Microbiology is the study of microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses. It is a specialized area of biology that examines microbes and their relationships to humans, animals, plants and the environment. Some key areas of microbiology include bacteriology, virology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and environmental microbiology. Important historical figures who contributed to the development of microbiology include Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, Edward Jenner, Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch, and Alexander Fleming. Microorganisms can be classified based on their cellular structure as being either prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Bacteria are the most common type of prokary
This document summarizes information about the CRISPR Cas9 genome editing tool. It discusses how CRISPR Cas9 uses guide RNA and the Cas9 enzyme to create targeted double-strand breaks in DNA, allowing genes to be knocked out or altered. The document outlines the history and mechanism of CRISPR Cas9, compares it to other genome editing tools, discusses its applications in plant breeding including reducing off-target effects, and provides an example of using it to create parthenocarpic tomato plants.
Crispr cas: A new tool of genome editing palaabhay
The document summarizes a presentation on CRISPR cas9, a new genome editing tool. It discusses the history of CRISPR, how CRISPR functions in bacteria, the classification and components of CRISPR systems, and the mechanism of CRISPR cas9. It then covers applications of CRISPR cas9 in genome editing, databases of CRISPR sequences, case studies using the technology, and future directions of CRISPR research.
This document provides information on CRISPR Cas9 genome editing. It discusses the history and discovery of CRISPR dating back to 1987. It describes the key components of the CRISPR Cas9 system including Cas9 proteins, CRISPR RNA, protospacers, and PAM sequences. The mechanisms of how CRISPR Cas9 edits genomes through double strand breaks is explained. Finally, applications of CRISPR Cas9 are summarized, including using it to correct genetic mutations causing diseases in animals and potential applications in humans.
1. The document describes a procedure to test the quality of a milk sample using Methylene Blue dye. The procedure involves adding drops of the dye to test tubes containing milk samples and incubating for 15 minutes to observe any color change.
2. A color change within the incubation period indicates the presence of microbes and poor milk quality, while no color change signifies good quality milk.
3. The rate at which the dye color disappears from the test tubes after incubation corresponds to different levels of milk quality, from very bad to excellent.
Application of crispr in cancer therapykamran javidi
Many bacterial clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)–CRISPR-associated (Cas) systems employ the dual RNA–guided DNA endonuclease Cas9 to defend against invading phages and conjugative plasmids by introducing site-specific double-stranded breaks in target DNA. Target recognition strictly requires the presence of a short protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) flanking the target site, and subsequent R-loop formation and strand scission are driven by complementary base pairing between the guide RNA and target DNA, Cas9–DNA interactions, and associated conformational changes. The use of CRISPR–Cas9 as an RNA-programmable
DNA targeting and editing platform is simplified by a synthetic single-guide RNA (sgRNA) mimicking the natural dual trans-activating CRISPR RNA (tracrRNA)–CRISPR RNA (crRNA) structure
The membrane filtration method and multiple tube method are described for testing water samples for indicator organisms like coliforms and E. coli. The membrane filtration method uses a vacuum to pull the water sample through a membrane filter which retains bacteria. The filter is then placed on a culture medium and incubated. Colonies are counted and reported as CFU/100ml. The multiple tube method involves inoculating different volumes of the water sample into lactose broth tubes, incubating, and observing for acid/gas production to determine the most probable number of coliforms present in the original sample using statistical tables.
This document discusses steroid biotransformation, which is the biological modification of steroids through microbial enzymes. It describes various types of microbial transformations of steroids including hydroxylation, dehydrogenation, epoxidation, and others. Commonly transformed steroids include progesterone, cortisol, and testosterone. Microorganisms like fungi and bacteria are used in fermentation to commercially produce steroid hormones and derivatives for uses as medications. The advantages of microbial transformations include enzyme selectivity and ability to produce novel compounds, while disadvantages include potential toxicity and low chemical yields.
This document summarizes information about the CRISPR Cas9 genome editing tool. It discusses how CRISPR Cas9 uses guide RNA and the Cas9 enzyme to create targeted double-strand breaks in DNA, allowing genes to be knocked out or altered. The document outlines the history and mechanism of CRISPR Cas9, compares it to other genome editing tools, discusses its applications in plant breeding including reducing off-target effects, and provides an example of using it to create parthenocarpic tomato plants.
Crispr cas: A new tool of genome editing palaabhay
The document summarizes a presentation on CRISPR cas9, a new genome editing tool. It discusses the history of CRISPR, how CRISPR functions in bacteria, the classification and components of CRISPR systems, and the mechanism of CRISPR cas9. It then covers applications of CRISPR cas9 in genome editing, databases of CRISPR sequences, case studies using the technology, and future directions of CRISPR research.
This document provides information on CRISPR Cas9 genome editing. It discusses the history and discovery of CRISPR dating back to 1987. It describes the key components of the CRISPR Cas9 system including Cas9 proteins, CRISPR RNA, protospacers, and PAM sequences. The mechanisms of how CRISPR Cas9 edits genomes through double strand breaks is explained. Finally, applications of CRISPR Cas9 are summarized, including using it to correct genetic mutations causing diseases in animals and potential applications in humans.
1. The document describes a procedure to test the quality of a milk sample using Methylene Blue dye. The procedure involves adding drops of the dye to test tubes containing milk samples and incubating for 15 minutes to observe any color change.
2. A color change within the incubation period indicates the presence of microbes and poor milk quality, while no color change signifies good quality milk.
3. The rate at which the dye color disappears from the test tubes after incubation corresponds to different levels of milk quality, from very bad to excellent.
Application of crispr in cancer therapykamran javidi
Many bacterial clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)–CRISPR-associated (Cas) systems employ the dual RNA–guided DNA endonuclease Cas9 to defend against invading phages and conjugative plasmids by introducing site-specific double-stranded breaks in target DNA. Target recognition strictly requires the presence of a short protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) flanking the target site, and subsequent R-loop formation and strand scission are driven by complementary base pairing between the guide RNA and target DNA, Cas9–DNA interactions, and associated conformational changes. The use of CRISPR–Cas9 as an RNA-programmable
DNA targeting and editing platform is simplified by a synthetic single-guide RNA (sgRNA) mimicking the natural dual trans-activating CRISPR RNA (tracrRNA)–CRISPR RNA (crRNA) structure
The membrane filtration method and multiple tube method are described for testing water samples for indicator organisms like coliforms and E. coli. The membrane filtration method uses a vacuum to pull the water sample through a membrane filter which retains bacteria. The filter is then placed on a culture medium and incubated. Colonies are counted and reported as CFU/100ml. The multiple tube method involves inoculating different volumes of the water sample into lactose broth tubes, incubating, and observing for acid/gas production to determine the most probable number of coliforms present in the original sample using statistical tables.
This document discusses steroid biotransformation, which is the biological modification of steroids through microbial enzymes. It describes various types of microbial transformations of steroids including hydroxylation, dehydrogenation, epoxidation, and others. Commonly transformed steroids include progesterone, cortisol, and testosterone. Microorganisms like fungi and bacteria are used in fermentation to commercially produce steroid hormones and derivatives for uses as medications. The advantages of microbial transformations include enzyme selectivity and ability to produce novel compounds, while disadvantages include potential toxicity and low chemical yields.
The document summarizes phagemid and bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) vectors. It describes that phagemid vectors are plasmids that contain both plasmid and phage origins of replication. Specifically, it discusses the features of pBluescript II phagemid vectors, including their polylinker and RNA polymerase promoter sequences. It also describes how pBluescript II phagemid vectors can produce blue or white colonies depending on insert presence. The document then explains that BAC vectors are low-copy plasmids that can hold up to 300kb DNA fragments. Examples of BAC vectors like pBAC108L and pBeloBAC11 are provided, with details about their replication origin and partitioning functions.
