BUILDING CONSTRUCTION I

1. BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION 1
BLD 60303

2. GROUP MEMBERS

3. CONTENTS

4. INTRODUCTION

5. INTRODUCTION TO SITE

6. GROUND / FIRST FLOOR______________________________
Factory
Office & Reception
Toilet
GROUND / FIRST FLOOR______________________________
Office Area / Staircase
Factory
Toilet & Office
Reception
Three Phase
- ceiling light point
- high bay light point
FOUNDATION__________________
FRAMEWORK__________________
Office
Factory
Walls
Toilet
Factory, Office
Reception & Toilet
Sink
Wc
Washbasin
Reception, Office
Toilet & Staircase
Factory
Ground / First Floor
LIGHTNING POINT______________________
- compound lightning
WALL LIGHT POINT______________________
EMERGENCY LIGHT________________________
KELUAR SIGN__________________
: reinforce concrete footing
: reinforce concrete frame
: steel frame
: bricks with cement plastering
: metal roofing sheet with insulation
: steel trusses
: fibre plaster suspended ceiling / skim coated
: aluminium frame casement with fixed glass window
: aluminium frame fixed glass with top hung window
: aluminium frame top hung window
: 1 hour fire rated door
: glass door with fixed glass panel above/
1 hour fire rated door
: plywood flush door
: M.S. Roller shutter / plywood flush door
: cyclindrical lockets
: 4 Nos
: 7 Nos
: 3 Nos
: 7 Nos
: 24 Nos
: 200A
: 4 Nos
: 4 Nos
: 1 No
: 5'0" high ceramic tiles
: Power Floated
: ceramic tiles

8. MAIN ACCESS ROAD TEMPORARY
ACCOMMODATION For workers or authorizer to enter or leave the site, and also
as the entry point for the machineries and transportation of
materials.
MAIN ENTRY POINT
MAIN ACCESS ROAD TO CONTRUCTION SITE INFORMATION BOARD
The temporary accommodation is settled by the workers which located right to
the main access road. They have formed a small community in the construction
site. The workers are here to eat, take a bath, and rest. A storage area also built
by the workers to store the materials.
TEMPORARY HOUSE TEMPORARY HOUSE
TEMPORARY HOUSE

9. TEMPORARY REBAR PLACING AREA
There is a place where workers cut and shape the reinforcing bar. They cut the reinforcing bar into specific length and then shape them by
tightening the bar with iron wire.
PLACE STORING REBAR
PLACE TO CUT REBAR
WORKER IS TIGHTENING THE REBAR WORKER IS CUTTING THE REBAR
PLACE TO STORE THE REBAR

10. SITE OFFICE
This is the site office of the construction site, the supervisor held meeting and work here.
MAIN DOOR OF SITE OFFICE
INSIDE OF THE SITE OFFICE MEETING ROOM
SITE OFFICE (GREEN COLOR BUILDING )

11. CONSTRUCTION SITE
During the site visit, half of the semi-detached factories have already done construction. However, another half semi-detached factories are still undergoing
construction. The materials entered the site via the main access road. Some of them are stored in specific area and some are just located at the road side
which near the needed area.
SEMI-DETACHED FACTORIES THAT HAVE BEEN DONE
CONSTRUCTION AREA

12. POWER SOURCE AND WATER SUPPLY
The developer built a temporary electricity supply room after
getting permission from Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) .
Water supply is obtained from the government and was store in
water tank. For construction site, the usage of water will be more
expensive compared to housing.
ELECTRICAL ROOM
ONE OF THE TYPES OF WATER TANK USED IN THE FACTORY, TO COLLECT WATER FROM
THE ROOF ESPECIALLY WHEN RAINING.

13. SITE AND SAFETY

14. PPE as known as Personal Protective Equipment is equipment that will
protect the user against health or safety risks from construction site. It
includes items such as safety helmets, gloves, eye protection, high visibility
clothing, safety footwear and safety harnesses.
To protect user’s head (a hard
hat) from dangers such as from a
falling object, electric shock
exposure or burn to the head.
May protect against hazards,
such as chemical splashes and
low-light situations.
To protect the user from
energized electrical conductors
that may come into contact with
the feet, falling or rolling object.
Construction work has been increasing in developing and
undeveloped countries over the past few years. It includes many
hazardous task and conditions such as working with height,
excavation, noise, dust, power tools and equipment.
Occupational fatalities may occurred while on the job or
performing work on a dangerous site. The leading safety hazards
on construction sites include: falls, caught between objects,
electrocutions, and struck by objects. Within the field of
construction, it is important to have safe construction sites.
Every construction workers should familiarize themselves with all
potential fall hazards on a job site. Never work in an area where fall
protection systems have yet to be installed. By using personal fall
arrest systems should inspect them before each use to ensure
they are working properly and are free of damage.

