAPED
MANNER.
NEURONS OF DORSAL ROOT GANGLIA OF
ALL SPINAL NERVES AND SENSORY GANGLIA
OF SOME CRANIAL NERVES ARE PSEUDO
UNIPOLAR
67. CLASSIFICATION OF
NEURON ACCORDING TO
THE RELATIVE LENGTHS
OF AXONS & DENDRITES
• GOLGI 1 TYPE
• GOLGI 2 TYPE
GOLGI 1 TYPE NEURONS: DENDRITES ARE SHORT AND
NUMEROUS. AXONS ARE LONG – CAN REACH UPTO 2 FEET IN
LENGTH. THESE NEURONS FORMS TRACTS OF CNS OR
TERMINATES AS PERIPHERAL NERVE.
GOLGI 2 TYPE NEURONS: AXONS ARE SHORT AND
MORPHOLOGICALLY SIMILAR TO DENDRITES. THEY ARE
CONFIRMED WITHIN THE GREY MATTER AND ESTABLISH
SYNAPTIC CONNECTIONS WITH OTHER NEURONS.
68. NEUROGLIA
• SUPPORTING CELLS
• NON-EXCITABLE CELLS
• UNDERGOES MITOTIC DIVISION
FUNCTIONS
• PROVIDES STRUCTURAL SUPPORT
• ACTIVELY TAKEPART IN IONIC TRANSPORT
• HELPS IN METABOLISM OF BRAIN
• PROCESSES OF SOME
NEUROGLIA FORM GLIAL
MEMBRANE BETWEEN BLOOD
VESSELS & NEURONS
• THE NUMBER OF NEUROGLIAL
CELLS ARE 10 TIMES MORE
THAN THE NUMBER OF
NEURONS.
• NEUROGLIAL CELLS
CONSTITUTES HALF OF THE
BRAIN VOLUME.
1
3
2
4
69. CELLS IN THE
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
NEURONS NEUROGLIA
CENTRAL
NEUROGLIA
PERIPHERAL
NEUROGLIA
MORPHOLOGICALLY AND
FUNCTIONALLY SIMILAR TO
ASTROCYTES. THEY RESIDES
WITHIN THE WALL OF THE
INTESTINAL TRACT. REGULATES
GASTROINTESTINAL MOTILITY.
SCHWANN CELL
SATELLITE CELL
MACROGLIA
ASTROCYTES
OLIGODENDROCYTES
EPENDYMAL CELLS
MICROGLIA
ENTERIC
NEUROGLIA
1 2 3
73. PROCESS OF
MYELINATION
THE PROCESS STARTS
BEFORE BIRTH &
CONTINUE TILL AGE ONE.
AS THE AXON SINKS INTO
THE SCHWANN CELL, THE
EXTERNAL PLASMA
MEMBRANE OF
SCHWANN CELL FORMS A
MESAXON.
AS THE AXON SUSPENDS WITHIN
THE SCHWANN CELL, THE
SCHWANN CELL ROTATES SO THAT
THE PLASMA MEMBERANE WRAPS
AROUND THE AXON IN A SPIRAL
MANNER. SOME NERVE FIBERS
ARE ONLY SURROUNDED BY FEW
MEMBRANE, OTHERS UPTO 50
TURNS.
1
2
3
74. THE MYELINATION BEGINS WHEN A SCHWANN CELL
SURROUNDS THE AXON AND ITS CELL MEMBRANE
BECOME POLARIZED.
THE THICKNESS OF THE MYELIN SHEATH IS DETERMINED
BY AXON DIAMETER AND NOT BY SCHWANN CELL.
NODE OF RANVIER IS THE JUNCTION BETWEEN TWO
SCHWANN CELL.
78. OLIGODENDROCYTES
SMALLER THAN ASTROCYTES. FOUND IN BOTH GREY &
WHITE MATTERS. EACH CELLS HAS DEEPLY STAINED OVAL &
ECCENTRIC NUCLEUS. SCANTY CYTOPLASM. LESS BRANCHED
THAN ASTROCYTES.
THREE TYPES OF OLIGODENDROCYTES:
• PERI-NEURAL SATELLITE CELLS - FOUND IN
GREY MATTER, ARRANGED AROUND THE
PERIPHERY OF THE CELL BODY &
DENDRITES.
• PERI-FASCICULAR CELLS – FOUND IN WHITE
MATTER. ARRANGED IN ROWS ALONG THE
MYELINATED NERVE FIBERS.
• JUXTA-VASCULAR CELLS – SURROUNDS THE
BLOOD VESSELS. CONTROL BLOOD FLOW.