Herbicide tolerance plants are developed to control weeds that compete with crops for resources and can reduce crop yields by 20% annually. Weeds are typically controlled mechanically or through herbicides. Glyphosate is a commonly used broad-spectrum herbicide that acts by inhibiting the shikimate pathway enzyme EPSP synthase, preventing aromatic amino acid production. Transgenic plants are made tolerant to glyphosate by introducing the aroA gene to allow continued shikimate pathway function. Phosphinothricin resistance is conferred by the bar gene, which allows detoxification of the glutamine synthase inhibitor phosphinothricin. Bromoxynil tolerance results from the bxn gene introducing nitril
Genetics in bacteria can involve two types of gene transfer: vertical and horizontal. Vertical gene transfer occurs between generations through inheritance from parent to offspring cells. Horizontal gene transfer occurs between cells of the same generation through three main processes: transformation, transduction, and conjugation. Transformation involves uptake of naked DNA from the environment. Transduction involves transfer of bacterial DNA between cells by bacteriophages. Conjugation involves direct transfer of DNA through cell-to-cell contact via conjugation pili.
1. The document describes an experiment to isolate plasmid DNA from E. coli bacteria transformed with the pGLO plasmid.
2. The plasmid DNA was isolated using a modified alkaline lysis method. Samples of the isolated plasmid DNA were run on a gel electrophoresis along with a ladder for comparison but the ladder showed an unusual single band.
3. While single bands were observed for the plasmid DNA samples, the abnormal ladder prevented further analysis of the isolated plasmid DNA.
published a DNA sequencing method in 1977 based on chemical modification of DNA and subsequent cleavage at specific bases. Also known as chemical sequencing, this method allowed purified samples of double-stranded DNA to be used without further cloning.
Maxam-Gilbert sequencing requires radioactive labeling at one 5' end of the DNA and purification of the DNA fragment to be sequenced. Chemical treatment then generates breaks at a small proportion of one or two of the four nucleotide bases in each of four reactions (G, A+G, C, C+T). The concentration of the modifying chemicals is controlled to introduce on average one modification per DNA molecule. Thus a series of labeled fragments is generated, from the radiolabeled end to the first "cut" site in each molecule. The fragments in the four reactions are electrophoresed side by side in denaturing acrylamide gels for size separation. To visualize the fragments, the gel is exposed to X-ray film for autoradiography, yielding a series of dark bands each corresponding to a radiolabeled DNA fragment, from which the sequence may be inferred.
This presentation is about production of Dextran from sucrose by using Leuconostoc Mesenteroides bacteria. First of all, the properties of dextran are discussed and then the production is explained through flowchart. The applications of dextran is also discussed in this presentation.
This document provides an overview of BT cotton, including its history, mechanism, pros, cons, and future perspectives. BT cotton is a genetically modified cotton variety that produces insecticides to protect against bollworms. It was first developed in 1996 and introduced commercially. The document discusses how BT cotton provides insect resistance through cry proteins that target the larvae of moths and butterflies. It notes several pros, such as increased yields and reduced environmental pollution from pesticides, but also some cons like high costs and potential issues from overuse. The future of BT cotton appears promising with new hybrids in development that address additional issues like drought tolerance.
CRISPR is easily the best gene editing tool to date. For decades, scientists have been looking for a way to to perform precise changes to genetic sequences. In the past several years, researchers were able to exploit the immune systems of bacteria to edit the genome of other living cells. CRISPR is reported to have higher targeting efficiencies when compared to TALENs and Zinc Fingers. It is efficient, easy to use and cheap; making it a scalable genetic engineering tool that is highly desirable in various industry-wide applications.
This document discusses molecular genetic diagnosis techniques. It begins by describing how techniques like karyotyping, Southern blotting, and Sanger sequencing revolutionized genetic diagnosis in the late 20th century. It then covers the various indications for genetic testing, including inherited conditions, prenatal testing, and acquired conditions like cancer. The rest of the document details specific molecular analysis techniques used, such as PCR, Sanger sequencing, pyrosequencing, restriction fragment length analysis, FISH, MLPA, Southern blotting, and next generation sequencing. It provides examples of the medical applications of these various techniques.
Genome editing with the CRISPR-Cas9 system has become one of the major tools in modern biotechnology. This slide share discusses the fundamentals in a simple, easy to understand format.
Pyrosequencing is a sequencing method that detects DNA polymerase activity by measuring the release of pyrophosphate using a cascade of enzymatic reactions that generate visible light. It utilizes emulsion PCR to amplify DNA fragments on beads in microreactors. The beads are then loaded into wells and sequenced by sequentially adding nucleotides and detecting light produced upon incorporation using a CCD camera. Key advantages are its accuracy, high throughput of up to 48,000 probes per day, and ease of automation. However, it requires specialized equipment and software.
Yeast cloning vectors allow DNA fragments to be replicated and expressed in yeast cells. There are several types of yeast vectors including integrating plasmids (YIps) that replicate by integrating into yeast chromosomes, episomal plasmids (YEps) that replicate independently but can also integrate, and replicating plasmids (YRps) that contain an autonomously replicating sequence (ARS) and replicate at low copy numbers. Yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs) are engineered chromosomes containing telomeric, centromeric, and ARS sequences that can clone very large DNA fragments of up to 3000 kb.
The document discusses several types and applications of polymerase chain reaction (PCR). It begins by explaining the basic three-step cycling process of PCR: denaturation, annealing of primers, and extension. It then describes several variations of PCR including inverse PCR, anchored PCR, asymmetric PCR, real-time PCR (RT-PCR), and PCR for site-directed mutagenesis. Inverse PCR is used to amplify unknown flanking genomic regions, while anchored and asymmetric PCR are used to generate single-stranded DNA products for downstream applications like sequencing. RT-PCR amplifies RNA sequences by first generating cDNA. PCR mutagenesis introduces mutations through altered primer sequences.
Vitamins are organic substances essential for health, growth, and reproduction. They are classified as either fat-soluble or water-soluble vitamins. Vitamins must be obtained through diet as the human body cannot synthesize most of them. The document then provides details on the specific vitamins, their chemical composition, sources, and production methods.
The standard plate count is a reference method for estimating bacterial populations in dairy products like milk. It employs a serial dilution technique where milk samples are mixed with nutrient media and incubated. The number of colonies formed are then counted and multiplied by the dilution factor to obtain the bacterial count per mL of sample. Counts below 30,000 cfu/mL for pasteurized milk indicate satisfactory quality. While it provides a rough estimate of microbes, it is time-consuming and does not detect all pathogens or provide specific information on the types of microflora present.
Biotechnology : Selection of Transformed Cells SMGsajigeorge64
Transformed bacterial cells can contain either recombinant or non-recombinant plasmid DNA after introduction of a ligation mixture. Recombinant plasmid DNA contains a foreign DNA insert with the desired gene. The plasmid replicates within transformed bacteria and is passed on to progeny cells. Transformed bacteria form clones containing the cloned DNA. Selection of transformed cells containing the recombinant plasmid pBR322 is done using its antibiotic resistance genes for tetracycline and ampicillin. Plating on different antibiotic media allows identification of bacteria with the recombinant plasmid, as insertion of foreign DNA into one of the resistance genes makes it non-functional for that antibiotic. This technique enables easy selection of a single, transformed bacterial cell from many.
The serial dilution technique is used to count microbial colonies in environmental samples. It involves mixing a sample with diluent at ratios of 1:2 or 1:10 to reduce the microbial concentration to a countable level. The sample is serially diluted up to 10-8 and plated using the pour plate method. The plates are incubated and colonies are counted. The number of colonies per gram of sample is then calculated using the dilution factor. This technique allows microbiologists to study the number and types of microorganisms present in various environmental sources.
This document compares submerged fermentation (SmF) and solid state fermentation (SSF). SmF uses a liquid substrate and is suitable for bacteria that require high moisture, while SSF uses a solid substrate and is better for fungi or bacteria that prefer less moisture. SmF allows for more control of parameters but requires more energy, while SSF is simpler and can use waste materials as substrates. Both methods are used industrially to produce compounds like antibiotics, enzymes, and organic acids.