15. To protect head (a hard hat) from
dangers such as from a falling
object, electric shock exposure or
burn to the head.
To protect workers from Chemical
or metal splash, dust, projectiles,
gas and vapour, radiation that will
cause injuries to the eyes.
To provide hearing protection by
reducing noise to an acceptable
level, while allowing for safety and
communication.
May protect against hazards, such
as chemical splashes and low-light
situations.
To protect workers from oxygen-
deficient atmospheres, dusts, gases
and vapours while working on site.
To protect workers from energized
electrical conductors that may
come into contact with the feet,
falling or rolling object.
Protect hands from hazards include
skin absorption of harmful
substances, chemical or thermal
burns, electrical dangers, abrasions
and cuts.

16. Safety signs must be used whenever a hazard or danger cannot be avoided
adequately or reduced in another way. Before installing safety signs an
employer should examine whether the hazard can be avoided or reduced by
collective precautions (precautions that protect everybody) or safer ways
during construction work.
Different color and symbols of signage give identity different actions or
procedures.
• Emergency escape, no danger
• Rectangular or square shape,
white pictogram on green
background
• Must do
• Round shape, white pictogram
on blue background
• Prohibition or danger alarm
• Round shape, black pictogram on
white background; Red edging and
diagonal line
• Warning or hazard
• Triangular shape, black
pictogram with black edging.
A temporary board fence erected around a building site to prevent
theft, vandalism, unauthorized entry, sound insulator and reduce
dust
Barricade tape is brightly colored tape (often incorporating a two-tone
pattern of alternating yellow-black or red-white stripes or the words
"Caution" or "Danger" in prominent lettering) that is used to warn or catch
the attention of passersby of an area or situation containing a possible
hazard.

17. A collection of supplies and equipment that is used to give
medical treatment, and can be put together for the purpose by an
individual or organization or purchased complete.
A portable device that discharges a jet of water, foam, gas, or other
material to extinguish a fire.
Toilet should be suitable and sufficient, ventilated, lit and kept in a clean
and orderly condition
Changing rooms are needed where workers have to wear special
clothing for the purposes of their work and cannot be expected to
change elsewhere. The rooms must be provided with seating, means of
drying and keeping clothing and personal effects secure.
General washing facilities must be suitable and sufficient, kept
clean and orderly and with basins or sinks large enough for people
to wash their face, hands and forearms. The facilities should
include:
Water must be provided or made available at readily accessible and
suitable places.
Rest rooms or rest areas are required equipped with tables and seating
(with backs) sufficient for the number of persons likely to use them at
any one time.
a. clean hot and cold, or warm running water
b. soap or other suitable means of cleaning
c. showers where the nature of work is particularly dirty or
there is a need to decontaminate.

18. Scaffolding is a temporary rigid structure made of still, bamboo or timber. The primary
aim of constructing a scaffold is to create a platform on which mason can work at
different heights. Scaffolds also help to lift materials for the immediate uses at
different heights. Add a little bit of body text
Usage:
a. To provide a safe working platform and access suitable for work crews to carry out their work
b. Repairing or cleaning of a structure or machine
SCAFFOLDING ON THE SITE
a. Make sure the scaffolding boards are in place and good
condition.
b. Never overcrowd scaffold with people, supplies and
materials.
c. Erect scaffold with proper access and guard rails.
d. Guard rails and toe board must be placed firmly.
e. Do not climb or stretch out over the guard rails.
f. Incomplete scaffold must be blocked off or must display a
warning notice that is not ready to be used. Add a little bit of
body text