79. OLIGODENDROCYTE
FUNCTIONS
FORMATION AND MAINTANCE OF MYLEIN
SHEATH. A SINGLE OLIGODENDROCYTES CAN
DEPOSIT MYLEIN OVER 3 DOZEN AXONS.
COMPAIRED TO SCHWANN CELL IT DEPOSIT
MYLEIN ONLY IN ONE AXON
PROVIDE ENERGY TO NEURONS & HELP IN
NEURONAL METABOLISM
OLIGODENDROCYTES & SCHWANN CELLS
CONTRACT RHYTHMICALLY – HELPS IN
AXOPLASMIC FLOW
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82. FIBROUS ASTROCYTES
HAS LONGER AND THINNER
PROCESSES. MICROFILAMENTS
KNOWN AS GLIOFIBRILS ARE
PRESENT IN THE PROCESSES.
THEY ARE PRESENT IN THE
WHITE MATTER.
PROTOPLASMIC ASTROCYTES
HAS NUMEROUS SHORT AND
THICK PROCESSES. GLIOFIBRILS
ARE ABSENT. THEY ARE
PRESENT IN GREY MATTER.
83. AT THE OUTER AND INNER
SURFACES OF CNS, THE PROCESSES
OF ASTROCYTES ARE INTERWOVEN
TO FORM OUTER AND INNER GLIAL
LIMITING MEMBRANE.
OUTER : PIA-GLIAL MEMBRANE :
PIA MATTER + ASTROCYTES.
INNER : EPENDYMAGLIAL
MEMBRANE : OVER THE LINING OF
VENTRICLES & CENTRAL CANAL OF
SPINAL CORD.
84.
85. ASTROCYTES FUNCTION BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER (BBB)
RETRIEVE NEUROTRASMITTERS LIKE GABA,
GLUMATE AFTER THE RELEASE FROM THE
NERVE ENDING
REDUCE THE POTTASIUM CONCENTRATION
IN THE EXTRACELLULAR AREA. LOW K+ IS
ESSENTIAL FOR NEURONAL ACTIVITIES.
ASTROCYTES ARE THE PRIMARY GLYCOGEN
STORE HOUSE IN THE CNS
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86. THE BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER (BBB)
CONSIST OF:
• ENDOTHELIUM OF CAPILLARIES
WHICH ARE NON-FENESTRATED
& CONTINOUS CONNECTED BY
TIGHT JUNCTION.
• SUBSTANTIAL BASEMENT
MEMBRANE UPON WHICH THE
ENDOTHELIUM RESTS.
• PERIVASCULAR FOOT AND CELL
BODIES OF ASTROCYTES.
87.
88. 88% OF THE BASEMENT
MEMBRANE IS COVERED BY
PERIVASCULAR FOOT &
CELL BODY OF ASTROCYTES.
4% BY THE PROCESSES OF
OLIGODENDROCYTES.
REST 8% BY THE PROCESSES
OF UNDETERMINED CELLS.
89. BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER (BBB)
CONVEYS NUTRITION TO THE
NEURONS, PERMITS DIFFUSION
OF WATER, OXYGEN AND CO2
READILY.
BUT RESTRICTS THE PASSAGE
OF MACROMOLECULES OF
PROTEINS, BILE SALTS &
CATECHOLAMINES TO THE
BRAIN CELLS
90. EPENDYMAL CELLS
THESE ARE EPITHELIAL LIKE LINING OF THE
FLUID FILLED CAVITIES OF THE CNS. THEY
FORM A SINGLE LAYER OF CUBOIDAL TO
COLUMNAR CELLS.
THE APICAL SURFACE OF CELLS HAS CILLIA
& MICROVILLI.
THE BASAL SURFACE HAS NUMEROUS
INFOLDINGS THAT INTERDIGITATE WITH
ADJACENT ASTROCYTE PROCESSES.
92. EPENDYMAL CELLS ARE OF 3 TYPES:
• EPENDYMOCYTES : LINES VENTRICLES OF
BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD.
• TANYCYTES : LINES THE FLOOR OF THE
3RD VENTRICLE. THESE CELLS HAS LONG
BASAL PROCESSES. ITS END FEET IS
PLACED ON CAPILLARIES.
• CHOROIDAL EPITHELIAL CELLS : COVER
CHOROID PLEXUSES. THE BASE AND SIDE
OF CELLS ARE THROWN INTO FOLDS. HAS
TIGHT JUNCTIONS.
93. EPENDYMOCYTES LINES VENTRICLES OF BRAIN
AND SPINAL CORD.
HAS CILLIA AND MICROVILLI.
CILLIA HELPS IN THE
CIRCULATION OF THE CSF.
MICROVILLI HELPS IN THE
ABSORPTION OF CSF.