This document outlines the course contents for a basic microbiology class. It covers topics such as the introduction and history of microbiology, classification of microorganisms, bacterial cell structure, growth and genetics, viruses, the immune system, and materials required for the class. Key figures in the history and development of microbiology are also mentioned, including Hooke, van Leeuwenhoek, Redi, Pasteur, Koch, Fleming, and Watson and Crick. Classification of microbes from domain to species level is reviewed.
This document provides an introduction to microbiology. It defines microbiology as the study of microorganisms too small to be seen with the naked eye. It discusses the importance of microbiology in nursing practice. Key contributors to the field are identified, including Leeuwenhoek, Redi, Pasteur, and Koch. Characteristics of different types of microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites are outlined. Methods of classifying and studying microbes are also summarized.
The document summarizes phagemid and bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) vectors. It describes that phagemid vectors are plasmids that contain both plasmid and phage origins of replication. Specifically, it discusses the features of pBluescript II phagemid vectors, including their polylinker and RNA polymerase promoter sequences. It also describes how pBluescript II phagemid vectors can produce blue or white colonies depending on insert presence. The document then explains that BAC vectors are low-copy plasmids that can hold up to 300kb DNA fragments. Examples of BAC vectors like pBAC108L and pBeloBAC11 are provided, with details about their replication origin and partitioning functions.
Herbicide tolerance plants are developed to control weeds that compete with crops for resources and can reduce crop yields by 20% annually. Weeds are typically controlled mechanically or through herbicides. Glyphosate is a commonly used broad-spectrum herbicide that acts by inhibiting the shikimate pathway enzyme EPSP synthase, preventing aromatic amino acid production. Transgenic plants are made tolerant to glyphosate by introducing the aroA gene to allow continued shikimate pathway function. Phosphinothricin resistance is conferred by the bar gene, which allows detoxification of the glutamine synthase inhibitor phosphinothricin. Bromoxynil tolerance results from the bxn gene introducing nitril
Genetics in bacteria can involve two types of gene transfer: vertical and horizontal. Vertical gene transfer occurs between generations through inheritance from parent to offspring cells. Horizontal gene transfer occurs between cells of the same generation through three main processes: transformation, transduction, and conjugation. Transformation involves uptake of naked DNA from the environment. Transduction involves transfer of bacterial DNA between cells by bacteriophages. Conjugation involves direct transfer of DNA through cell-to-cell contact via conjugation pili.
1. The document describes an experiment to isolate plasmid DNA from E. coli bacteria transformed with the pGLO plasmid.
2. The plasmid DNA was isolated using a modified alkaline lysis method. Samples of the isolated plasmid DNA were run on a gel electrophoresis along with a ladder for comparison but the ladder showed an unusual single band.
3. While single bands were observed for the plasmid DNA samples, the abnormal ladder prevented further analysis of the isolated plasmid DNA.
published a DNA sequencing method in 1977 based on chemical modification of DNA and subsequent cleavage at specific bases. Also known as chemical sequencing, this method allowed purified samples of double-stranded DNA to be used without further cloning.
Maxam-Gilbert sequencing requires radioactive labeling at one 5' end of the DNA and purification of the DNA fragment to be sequenced. Chemical treatment then generates breaks at a small proportion of one or two of the four nucleotide bases in each of four reactions (G, A+G, C, C+T). The concentration of the modifying chemicals is controlled to introduce on average one modification per DNA molecule. Thus a series of labeled fragments is generated, from the radiolabeled end to the first "cut" site in each molecule. The fragments in the four reactions are electrophoresed side by side in denaturing acrylamide gels for size separation. To visualize the fragments, the gel is exposed to X-ray film for autoradiography, yielding a series of dark bands each corresponding to a radiolabeled DNA fragment, from which the sequence may be inferred.
This presentation is about production of Dextran from sucrose by using Leuconostoc Mesenteroides bacteria. First of all, the properties of dextran are discussed and then the production is explained through flowchart. The applications of dextran is also discussed in this presentation.
This document provides an overview of BT cotton, including its history, mechanism, pros, cons, and future perspectives. BT cotton is a genetically modified cotton variety that produces insecticides to protect against bollworms. It was first developed in 1996 and introduced commercially. The document discusses how BT cotton provides insect resistance through cry proteins that target the larvae of moths and butterflies. It notes several pros, such as increased yields and reduced environmental pollution from pesticides, but also some cons like high costs and potential issues from overuse. The future of BT cotton appears promising with new hybrids in development that address additional issues like drought tolerance.
CRISPR is easily the best gene editing tool to date. For decades, scientists have been looking for a way to to perform precise changes to genetic sequences. In the past several years, researchers were able to exploit the immune systems of bacteria to edit the genome of other living cells. CRISPR is reported to have higher targeting efficiencies when compared to TALENs and Zinc Fingers. It is efficient, easy to use and cheap; making it a scalable genetic engineering tool that is highly desirable in various industry-wide applications.
This document discusses molecular genetic diagnosis techniques. It begins by describing how techniques like karyotyping, Southern blotting, and Sanger sequencing revolutionized genetic diagnosis in the late 20th century. It then covers the various indications for genetic testing, including inherited conditions, prenatal testing, and acquired conditions like cancer. The rest of the document details specific molecular analysis techniques used, such as PCR, Sanger sequencing, pyrosequencing, restriction fragment length analysis, FISH, MLPA, Southern blotting, and next generation sequencing. It provides examples of the medical applications of these various techniques.
Genome editing with the CRISPR-Cas9 system has become one of the major tools in modern biotechnology. This slide share discusses the fundamentals in a simple, easy to understand format.
Pyrosequencing is a sequencing method that detects DNA polymerase activity by measuring the release of pyrophosphate using a cascade of enzymatic reactions that generate visible light. It utilizes emulsion PCR to amplify DNA fragments on beads in microreactors. The beads are then loaded into wells and sequenced by sequentially adding nucleotides and detecting light produced upon incorporation using a CCD camera. Key advantages are its accuracy, high throughput of up to 48,000 probes per day, and ease of automation. However, it requires specialized equipment and software.
Yeast cloning vectors allow DNA fragments to be replicated and expressed in yeast cells. There are several types of yeast vectors including integrating plasmids (YIps) that replicate by integrating into yeast chromosomes, episomal plasmids (YEps) that replicate independently but can also integrate, and replicating plasmids (YRps) that contain an autonomously replicating sequence (ARS) and replicate at low copy numbers. Yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs) are engineered chromosomes containing telomeric, centromeric, and ARS sequences that can clone very large DNA fragments of up to 3000 kb.
The document discusses several types and applications of polymerase chain reaction (PCR). It begins by explaining the basic three-step cycling process of PCR: denaturation, annealing of primers, and extension. It then describes several variations of PCR including inverse PCR, anchored PCR, asymmetric PCR, real-time PCR (RT-PCR), and PCR for site-directed mutagenesis. Inverse PCR is used to amplify unknown flanking genomic regions, while anchored and asymmetric PCR are used to generate single-stranded DNA products for downstream applications like sequencing. RT-PCR amplifies RNA sequences by first generating cDNA. PCR mutagenesis introduces mutations through altered primer sequences.
Vitamins are organic substances essential for health, growth, and reproduction. They are classified as either fat-soluble or water-soluble vitamins. Vitamins must be obtained through diet as the human body cannot synthesize most of them. The document then provides details on the specific vitamins, their chemical composition, sources, and production methods.
The standard plate count is a reference method for estimating bacterial populations in dairy products like milk. It employs a serial dilution technique where milk samples are mixed with nutrient media and incubated. The number of colonies formed are then counted and multiplied by the dilution factor to obtain the bacterial count per mL of sample. Counts below 30,000 cfu/mL for pasteurized milk indicate satisfactory quality. While it provides a rough estimate of microbes, it is time-consuming and does not detect all pathogens or provide specific information on the types of microflora present.