19. PLANT AND MACHINERY
A crane is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist rope, wire
ropes or chains, and sheaves, that can be used both to lift and lower
materials and to move them horizontally.
The most basic type of mobile crane consists of a truss or telescopic boom
mounted on a mobile platform
Usage:
a. To lift heavy things and transporting them to other places.
b. Provide high lifting height
c. Suitable for a job require crane utilization for a short period of time as
this crane can travel on public roads
d. Can turn a full 360 degrees.
Excavators are heavy construction equipment that consisting of a boom,
dipper, bucket and cab on a rotating platform known the “house”. The house
sits atop an undercarriage with tracks and wheels.
Excavators are also called diggers, mechanical shovels or 360 degrees
excavators
Usage:
a. Digging of trenches, holes, foundations
b. Material handling
c. Forestry work
d. Mining
e. Drilling shafts for footings and rock blasting

20. The cement is loaded into the trucks from large silos, through hatches on
the top of the truck.
A pile driver is a mechanical device used to drive piles into soil
to provide foundation support for buildings or other
structures.
Drilling continues until the borehole has extended a sufficient
depth (socketing) into a sufficiently strong layer. When the
weight reaches its highest point, it is then released and
smashes on to the pile in order to drive it into the ground.
Usage:
a. Cement trucks are used to transport cement powder from the
cement plant (or distribution point) to concrete batching plants

21. Concrete truck are made to transport and mix concrete up to the
construction site. They can be charged with dry materials and water, with
the mixing occurring during transport.
Usage:
a. Concrete mixers generally do not travel far from their plant, as the
concrete begins to set as soon as it is in the truck.
b. Many contractors require that the concrete be in place within 90
minutes after loading.
c. If the truck breaks down or for some other reason the concrete
hardens in the truck, workers may need to enter the barrel with
jackhammers.
A crusher is a machine designed to reduce large rocks into smaller
rocks, gravel, or rock dust. Some crushers are mobile and can crush rocks as
large as 60 inches.
Usage:
a. May be used to reduce the size, or change the form, of waste
materials so they can be more easily disposed of or recycled.

22. Backhoe loader is a heavy equipment vehicle that consists of a tractor like
unit fitted with a loader-style shovel/bucket on the front and a backhoe on
the back. Backhoe loaders are very common and can be used for a wide
variety of tasks.
Usage:
a. Small demolitions
b. Light transportation of building materials
c. Powering building equipment
d. Digging holes/excavation
e. Landscaping
f. Paving roads

23. PRELIMINARIES WORK

24. A Pre-Construction Meeting will be held between the Engineer
and the Contractor to review the following information:
- Condition-in Survey
- Site Survey
- Work Method Statement
- Program
- Schedule of Materials and Installed Equipment
If the Engineer approves the above documentation, then the Contractor will
be issued with the Notice to Proceed. If the documentation is incomplete,
the Contractor will have 3 calendar days to revise and resubmit the
documentation for approval. The contract period begins on the day the
Notice to Proceed is issued. The Contractor must mobilise on the project
site within 7 calendar days of the date of issue of the Notice to Proceed.
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Every construction site would have a temporary structure to provide basic needs
for the workers.

25. To provide and maintain required barricades, guards, fencing, shoring, temporary
roadways, footpaths and signs
If damage occurs, immediately repair it at the Contractors cost.
To protect construction crews and sites, direct traffic flow, control motor
and foot traffic, ensure accident prevention and to provide public safety in a
wide variety of situations.
Traffic control in large parking lots is also a very important use for
construction barriers or construction barricades.

26. The sign and notices is built to administration area and office signs for
visitors to report to .It also helps to assist in directing plant and materials
deliveries. It also helps to good public relations. The sign and notices is to
show the name and organisation who are party to the contract .
The road that is built for temporary for construction use

27. Ramps which are which are necessary for delivery materials where access
would be difficult
The hoarding built for the site is to secure site, to prevent non-
workers going in the site and worked as fences. Beside that , hoarding
is also worked as shoring to adjacent building.