94. TANYCYTES
LINES THE FLOOR OF THE 3RD VENTRICLE. THESE ARE
SPECIALIZED EPENDYMAL CELLS. THESE CELLS HAS LONG
BASAL PROCESSES. IT’S END FEET IS PLACED ON CAPILLARIES.
TANYCYTES ARE INVOLVED IN TRANSPORT OF SUBSTANCES
FROM CSF TO BLOOD WITHIN THE PORTAL CIRCULATION OF
HYPOTHALAMUS. THEY ARE SENSITIVE TO GLUCOISE
CONCENTRATION.
SO THEY MAYBE INVOLVED IN DETECTING AND RESPONDING
TO CHANGES IN ENERGY BALANCE AS WELL AS MONITORING
OTHER CIRCULATING METABOLITES IN CSF. MAY CONTROL
HORMONE PRODUCTION FROM PITUTARY.
97. THE BASE AND SIDE
OF CELLS ARE
THROWN INTO
FOLDS. HAS TIGHT
JUNCTIONS.
98. BLOOD-CSF BARRIER
COMPONENTS OF BLOOD-CSF
BARRIER:
• FENESTRATED ENDOTHELIUM OF
CHOROID CAPILLARIES RESTING
ON A BASEMENT MEMBRANE.
• TISSUE SPACE B/W VASCULAR
ENDOTHELIUM AND PIA
MATTER.
• CONTINOUS LAYER OF
EPENDYMAL CELLS CONNECTED
BY JUNCTIONAL COMPLEXES.
99. BLOOD-CSF BARRIER
TOXIC WASTES ARE
ABSORBED FROM CSF
INTO THE CAPILLARIES.
FILTRATE CONTAINING
GLOUCOSE, OXYGEN ETC
ARE RELEASED INTO THE
CSF.
100. EPENDYMAL CELLS
FUNCTIONS
CHOROIDAL EPITHELIAL CELLS : HELPS
IN THE PRODUCTION AND SECRETION
OF CSF.
CILLIA IN EPENDYMOCYTES HELPS IN
CIRCULATION OF CSF.
MICROVILLI IN EPENDYMOCYTES HELPS
IN ABSORPTION OF CSF.
TANYCYTES ARE INVOLVED IN TRANSPORT OF SUBSTANCES FROM CSF TO BLOOD WITHIN THE PORTAL
CIRCULATION OF HYPOTHALAMUS. THEY ARE SENSITIVE TO GLUCOISE CONCENTRATION.
SO THEY MAYBE INVOLVED IN DETECTING AND RESPONDING TO CHANGES IN ENERGY BALANCE AS WELL AS
MONITORING OTHER CIRCULATING METABOLITES IN CSF. MAY CONTROL HORMONE PRODUCTION FROM
PITUTARY.
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103. MICROGLIA
EMBRYOLOGICALLY NOT
RELATED TO OTHER
NEUROGLIAL CELLS. DERIVED
FROM MACROPHAGES
OUTSIDE THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM. THEY MIGRATE INTO
NERVOUS SYSTEM DURING
FETAL LIFE.
SMALLEST OF THE NEUROGLIA,
IS FOUND SCATTERED IN THE
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
THEY INCREASES IN NUMBER
IN CASE OF ANY INJURY,
DISEASES ETC
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105. SATELLITE CELLS OF PNS THESE ARE A LAYER OF CUBOIDAL CELLS THAT
SURROUNDS NEURONAL CELL BODIES OF
GANGLIA.
THEY FORMS A COMPLETE LAYER AROUND THE
CELL BODY.
SATELLITE CELLS HELPS TO ESTABLISH & MAINTAIN
CONTROLLED MICROENVIORNMENT AROUND THE
NEURONAL BODY OF THE GANGLIA.
PROVIDE ELECTRICAL INSULATION & PATHWAY
FOR METABOLIC EXCHANGES – THUS
FUNCTIONALLY ANALOGOUS TO SCHWANN CELL
EXCEPT IT DOESN’T MAKE MYELIN.
112. ENDONEURIUM
THESE ARE INTRA-FASCICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE.
THIS CONNECTIVE TISSUE CONSIST OF TYPE 1 COLLAGEN. ORGANANIZED IN
FINE BUNDLES LYING PARALLEL TO THE LONG AXIS OF NERVE AND
CONDENSED AROUND SCHWANN CELL AXON UNIT.
FIBROUS AND CELLULAR COMPONENT IS BATHED IN ENDONEURIAL FLUID
WHICH HAS HIGHER PRESSURE THAT EPINEURIUM.