Biotechnology : Selection of Transformed Cells SMGsajigeorge64
Transformed bacterial cells can contain either recombinant or non-recombinant plasmid DNA after introduction of a ligation mixture. Recombinant plasmid DNA contains a foreign DNA insert with the desired gene. The plasmid replicates within transformed bacteria and is passed on to progeny cells. Transformed bacteria form clones containing the cloned DNA. Selection of transformed cells containing the recombinant plasmid pBR322 is done using its antibiotic resistance genes for tetracycline and ampicillin. Plating on different antibiotic media allows identification of bacteria with the recombinant plasmid, as insertion of foreign DNA into one of the resistance genes makes it non-functional for that antibiotic. This technique enables easy selection of a single, transformed bacterial cell from many.
The serial dilution technique is used to count microbial colonies in environmental samples. It involves mixing a sample with diluent at ratios of 1:2 or 1:10 to reduce the microbial concentration to a countable level. The sample is serially diluted up to 10-8 and plated using the pour plate method. The plates are incubated and colonies are counted. The number of colonies per gram of sample is then calculated using the dilution factor. This technique allows microbiologists to study the number and types of microorganisms present in various environmental sources.
This document compares submerged fermentation (SmF) and solid state fermentation (SSF). SmF uses a liquid substrate and is suitable for bacteria that require high moisture, while SSF uses a solid substrate and is better for fungi or bacteria that prefer less moisture. SmF allows for more control of parameters but requires more energy, while SSF is simpler and can use waste materials as substrates. Both methods are used industrially to produce compounds like antibiotics, enzymes, and organic acids.
This document outlines the course contents for a basic microbiology class. It covers topics such as the introduction and history of microbiology, classification of microorganisms, bacterial cell structure, growth and genetics, viruses, the immune system, and materials required for the class. Key figures in the history and development of microbiology are also mentioned, including Hooke, van Leeuwenhoek, Redi, Pasteur, Koch, Fleming, and Watson and Crick. Classification of microbes from domain to species level is reviewed.
This document provides an introduction to microbiology. It defines microbiology as the study of microorganisms too small to be seen with the naked eye. It discusses the importance of microbiology in nursing practice. Key contributors to the field are identified, including Leeuwenhoek, Redi, Pasteur, and Koch. Characteristics of different types of microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites are outlined. Methods of classifying and studying microbes are also summarized.
This document provides an introduction to the topics that will be covered in a microbiology course, including definitions, history, and branches of microbiology. It discusses the normal microbial flora of the human body and their ecological relationships. Key topics include the germ theory of disease, Koch's postulates, the miasma theory, and host-pathogen interactions. The course will cover bacteria classification and structure, growth, pathogenicity, sterilization methods, staining techniques, and examining various clinical specimens.
The document provides an introduction to medical microbiology. It defines microbiology as the study of microorganisms too small to be seen with the naked eye, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and algae. It discusses the history of microbiology, including early pioneers like Anton van Leeuwenhoek, Louis Pasteur, and Robert Koch. It also summarizes the classification of microorganisms into domains of bacteria, archaea, and eukarya. Key aspects of bacteria, viruses, and other microbes are introduced.
1. The document provides instructions for reviewing a digital proof of a book on general microbiology. It recommends reviewing the proof three times, focusing on formatting, grammar, and design each time.
2. Once satisfied, the proof can be approved to move to the next step in the publishing process. Scaling the PDF to fit printer paper is also recommended for printing.
3. Aspects to review include formatting, headers/footers, page numbers, spacing, table of contents, index, images/graphics, and grammar/typos.
Introduction to Microbiology and Classification of Microorganisms.pptxUvaiz2
Microbiology is the study of microscopic organisms. Key developments included Anton van Leeuwenhoek first observing bacteria under a microscope in the 16th century. Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch established the germ theory of disease and methods of culturing and staining bacteria in the 19th century. Modern microbiology involves classification of organisms, molecular biology, genetics, and applications like recombinant DNA technology and gene therapy. Emerging infectious diseases remain an important area of study.
he culture media are classified in many different ways: Based on the physical state Liquid media Solid media Semisolid media Based on the presence or absence of oxygen Anaerobic media Aerobic media Based on nutritional factors Simple media Synthetic media Complex
The document discusses biology and the study of living organisms. It defines cells as the basic functional units of living things and notes there are two main types of cells - eukaryotic and prokaryotic. The document then discusses the universal principles of life, noting all cellular life shares certain characteristics including cell membranes, genetic material in DNA, RNA and proteins, and basic chemical composition and processes.
This document provides an overview of the history and key concepts in microbiology. It discusses early observations of microorganisms in the 1600s by Hooke and Leeuwenhoek. It then summarizes Louis Pasteur's germ theory of disease and the development of modern microbiology. The document defines various terms like microbiology, medical microbiology, nursing microbiology, and classifications of microorganisms. It also outlines the importance and branches of medical microbiology.
Cell structure of bacteria and normal floraSamer Bio
This document discusses the structure of bacterial cells. It covers the key components of bacterial cells including the cell membrane, cell wall, plasmids, flagella, pili, and capsule. It compares the cell walls of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. The document also discusses bacterial shapes and how they are classified. Common structures like mesosomes and spores are explained. Finally, the importance of normal flora is summarized.
This document provides information on the syllabus for a Microbiology course. The syllabus covers topics including the history and development of microbiology, classification of microbes, bacterial structure and growth, isolation and culture of bacteria, microbial genetics, and important microbes in medicine and industry. Recommended textbooks are provided for further reading. The course is 3 credits and will be coordinated by Dr. Angana Sarkar, focusing on theoretical concepts in microbiology.
B.Sc. Biotech Biochem II BM Unit-1.1 Introduction to MicrobiologyRai University
1. Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, which are unicellular or cell-cluster microscopic organisms including eukaryotes such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes which are bacteria and archaea. Viruses are also studied.
2. Major developments in the history of microbiology include the invention of the compound microscope which allowed the first observations of microbes, and the work of Leeuwenhoek, Hooke, Pasteur, and Tyndall which disproved spontaneous generation and established the germ theory of disease.
3. Microbiology has applications in fields such as medicine, agriculture, food science, ecology, genetics, biochemistry, and immunology.
1. History and Scope of microbiology (1).pptxShaikh Ayesha
This document provides an overview of the history and scope of microbiology. It discusses how microbiology began with Anton van Leeuwenhoek's discovery and observation of microbes in the late 1600s. Important early experiments disproving spontaneous generation include Redi's meat experiment and Pasteur's swan neck flask experiment. Robert Koch and others established the germ theory of disease and techniques like staining and culturing. Modern microbiology is interdisciplinary and studies diverse microbes and their roles in fields like medicine, industry, and biotechnology using techniques like genetics and electron microscopy. Microbiology has applications in human health, agriculture, biotechnology, and other areas.
This document discusses the various branches and scope of microbiology. It covers the main categories microbiology is divided into including bacteriology, mycology, virology, parasitology, and immunology. Additionally, it outlines some specialized fields like phycology, nematology, microbial physiology, ecology, genetics, taxonomy, and molecular microbiology. It also provides brief overviews of the history of microbiology from the early discovery of microorganisms to the development of germ theory and acceptance of biogenesis over spontaneous generation.
This document provides an overview of microbiology and the history of the field. It discusses key topics like the discovery of microorganisms under the microscope in the 1600s and 1700s. Landmark experiments disproving spontaneous generation and establishing the germ theory of disease in the late 1800s are also summarized. The document outlines the development of vaccines, antibiotics like penicillin, and chemotherapy. It provides a brief introduction to different areas of microbiology studied today and concludes by mentioning the role of microbes in human health and disease.
Lect. 1 introduction to general microbiologyOsama Rifat
- The document discusses the key topics of general microbiology including the history of scientific investigation and classification of microorganisms. It describes how van Leewenhoek first observed microbes under a microscope and how scientists like Pasteur and Koch proved germ theory and established methods of isolating and culturing bacteria. It also summarizes the five kingdom system of classification proposed by Whittaker separating domains into Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. The document provides details on the distinguishing features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and differences in their DNA, organelles, cell walls and methods of cell division.