28. A simple built structure is set beside the hoarding and worked as
security house .
shores or props used to support or hold up something weak or unstable.
Ways and techniques
used for shoring

29. Set out the works from the dimensioned drawings. Whereas surveying is a
process for forming maps and plans of a particular site or area, setting out
begins with plans and end with various elements of a particular plan
correctly positioned on site.
As the works proceed, the setting out falls into broad stages.
STAGE 1
In practice, first stage setting out involves the use of many of the horizontal
and vertical control methods and positing techniques. The purpose of this
stage is to locate the boundaries of the works in their correct position .in this
case, horizontal and vertical control points must be established on or near
the site.
STAGE 2
ISecond stage setting out continues on from the first stage, beginning at the
ground floor slab, road sub-base level etc. Up to this point, all the control will
be outside the main construction, for example, the pegs defining building
corners, centre lines and so on will have been knocked out during the earth
moving work and only the original control will be undisturbed. This operation
falls into the first category of setting out.
Baselines a baseline is a line running between two points of a known
position. Any baselines required to set out a project should be specified on
the setting out plan by the designer and included in the contract. Where a
baseline is specified to run between two points, once the points have been
established on site, the design points can be set out from the baseline by
offsetting using tapes

30. When levels have to be transferred over a long distance, the method of
straightedge and level can be very time consuming and rather inaccurate.
The optical level is secured to a tripod which is positioned and levelled by
means of levelling screws. When the instrument is as level as possible it is
aimed at a levelling staff which has been placed at a designated position.
The height or level is then read through the optical level and noted or
transferred to another position
Offset pegs whether used in the form of a baseline or a grid, the horizontal
control points are used to establish design points on the proposed
structure. Once excavations for foundations begin, the corner pegs will be
lost. To avoid this extra pegs called offset pegs are used
Wooden pegs are often used for non-permanent stations. For permanent
control points it is recommended that they be constructed with concrete
type of optical levels
The parts of the optical level

31. The survey marks and red tags on road selection To set out using coordinates by theodolite and tape, one of the following
procedures is used:
Angle and distance from two control points e.g. from point A below, can be
set out from a control point S using one of two methods: Using the inverse
calculation, determine the horizontal length l(SA) and the whole circle
bearings of ST and SA

32. Hold and attend weekly site meetings throughout the contract
and ensure attendance of appropriate subcontractors, the Site
Manager and Engineer. The meeting schedule may be modified
by the Engineer.
The meeting will consider the following items:
- Technical issues.
- Commercial issues.
- Program.
- Quality of work.
The Contractor is to keep minutes of site meetings. Within 3 working days
after each meeting, submit to each party written copies of the minutes.
A sewer can be defined as a means of transferring waste, soil or
rainwater below the ground that has been collected from the drains
and in time, naturally fows to the final disposal point.
There will be a small space outside the building to locate the inspection
chamber.
There will be a manhole that is connected to the main pipelines along the
public road and it covered with a round metal cover.

33. The earthwork is the first work performed on most construction projects.
It encompasses a number of activities, from clearing the site to
excavating for structure or pipes. The earthwork done on a project
prepares the site for other construction work, paving roads. The
earthwork must be carefully inspected to ensure that the work done is in
accordance with specification. The inspector should closely observe all
earthwork operations and bring all problems to the attention of the
contractor.
Construction materials should be keep and packed in one area. Waste
materials also be put together before proper disposal.
Constructing earthwork requires careful planning of the process and likely
impacts during the development and implementation stages. Due to the
site being a former mining area and located on a slope land, planning
carefully is needed.
The soil investigation show that the soil in mines is suitable to build factory
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34. Before Practical Completion, clean throughout, including interior and
exterior surfaces exposed to view. Clean carpeted and soft
surfaces. Clean debris from the site, roofs, gutters, downpipes and
drainage systems. Remove waste and surplus materials.

35. FOUNDATION

36. FOUNDATION
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
A.K.A spread foundations are applied when
stable soil of adequate bearing capacity
occurs relatively near to the ground surface.
They are placed below the lowest part of
substructure and transfer building loads
directly to the supporting soil by vertical
pressure
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
Are utilized when the soil fundamental a
foundation is unsteady or of insufficient
bearing capacity.They extend down through
unsuitable soil to transfer building loads to a
more appropriate bearing stratum of rock or
dense sands and gravels well under the
superstructure.
The lowest part of shallow
foundation are spread
footings. They are
comprehensive horizontally
to distribute their load over
an area of soil wide enough
that the allowable bearing
capacity of the soil is not
exceeded.
A pile foundation is a system of end-bearing
or friction piles, pile caps, and tie beams for
transferring building loads down to a suitable
bearing stratum.
End-bearing piles depend principally on the
bearing resistance of soil or rock under their
feet for support. The surrounding soil mass
provides a degree of lateral stability for the
long compression members.
Friction piles is driven into soft soil where
there is no harder stratum for bearing
beneath the site.
Example of pile
cap layouts