CELLULAR COMPONENTS ARE SCHWANN CELLS, ASSOCIATED AXON,
ENDOTHELIAL CELLS, FIBROBLAST, MACROPHAGES & MAST CELLS.
113. PERINEURIUM
IT EXTENDS FROM CNS-PNS TRANSITION ZONE TO THE PERIPHERY.
CONSIST OF ALTERNATING LAYERS OF FLATTENED POLYGONAL
CELLS DERIVED FROM FIBROBLASTS & FIBERS. 15-20 LAYERS
PRESENT. TIGHT JUNCTIONS ARE PRESENT.
THIS FEATURE ACTS AS METABOLICALLY ACTIVE DIFFUSION
BARRIER. BLOOD-NERVE BARRIER. MAINTAINS OSMOTIC & FLUID
PRESSURE.
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116. EPINEURIUM
IT IS THE CONDENSATION OF LOOSE AREOLAR TISSUE.
MORE FASCICULI PRESENT IN A PERIPHERAL NERVE – THICKER
THE EPINEURIUM.
EPINEURIUM CONTAIN FIBROBLASTS, COLLAGEN TYPE 1 & 3, FAT,
LYMPHATICS AND VASA NERVORUM.
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131. GANGLIA
GANGLIA ARE THE AGGTEGATION
OF NEURONAL CELLBODIES.
THEY CAN BE FOUND IN
1. DORSAL ROOTS OF SPINAL
NERVE.
2. SENSORY ROOTS OF
TRIGEMINAL, FACIAL,
GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL, VAGAL
ND VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR
CRANIAL NERVES.
3. IN AUTONOMIC NERVES
4. ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
155. FREY’S SYNDROME
IN PENETRATING WOUND OF PAROTID
GLAND OR PAROTID GLAND SURGERY,
AURICULOTEMPORAL & GREAT AURICULAR
NERVES CAN GET DAMAGED. DURING
HEALING PROCESS, THE SECRETOMOTOR
FIBERS OF AURICULOTEMPORAL NERVE
GROWS OUT & JOIN WITH THE DISTAL END
OF THE GREAT AURICULAR NERVE.
THROUH WHICH THE FIBERS REACH THE
SWEAT GLAND IN THE FACIAL SKIN.
AS A RESULT, WHEN THE PATIENT EATS,
SWEATING CAN OCCUR OVER THE SKIN
COVERING THE PAROTID GLAND.
156. What is Wallerian Degeneration?
When there’s a cut to an axon, the axon neuron cell body becomes separate to the axon distal.
Therefore, the process of Wallerian degeneration is when this separated axon degenerates away from the site
of the injury. After the lesion happens, the axon tends to degenerate within 24-36 hours – but prior to this, the
distal axon may still be electrically excitable.
160. HERPES ZOSTER : CHICKEN POX VIRUS - varicella zoster
virus CAN LAY DORMANT IN DORSAL ROOT GANGLION FOR
YEARS AND CAN BE ACTIVE IN LATER YEARS TO FORM HERPES
ZOSTER
166. BLACK FUNGUS / Mucormycosis
is a devastating opportunistic
infection associated with high
mortality. Most of the cases occur in
patients with uncontrolled diabetes
mellitus and compromised immune
status – AIDS, COVID -19 ETC. Rhino-
cerebral mucormycosis is the most
common form of the disease. The
fungus rapidly spreads from paranasal
sinuses to orbits and cavernous
sinuses with extension to intracranial
vasculature and brain. Common
pathological hallmark is vascular
invasion and neurotropism. One of
rhino-cerebral mucormycosis
complication is optic nerve
infarction.
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169. GLIOSIS / REPLACEMENT
GLIOSIS : SCAR TISSUE
FORMATION AT THE SITE OF
NEURONAL DEATH. FOWING THE
DEATH OF NEURON DUE TO
CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT /
STROKE OR ANY TRAUMA ETC
ASTROCYTES PROLIFERATES AND
FILL IN THE SPACE PREVIOUSLY
OCCUPIED BY NEURONS.
171. Neuroblastomas are
cancers that start in early nerve
cells (called neuroblasts) of the
sympathetic nervous system,
so they can be found anywhere
along this system.
• Most neuroblastomas begin
in sympathetic nerve ganglia
in the abdomen, about half
of these start in the adrenal
gland.
• Most of the rest start in
sympathetic ganglia near the
spine in the chest or neck, or
in the pelvis.
172. TUMOURS OF NEUROGLIA ACCOUNTS 40% - 50% OF INTRACRANIAL
TUMOURS. SUCH TUMOURS AS CALLED GLIOMAS. TUMOURS OF
ASTROCYTES ARE MOST COMMON. ASTROCYTOMA & GLIOBLASTOMA.