This document provides an overview of microbiology. It defines microbiology as the study of microorganisms too small to be seen with the naked eye. It discusses that microorganisms are found everywhere and play important roles in processes like photosynthesis, biodegradation, and vitamin production. The document then reviews the history of microbiology, including early scientists like Hooke, Van Leeuwenhoek, Pasteur, and Koch. It also summarizes the classification of microorganisms into the three domains of Bacteria, Archaea, and Eucarya. The scope of microbiology is described as including both the basic study of microbes as well as their applied uses in fields like medicine, industry, and agriculture.
This document provides an introduction and overview of microbiology. It defines microbiology as the study of microorganisms too small to be seen with the naked eye. It discusses that microorganisms are found everywhere and play important roles in processes like photosynthesis, biodegradation, and vitamin production. The document then reviews the history of microbiology, including early pioneers like Hooke, Van Leeuwenhoek, Pasteur, and Koch. It also summarizes the classification of microorganisms into the three domains of Bacteria, Archaea, and Eucarya. The scope of microbiology is said to include both the basic study of microbes as well as their many applied uses.
This document discusses microbiology and the structure and function of bacteria. It covers the branches of microbiology and historical discoveries such as the work of van Leeuwenhoek, Pasteur, and Koch. It describes the size, shape, and classification of bacteria based on energy source, habitat, temperature requirements, oxygen use, and morphology. Key bacterial structures are explained like the cell wall, cell membrane, capsule, flagella, pili, and spores. Pathogenic bacteria are classified by Gram stain and shape.
1. The document discusses the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells like bacteria lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotic cells have a nucleus enclosed by a membrane and various membrane-bound organelles.
2. It also outlines some of the distinguishing features between the two types of cells, such as prokaryotes having circular DNA not enclosed in a nucleus, while eukaryotes have linear chromosomes within the nucleus.
3. The sizes, presence of cell walls, and types of ribosomes also differ between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Karl Landsteiner discovered the main human blood groups (A, B, AB and O) in 1901. He found that mixing blood from two individuals can cause clumping of red blood cells. This occurs due to the presence of antigens on red blood cells and corresponding antibodies in plasma. Landsteiner's discovery made blood transfusions safer by allowing blood typing. There are over 20 blood group systems but ABO and Rh (Rhesus) are most important. ABO blood groups are determined by inheritance of A, B or O alleles while Rh status depends on presence/absence of the D antigen. Compatibility between donor and recipient blood is crucial to avoid dangerous immune reactions.
Mr. Jayesh Soni discusses congenital heart defects in children. He notes that approximately 8-12 children per 1000 are born with congenital heart defects. The document then describes the fetal circulation patterns and how they normally close after birth. It provides classifications for acyanotic and cyanotic heart defects and discusses specifics such as atrial septal defects (ASD), ventricular septal defects (VSD), signs/symptoms, diagnostic evaluations, and management including medical, interventional, and surgical options. Complications are also outlined.
1. The document discusses various pathways of fatty acid oxidation including beta-oxidation, alpha-oxidation, and omega-oxidation.
2. Beta-oxidation occurs in the mitochondria and involves the removal of two carbon units from fatty acyl-CoA in repeated cycles to generate acetyl-CoA.
3. Deficiencies in enzymes involved in fatty acid oxidation can cause diseases like Refsum's disease or Zellweger syndrome characterized by neurological symptoms and accumulation of fatty acids.
This document provides information on normal hematological values and various blood disorders including anemia, thalassemia, hemophilia, and leukemia. It then focuses on anemia, discussing types such as iron deficiency, hemolytic, and megaloblastic anemia. Iron deficiency anemia is defined and causes, pathophysiology, diagnostic tests, and management are outlined. Sickle cell anemia and thalassemia are also defined and their causes, inheritance patterns, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment and nursing management are summarized.
Counseling and guidance are processes aimed at helping individuals overcome problems and facilitate personal development. Counseling involves a helping relationship between a counselor and an individual seeking assistance, and aims to help solve problems through discussion of issues. Guidance is a broader process of influencing attitudes and behaviors through interpersonal relationships to help individuals understand themselves and develop their potential. Both counseling and guidance are underpinned by principles of focusing on the individual, assisting with decision-making and problem-solving, and promoting self-understanding and personal growth.
This document discusses infection prevention and control. It defines infection, infection prevention, and discusses the incidence of unsafe injections leading to diseases like hepatitis and HIV. It describes the infection prevention and control team and their roles in providing advice, guidelines, education and conducting surveillance to prevent hospital-acquired infections. The document outlines the infection cycle, stages of infection, and importance of good infection prevention practices. It discusses universal precautions, standard safety measures like physical health, standard precautions, and biomedical waste management. The main obstacles to improving infection prevention are also summarized.
Bronchial asthma is a chronic inflammatory airway disease characterized by recurrent episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and coughing. It is caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. There are three main types - allergic, non-allergic, and mixed. Triggers such as allergens, infections, pollution, and exercise can cause an immune response leading to bronchospasm, mucus production, and airway inflammation. Symptoms are typically treated and controlled through medication and by avoiding triggers when possible.
This document discusses different types of immunity. It describes innate immunity as resistance at birth through epithelial surfaces, antibacterial substances, cellular factors, inflammation, fever and acute phase proteins. Acquired immunity develops during life and is either active (adaptive) through natural infection/vaccination or passive through natural transfer or immunization with antibodies. Active immunity is long-lasting while passive is short-term. Innate provides initial defense while acquired immunity provides adaptive response.
Administration of medication by Jayesh sir.ppsxJayesh
The document discusses various methods of administering medication. It begins by stating that administering medication is often a chief responsibility of nurses, who must have knowledge of indications, contraindications, dosages, interactions and more for the drugs they administer.
It then describes different routes of drug administration including oral, sublingual, inhalation, topical, intrathecal and more. Specific details are provided about intramuscular, intravenous, subcutaneous and intradermal injections including proper technique.
The document concludes by explaining procedures for preparing and administering both oral and sublingual medications safely to patients. It emphasizes correctly identifying patients, calculating dosages, and ensuring the right medication is given by the proper
Mr. Jayesh Soni discusses congenital heart defects in children. He notes that approximately 8-12 children per 1000 are born with congenital heart defects. The document then describes the fetal circulation patterns and their remnants post-birth. It provides classifications for acyanotic and cyanotic heart defects and discusses specifics such as atrial septal defects and ventricular septal defects in more detail. For VSDs, the document outlines signs, symptoms, diagnostic evaluations, and management approaches including indications for surgery. Complications are also listed.
1. Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) is a fetal circulatory structure that normally closes after birth, but fails to do so in PDA. This allows blood to shunt from the aorta to the pulmonary artery, overloading the lungs.
2. Signs of PDA include respiratory infections, fatigue, sweating, rapid breathing, poor weight gain, and congestive heart failure. It is diagnosed through physical exam, chest X-ray, ECG, and echocardiogram.
3. Treatment involves medications to close the ductus or surgical ligation if medications fail. Complications include congestive heart failure, infective endocarditis, and pulmonary hypertension.
This document discusses various types of birth injuries including caput succedaneum, cephalohematoma, subarachnoid hemorrhage, intraventricular hemorrhage, skull fractures, brachial plexus injuries (Erb's palsy), facial nerve palsy, and spinal cord injuries. It describes the causes, signs, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment for each condition. Complications from difficult births can cause damage due to pressure or stretching of nerves and blood vessels in the head or neck. Imaging tests help diagnose injuries while most cases are managed with close monitoring, protection of injured areas, and physical therapy.
Jayesh Soni is the Head of Department of Child Health Nursing at Venkteshwar College of Nursing. He oversees the Child Health Nursing department and curriculum. Venkteshwar College of Nursing provides nursing education and trains students in child health.
A normal newborn weighs 2.5-3.5 kg, is 45-55 cm long, and has a head circumference of 33-35 cm. Vital signs include a temperature of 96.8-99°F, heart rate of 120-160 beats/minute, and respiratory rate of 30-60 breaths/minute. A comprehensive physical exam assesses the newborn from head to toe and includes measurements, examination of features and organs, and assessment of reflexes. Key reflexes in newborns include rooting, sucking, swallowing, and Moro reflex. The physical exam establishes the health and normalcy of the newborn.
This document discusses culture media used to grow microorganisms in microbiology laboratories. It defines culture media as a special medium that provides nutrients for microbial growth. It then classifies culture media into three types based on physical state: solid, semisolid, and liquid broth media. It further classifies media based on ingredients into simple/basal media, undefined/complex media, and defined/synthetic media. The document also discusses several special types of media and their uses, as well as common culture methods like streak plating and lawn culture. It concludes by describing the McIntosh and Fildes jar method for obtaining anaerobic conditions for culturing anaerobic bacteria.
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LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
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2. Microbiology
Microbiology -is the specialized area of biology, in which we are study the
microorganisms
Microbiology is a subject which deals with microbes and their related concepts
It is the science that studies very small living things, Usually requires a
magnification tool – the microscope.
Among the many specialized fields of microbiology-
• Bacteriology- the study of bacteria,
• Virology- the study of Viruses,
• Mycology- the study of fungi
• Parasitology- the study of parasites
• Immunology- the study of immune system,
• Microbial Ecology- The relationship between microorganisms and their
environment
• Environmental Microbiology,
• Food Microbiology
• Forensic Microbiology
3. Microorganism
Living things which individually are too small to be seen
with the naked eye.
All of the following may be considered microorganisms:
– bacteria
(eu-bacteria, archae-bacteria)
– fungi (yeasts, molds)
– protozoa
– microscopic algae
– viruses
– various parasitic worms
9. Microbiology
Microbiology -is the specialized area of biology, in which we are study the
microorganisms
Microbiology is a subject which deals with microbes and their related concepts
It is the science that studies very small living things, Usually requires a
magnification tool – the microscope.
Among the many specialized fields of microbiology-
• Bacteriology- the study of bacteria,
• Virology- the study of Viruses,
• Mycology- the study of fungi
• Parasitology- the study of parasites
• Immunology- the study of immune system,
• Microbial Ecology- The relationship between microorganisms and their
environment
• Environmental Microbiology,
• Food Microbiology
• Forensic Microbiology
11. Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek
(1673) –
Probably the first person
to observe living cells with
a simple microscope,
amateur scientist, ground
his own lenses and
described- what we know
today as bacteria – rod
shaped , spiral shaped.
12. Edward Jenner
He credited with first vaccine – in
epidemics of smallpox during the late
1700’s
He observed that milk maids didn’t get
the disease,
Cattle had a similar disease – cowpox,
Milk maids had cow pox lesions, but not
small pox, he purposefully took
scrapings from cowpox blister and
scraped a 8 year old volunteer. With the
material – child got mild illness but not
small pox,
Vaccination comes from Latin word
“vacca” meaning cow. Jenner laid the
foundation for Pasteur’s later work with
other vaccinations.
14. Robert Koch –
Developed Koch’s postulates – important technique for determining
the actual microbial cause agent of a disease
1. He discovered the tuberculosis bug (tubercle bacillus,
Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
2. He discovered the cause of anthrax (Bacillus anthracis)
from blood of dead cattle, cultured bacteria in pure culture,
injected bacteria in live cattle and they died, then again cultured
the bacteria in pure culture. This led to the establishment of a
procedure for determining microbial cause of disease.
15. Koch’s postulates
Koch’s and Pasteur’s work helped
establish the “Germ Theory of
Disease” –
That microorganisms cause
disease (in people, animals, and
even plants)
16.
17.
18.
19. Louis Pasteur’s experiment
He devised the
ingenious curved
necked flasks that
prevented
contaminated air from
reaching boiled beef
broth – the broth
remained
uncontaminated even
though exposed to
the air
20. Cont..
1. He developed process that we call Pasteurization –
he heated wine to kill contaminating microbes – cured
sick wine (today we heat treatment to kill pathogens in
milk also)
2. He proved that fermentation was caused by a
microbe – yeast
3. He developed vaccines for rabies and anthrax.
Vaccines led to immunity to diseases that routinely
killed many people, used to help people long before
they understood how they even worked (science of
Immunology)
4. He began the revolution in science that led to the
Golden Age of Microbiology (from 1857-1914)
21. Iwanowski 1892 –
Discovered that plant disease can be caused by
small organisms that were so small they passed through
filters ,
Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) was later identified as the
cause - beginning of virology
26. Microbiology – Chapter 1
Alexander Fleming - Scottish physician and bacteriologist - 1928
Observed mold growing on a bacteria culture, there was a ring of clearing
around the mold where the bacteria didn’t grow, the mold was later
found to be a Penicillium species and the naturally secreted chemical was
called penicillin, an antibiotic
1. Antibiotics are natural agents
2. Synthetic drugs are chemicals produced in labs (sulfas)
3. Problems with them - toxicity, resistance, allergic reactions
4. Fleming’s work - shelved until early WWII, sulfas were failing,
needed penicillin to cure battle field wounds
5. Now have thousands of antibiotics and synthetics (and a significant
problem – resistance)
Alexander Fleming
Scottish physician and bacteriologist - 1928
35. Archaea are single- celled organisms
that lack a membrane-bound
nucleus. - Prokaryote
The cells of
all eukaryotes
have a
membrane-
bound
nucleus.
kingdoms)
36. Protista
• It is divided into 2 groups-
Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes
38. BACTERIA
• Bacteria are Prokaryotic, unicellular that do not
contain chlorophyll.
• Size of bacteria may range from 0.2-1.5 μm
(micrometer) in diameter and 3-5μm in length
39. Morphology of Bacteria
the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features.
• Cocci
• Bacilli
• Vibrio
• Spirilla
• Spirochetes
• Actinomycetes
• Mycoplasma
40. Cellular Arrangement
In Cocci-
• Diplococci: Cocci
arranged in pairs
• Streptococci:
Arranged in chains
• Staphylococci:
Arranged in grape
like clusters
41. In Bacilli-
• Coccobacilli: Oval
shaped
• Palisades :
Parallel, attached
at any one end of
the cell
• Streptobacilli: In
chains
44. Structure of the Bacterial cell wall
• Bacterial cell wall provides structural integrity to the cell.
• Peptidoglycan is responsible for the rigidity of the
bacterial cell wall and for the determination of cell shape
• Based on the composition of cell wall & Staining bacteria
are classified into “Gram positive” & “Gram Negative”
• The bacterial cell wall differs from that of all other
organisms by the presence of Peptidoglycan
• Peptidoglycan (Muco-peptide) is composed of alternating
chains of ..N -Acetyl Glucoseamine (NAG) and N-Acetyl
Muramic acid (NAM), which is cross linked by Peptide
chains.
46. Gram Positive Bacterial Cell wall
• The Gram positive cell wall is characterized by the
presence of a very thick Peptidoglycan layer (20-80
nm thick)
• Cell wall contains 90% Peptidoglycan and 10%
Teichoic acid
• Interwoven in the cell wall of gram-positive are
Teichoic acids and lipo-teichoic acids.
• Teichoic acids composed of polymers of glycerol,
phosphates, and the sugar alcohol- ribitol.
• Teichoic acids constitute for the major surface
antigens.
47.
48. Gram Negative Bacterial Cell wall
• Gram negative bacteria are more complex than Gram
positive bacteria.
• The cell wall is composed of a single layer of peptidoglycan
surrounded by a membranous structure called the outer
membrane.
• The outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria invariably
contains a unique component lipo-polysaccharide
(LPS or endotoxin) which is toxic to animals.
• LPS is made up of three different components:- 1) O-antigen
or O-polysaccharide, which represents the outermost part
of the structure , 2) the core polysaccharide, & 3) lipid A
49. Cont…
• LPS plays a role in the host response to pathogenic
gram negative bacteria. The O-antigen triggers an
immune response in an infected host, causing the
generation of antibodies specific to that part of LPS.
• Lipid A acts as a toxin.
• A large amount of lipid A released into the bloodstream
can trigger endotoxic shock, a body-wide inflammatory
response which can be life-threatening.
• Gram negative cells utilize porins, which are
transmembrane proteins
50. • The peptidoglycan layers are linked to the outer membrane
by the use of a lipoprotein
• This linkage between the two layers provides additional
structural integrity and strength.
Cont…
55. Cytoplasmic Membrane
• Bacterial cytoplasmic membrane is composed of
a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
• It is a thin layer lining the inner surface of the cell wall.
• Semipermiable membrane controlling the flow of
metabolites
• The basic function of the cytoplasmic membrane is to
protect the cell from its surroundings. It controls the
movement of substances in and out of cells and
organelles.
56.
57. Cytoplasm
• The cytoplasm or protoplasm of bacterial cells is
gel-like matrix composed of water, enzymes,
nutrients, wastes, and gases and contains cell
structures such as ribosomes, a chromosome, and
plasmids.
• The components of the cytoplasm are responsible
for cell growth, metabolism, elimination of waste
and replication (reproduction) of the cell.
58. • The components of cytoplasm of bacteria are:
Ribosomes, Mesosomes (Chondroids),
Nucleoids, Plasmids, Cytoplasmic Inclusions,
Spore and Cysts.
59. • Ribosomes are granular-shaped organelles that
are responsible for reading the instructions or
directions in the long strands of DNA and directing
the production of bacterial proteins.
• Large numbers of ribosomes float freely in the
cytoplasm. When they are needed, the ribosomes
fulfill their purpose by attaching to genetic material.
• Providing a platform for protein synthesis
Ribosomes
60. Mesosomes (Chondroids)
• Mesosomes are the invaginated
structures (usually 2-4 ) formed by the
localized infoldings of the plasma
membrane.
• The invaginated structures comprise of
vesicles & tubules
• Prominent in GM+ bacteria
• The mesosome increases the surface
area of the cell, aiding the cell in
cellular respiration.
61. Nucleoids
• Bacterial cells have a large, free-lying, double-stranded
DNA molecule in their cytoplasm.
• This DNA molecule is called bacterial chromosome,
which aggregates to form a visible mass called the
“Nucleoid”
• They are chemically composed of about 60% DNA, 30%
RNA, and 10% protein (mostly RNA polymerase) by
weight.
• It is not surrounded by a nuclear membrane
• The nucleoid is essential for controlling the activity of the
cell and reproduction.
62.
63. Plasmids
• Plasmids naturally exist in bacterial cells
• A plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA
molecule that is distinct from a cell's chromosomal DNA
• Plasmids have a wide range of lengths, the size of the
plasmid varies from 1 to over 200 thousand base pairs
• The genes carried in plasmids provide bacteria with
genetic advantages, such as antibiotic resistance.
71. Pili(Fimbriae)
• Fimbriae or pili (singlular: pilus) are hair like filaments
(tiny hollow projections) that extend from the cell
membrane into the external environment. A pilus is
composed of subunits of the protein pilin.
• Found mainly in Gram negative organisms
• Bacteria use adherence fimbriae (pili) to overcome the
body’s defense mechanism and cause disease.
• Pili are small hairs that enable some pathogens to
attach and adhere easily to cell surface particularly
mucous membranes.
72. Length: up to 2 µm
Types: Two general types of Pili are known:
Sex pili (long conjugation pili) and
Common pili (also called fimbriae).
• Common pili (Adhesins): The attachment of bacteria
to specific receptors on the human cell surface
• Sex pili (conjugation tube): It is a specialized kind of
pili that forms the attachment between male (donor)
and the female (recipient) bacteria
during conjugation and acts as a conduit for the
passage of DNA.
73.
74. Flagella
• Unbranched, long ,filaments ,made up of protein-
“Flagellin”
• Organs of locomotion,
• Flagella are highly antigenic,
• Shape is a 20-nanometer-thick hollow tube.
• it also often has function as a sensory organelle, being
sensitive to chemicals and temperatures outside the cell.
• ATP isn’t needed because bacterial flagellum can use the
energy of the proton-motive force. This means the
energy is derived from ion gradients – usually hydrogen or
sodium – which lie across cell membranes.
76. Gram-positive organisms have two of these basal body
rings- One in the peptidoglycan layer & One in
the plasma membrane.
Gram-negative organisms have four such rings:
L-ring associates with lipopolysaccharides,
P-ring associates with peptidoglycan layer,
S-ring is directly attached to the plasma membrane
M-ring is embedded in the plasma membrane
The filament ends with a capping protein.
77.
78. • Monotrichous: A single flagellum at one end
of the organism or the other.
• Lophotrichous: Several flagellum on one end
of the organism or the other.
• Amphitrichous: A single flagellum on both
ends of the organism.
• Peritrichous: Several flagellum attached all
over the organism.
Flagellar Arrangement
80. Mortality:- it is the ability of cell/organism to
move of it’s own accord by expending energy.
Kinds of Motility:
• Darting motility – motion like a shooting star
type of flagellar movement. (Vibrio Cholerae)
• Tumbling motility- To move forward, the
flagella rotate counterclockwise and the
organism "swims" (Listeria)
• Cork &screw motility- motile by bending &
rotating body movements (Spirochaetes)
• Stately motile- moves in a slow and
steady manner (Clostridium)
• Serpentine motility- moves like a serpent or
snake (Salmonella)
84. Fixation
Fixation is the process used to kill, adhere
and alter the specimen, so it will accept stains.
Staining technique
Stains and dyes are frequently used in
biology and medicine to highlight structures
in biological tissues for viewing, often with the aid
of different microscopes.
86. Simple Staining
• The simple stain is a very simple staining procedure
involving single solution of stain. Any basic dye such
as methylene blue, safranin, or crystal violet can be
used to color the bacterial cells.
• The simple stain can be used as a quick and easy way
to determine cell shape, size and arrangements of
bacteria
88. Gram Staining
Gram staining is used to determine gram status to
classify bacteria broadly. It is based on the
composition of their cell wall.
Gram staining uses crystal violet (methyl violet) to stain
cell walls, iodine as a mordant, & safranin (or Carbol
fuchsin may be use) counterstain to mark all bacteria.
The presence or absence of a cell wall changes the
bacterium's susceptibility to some antibiotics.
Gram-positive bacteria stain dark blue or violet.
Their cell wall is typically rich with peptidoglycan
and lacks the secondary membrane and
lipopolysaccharide layer found in Gram-negative
bacteria.
93. Ziehl Neelsen stain
• The Ziehl–Neelsen stain also known as the acid-
fast stain.
• It was first described by two German doctors: the
bacteriologist Franz Ziehl and the pathologist
Friedrich Neelsen.
• This method is used for those microorganisms
which are not staining by simple or Gram
staining method, particularly the acid-fast
organisms, mainly genus Mycobacterium, can
only be visualized by acid-fast staining.
95. General structure of Mycobacterium
Acid-fast bacteria are gram-positive, but in
addition to Peptidoglycan, the outer membrane or
envelope of the acid-fast cell wall of contains large
amounts of glycolipids, especially mycolic acids
that in the genus Mycobacterium, which make up
approximately 60% of the acid-fast cell wall.
96. Acid fast stain or Ziehl Neelsen
staining procedure
Sample Collection & Preparation :
• Direct Smear: Smear prepared directly from a
patient specimen prior to processing.
• Indirect Smear: Smear prepared from a
processed specimen after centrifugation (is used
to concentrate the material)
Reagents required:
• Primary stain - Carbol fuchsin
• Decolorized agent - Acid alcohol 3% v/v
• Counterstain- Methylene blue (5g/l)
97. Procedure
• Spread smear over the central area of the slide
using a continuous rotational movement. The
recommended size of the smear is about 20 mm by
10 mm.
• Place slides on dryer with smeared surface
upwards, and air dry for about 30 minutes.
• Heat fix dried smear.
• Cover the smear will Carbol fuchsin stain
• Heat the smear until vapor just begins to rise (i.e.
about 60 degree Celsius), Do not overheat, remain
on the slide for 5 minutes.
98. Cont…
• Wash off the stain with clean water.
• Cover the smear with 3% v/v acid alcohol for 2-5
minutes or until the smear is sufficiently
decolorized, i.e. pale pink.
• Wash well with clean water
• Cover the stain with Methylene blue stain for 1-2
minutes
• Wash off stain with clean water
• Wipe the back of the slide clean, and Examine the
smear microscopically, using the 100x oil
immersion objective.
99. …Summary / Result…
ACID-FAST STAIN Cell Color Cell Color
Procedure Reagent
Acid-fast
Bacteria
Nonacid-fast
Bacteria
Primary dye Carbol fuchsin RED RED
Decolorizer Acid-alcohol RED COLORLESS
Counterstain Methylene blue RED BLUE
Acid fast: Bright red to intensive
purple (B), Red, straight or
slightly curved rods, occurring
singly or in small groups, may
appear beaded Non-acid
fast: Blue color (A)
100.
101. Capsule stain
• Capsule stain is a type of differential stain
which uses acidic and basic dyes to stain
background & bacterial cells respectively so that
presence of capsule is easily visualized.
• Capsulated bacteria have a capsule made up of
polysaccharide layer but some bacteria have
capsule made up of polypeptide, or glycoprotein.
102. India ink method
• In this method two dyes, crystal violet and India ink
are used.
• The capsule is seen as a clear halo around the
microorganism against the black background. This
method is used for demonstrating Cryptococcus.
• The background will be dark (color of India ink).
• The bacterial cells will be stained purple (bacterial
cells takes crystal violet-basic dyes as they are
negatively charged).
• The capsule (if present) will appear clear against
the dark background (capsule does not take any
stain).
103.
104. Spore Stain
• The spore stain is a differential stain used to
visualize bacterial endospores.
• By forming spores, bacteria can survive in
hostile conditions.
• Spores are resistant to heat, dessication,
chemicals, and radiation.
• Mainly 2 methods are use in spore stain –
Hot method & Cold method
105. Hot method
Reagents- Carbol Fuchsin Solution, Methylene Blue Solution
Procedure-
Flood the slide with strong Carbol-Fuchsin and steam.
After 5 minutes wash the slide well with water.
Decolorize with ethanol until all traces of red have been
removed.
Wipe the Bottom of the slide dry to remove excess
stain.
Wash thoroughly in water
Counterstain with methylene blue for 1-2 minutes.
Wash and drain or blot to dry.
Results- The spores stain red while the bacterial bodies stain
blue
106. Cold method
Reagents- Malachite Green Solution & Safranin Solution
Procedure-
Fix the smear by passing the slide through a flame.
Stain for 10 Minutes with malachite green without
heat
Rinse with tap water for about 10 seconds.
Counterstain with aqueous safranin (0.25-0.5%) for
15 seconds.
Rinse with water and drain or blot dry.
Result- The spores will be green and the rest of the cell
will be red.
107. Flagellar stain
Two techniques for staining flagella are in use-
1. A wet-mount procedure (Ryu method)
2. Dried-smear preparation (Leifson staining
technique)
A wet-mount technique for staining bacterial
flagella is highly successful when a stable stain and
regular slides and cover slips are used. This
technique is simple for routine use when the
number and arrangement of flagella are critical in
identifying species of motile bacteria.
108. Procedure-
Grow bacteria for 16-24 hrs on a non-
inhibitory medium eg. Soy agar or blood agar,
touch a loopful of water onto the edge of colony
and motile bacteria swim into it. If motile cells are
not seen, do not proceed with the RYU flagella
stain.
Ryu stain has 2 components.-
Solution I - the mordant-
phenol, tannic acid, and
aluminum potassium sulfate.
Solution II - the stain
crystal violet
109. Hanging Drop Preparation
• Hanging drop preparation is used in
dark illumination to observe the motility
of bacteria.
• In this method a drop of culture is placed
on a coverslip that is encircled with
petroleum jelly (or any other sticky
material). The coverslip and drop are
then inverted over the well of a
depression slide. The drop hangs from
the coverslip, and the petroleum jelly
forms a seal that prevents evaporation.
This preparation gives good views of
microbial motility.
110. Materials required:
• Glass slides (glass slide with depression) or
Normal glass slide with adhesive or paraffin
ring
• Paraffin wax
• Loop
• Coverslip
• Microscope
• Bunsen burner
• Young broth culture of motile bacteria
113. Growth and Nutrition of Bacteria
• The bacterial cell has the same general chemical pattern as
the cells of other organisms.
• The bacterial cell contains water (80% of total weight),
proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, mucopeptides
and low molecular weight compounds.
• Bacteria can be classified nutritionally based on their energy
requirements and on their ability to synthesize essential
metabolites.
• Bacteria which derive energy from sunlight are called
phototrophs.
• Those who obtain energy from chemical reactions are called
chemotrophs.
• Bacteria that can synthesize all their organic compounds are
called autotrophs.
• They are able to use atmospheric carbon dioxide and nitrogen
114. Bacterial Cell Division
• Bacterial binary fission is the process that bacteria use to carry
out cell division.
• In this cell division, bacteria reproduce, or add more bacteria
to the population.
Process
1-DNA by replication enzymes begins at a
spot on the chromosome called the origin of
replication.
2-The origin is the first part of the DNA to
be copied. As replication continues, the two
origins move towards opposite ends of the
cell, pulling the rest of the chromosome
along with them. The cell also gets longer,
adding to the separation of the newly
forming chromosomes.
115. Cont…
3-Replication continues until the
entire chromosome is copied and
the replication enzymes meet at
the far side. Once the new
chromosomes have moved to
opposite cell ends and cleared the
center of the cell, division of the
cytoplasm can take place.
4- The membrane pinches inward
and a septum, or new dividing
wall, forms down the middle of
the cell.
5-Finally, the septum itself splits
down the middle, and the two cells
are released to continue their lives
as individual bacteria.
116.
117. Bacterial Growth Curve
• In higher organism growth refers as increase in size and
volume of organism but in bacteria growth refers as increase
in number.
• When fresh liquid medium is inoculated with a given number
of bacteria and incubated for sufficient period of time, it gives
a characteristic growth pattern of bacteria.
• If the bacterial population is measured periodically and log of
number of viable bacteria is plotted in a graph against time, it
gives a characteristic growth curve which is known as growth
curve or growth cycle.
The growth curve has following phases:-
1- Lag phase 3- Stationary phase
2- Log phase or exponential phase 4- Death phase or decline phase
118. 1- Lag phase
When bacteria is inoculated into new fresh media, it
do not divide immediately. Bacteria takes some time to
adjust to the new environment. The time period in
which bacteria is metabolically active but do not
divide is called as lag phase.
Size of bacteria increase continuously so the bacteria
have largest size at the end of lag phase.
It is the phase of adjustment necessary for the synthesis
of enzymes and co-enzymes for physiological activities.
At the end of lag phase, bacteria become fully prepared
for cell division.
119. 2- Log phase or exponential phase
During this phase bacteria divides continuously at constant
rate and the number of bacteria increase exponentially.
In this phase all bacteria are in their rapid stage of cell
division and show balanced growth.
Due to rapid cell division, bacteria have smallest size in this
phase.
Biochemical and physiological characteristics are
commonly used for identification of bacteria are manifested
during log phase of growth.
Generation time of bacteria is usually determined during log
phase
Generation time is shortest during log phase and is strongly
dependent upon growth factors present in the medium.
120. 3- Stationary phase
The bacteria growth reaches a state during which there
is no net increase in bacterial population. This is called as
stationary phase.
In this phase a constant bacterial population is
maintained by balance between cell division and cell
death.
In endospore forming bacteria, sporulation occur as the
bacteria enter stationary phase.
121. 4- Death phase or decline phase
In this phase, number of bacteria decrease
continuously and exponentially.
During this phase, total count of bacteria may remain
constant but the viable count decreases.
It is just inverse of log phase. But the death rate is
slower than growth rate.
Death phase is brought about by various reasons, such
as depletion of nutrition and accumulation of toxic
wastes.
Not all bacteria die at same rate, some die faster and
some are more resistant and remain viable for longer
time. Eg. Spore forming bacteria.