37. A structure which help to spread the weight of a structure throughout its surface area to provide
stability. it can be categorized into 5 types which are:
Strip Footing is the made with the
continuous spread footings of
foundation walls.
Strap Footing A.K.A Cantilever consists
of a column footing connected by a strap
beam to adjacent footing in order to
balance an eccentrically forced load.
Isolated Footing is provided to support
individual column or pier.
Continuous Footing is made from extended
reinforced concrete footing in order to
support a row of columns
Combined Footing is a R.C footing for a
perimeter foundation wall or column
stretched to support interior column load.
RAFT FOUNDATION or MAT FOUNDATION is a
thick concrete slab reinforced with steel
which serves as a single monolithic footing for
a number of columns or the entire building.
MAT FOUNDATION are preferred for soil that
have low bearing capacity.So,it may be
stiffened by a grid of ribs, beams, or walls.

38. PILE FOUNDATION
01 Timber Piles
driven as a friction pile.
-Are often fitted with a steel shoe and a drive
band to prevent shafts from splitting or
shattering.
02 Steel H-Pile
-Encased in concrete to a point below the
water table to prevent corrosion.
-Welded together in the driving process to
form any length of pile.
03 Pipe Piles
-Are heavy steel pipes driven with the lower
end either open or closed by a heavy steel
plate or point and filled with concrete. 01 02 03
PRECAST REINFORCED CONCRETE PILES
200X200mm RC pile with the concrete grade of 45 and it’s
reinforced by rebar.
Pros: High resistance to chemical and biological attacks,
High strength
Cons: Restricted pile length cause wastage, Cutting requires
the use of specific machine.
PDA (PILE DRIVING ANALYSER)
TEST
Is a computer analysis to process data from
dynamic test for each piles. This is to verify the
strength of the pile
LOAD TEST
The purpose is to test the strength of
the pile.
A certain load will be putting on the pile for a
certain period. If the concrete pile is crack,
which mean the concrete pile is failed to
support the load. If the concrete pile left for
certain days without any crack, which mean the
concrete pile is strong enough to carry the load
of the building.
that done on site

39. The drop hammer will be moving in to
the location in site and set on place.
The pile is tied on its lifting lug
The pile is lifted in vertical and ready for hammering
The drop hammer is ready to drive into the ground by
following the pile point that shown in the construction
drawing.
The pile will be driven into the ground until maximum or
can’t be driving anymore.
Excavate the soil surrounding of the pile about
300mm depth
The excessive pile will be cutting off by using
sledge hammer.
After cutting off the excessive pile, process
to the preparation of pile caps

40. A thick concrete mat that rests on concrete or timber piles that have been driven into soft or
unstable ground to provide stable foundation.
Examples of Pile Cap Layout Plan (based on site)
Actual Pre-formed Pile Cap Reinforcement
Pile Cap Reinforcement (based on site)
The main reinforcement is two-directional formed in loops over the pile heads to spread the loads.
- To provide structural continuity, the reinforcement in the piles is bonded into the pile cap; this may
necessitate the breaking out of concrete from the heads of piles to expose the reinforcement.
- The heads of piles penetrate the bottom of pile cap some 100 to 150mm to ensure continuity of the
members.

41. Preparation of pile caps construction
1. Install pile cap formwork 2. Install pile cap reinforcement bars
Pile Reinforcement
Formwork
Reinforcement bars
3. Install column stump reinforcement
Column
Stump
To confirm the position of
column stump
Concrete
4. Concreting & compacting the pile caps5. Leveling & hardening of RC pile caps
6. Install column stump formwork & concreting 7. Removal of formwork 8. Backfilling
Finished pile cap,
reinforcement bars are
left protruding to
enable connection
between future
superstructure

42. SUPERSTRUCTURE

43. BEAM AND COLUMN
Advantages
- High compressive strength
- Low coefficient of thermal expansion
- Low cost and long lasting
Disadvantages
- Low tensile strength
- Will crack to some extent over time
- Aggregate expansion
A beam is one of the structural elements which traverses between supports
such as walls and carries loads which act perpendicularly to the body of the
beam. It’s able to withstand the load by resisting against bending. The
bending force apply on to the material of beam that result from external load
or own weight is called bending movement.
CANTILEVER BEAM
A type of beam where only one of its end is anchored to the column whereas the
other side is free from support. Cantilever beam provides overhanging structures
without external strengthening which saves a lot of spaces. It is often use in
structures such as canopy for cars parking or walkway.
FIXED BEAM
Fixed beam is the most common beam used in construction where both ends of the
beam are supported. It could withstand a huge load act against itself due to the two
ends are firmly fixed into the support.

44. SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM
This type of beam is very similar to fixed beam where both ends are supported but
instead of fixed into the support, ends of simply supported beam rest on the support
and allow to rotate horizontally and has no deflection at the ends.
OVERHANGING BEAM
For overhanging beam, there would be supports to the body of the beam but not the
ends. Either one or no ends of the beam is supported at which the not supported end
is known as overhanging portion.
CONTINUOUS BEAM
A beam that statically rest on three or more supports. It’s generally used in
construction which needed a large scale of beam such as bridges to withstand a long
span of weight. The body of the beam may be freely of fixed supported or even
cantilever.

45. 1. Preparing and Installation of Ground Beams
For installation of ground beam, site must be cleared and location of beam need to
be marked based on construction drawings. Whereas for the upper floor, beams
would be constructed along the columns which based on construction drawings for
precise details.
4. Casting and Removing of Formwork
After the installation of formwork, wet concrete can be poured into the
formwork. Few days are required to let the concrete set. The side of
formwork would be removed after 3 days whereas the bottom part required
21-28 days to ensure the structural integrity of beam. Next, the beam is
ready for further construction.
2. Installation of Reinforcing Bars
3. Installation of formwork
Formwork usually appeared in wood type that surrounds the reinforcement
bar so that casting and curing of concrete can be carry out to produce the
required shape of the beam. The joints of formwork should be tight to
prevent the leakage of cement grout.Formwork of ground beam would be
placed on top of column stump.
Reinforcing bars are required to be added into the concrete beam to
withstand compression and to against the deflection. The reinforcing bars
consist of bent bars and stirrups to resist diagonal tension.

46. A vertical structural element which transfers the loads act upon it all the way to
the ground or soil. The word “column” usually refer to a large round structure with
a rectangular base. Columns are designed not only to withstand vertical forces
but also to resist lateral forces such as in the case of earthquakes and strong
wind. Columns are generally used in supporting the beam, slab or ceiling in a
building.
CONCRETE
Also known as RCC (reinforced concrete column) is a type
of column frequently use in most of the modern building
around the world which contains cement, reinforcement
bar, stone and aggregate. RCC provides a good
compressive strength which in turns could withstand huge
load.
STEEL
Used to construct a skeleton frame of a building. Normally
produced in fabrication shop rather than cut and shaped on
site. Steel structure would lose strength when exposed to
fire, therefore, fire coatings are required to apply on the
steel surface. Furthermore, corrosion resistance also
required.
WOOD
One of the commonly used columns in the past such as
19th and 20th century in America. Wood columns provide
a natural atmosphere and distinctive appearance
throughout the space.

47. 1. Column Layout
4. Casting and Curing
Lastly, concrete is poured into the formwork either manually or by using
machine or pump. The concrete is ready to be cure and set. It usually takes 7
to 28 days for the concrete to be completely harden. The formwork would
then be removed.
3. Setting up Formwork
Formwork is usually a reusable wood type structure used to support and
moulds the concrete poured into it together with reinforcing bars. It’s
necessary for the formwork to stay in position and maintain the shape of
concrete until it sets. Yokes are instrument used to lock the formwork to
keep the columns in form and to avoid the spreading of newly poured
concrete. Furthermore, the inner of the formwork mostly coated with a
layer of fluid such as wax or oil before pouring the concrete for easy
removal.
Grid lines are drawn to determine the exact location of column based on
construction drawings. Starter bar are left outside the pile cap for the entire
column construction.
2. Reinforcement of column
Reinforcement bars are then connected to the starter bar based on the
drawings as there’s different type and size of column in a construction
site. Furthermore, reinforcing bars need to be checked according to
drawing before constructing such as the spacing between stirrups and
bending angle of hooks.

48. 5. Connection of Beam and Column
Starter bar outside the column is
used to connect the beam and
column.
The beam’s reinforcing bar is tied firmly
to the column’s starter barAdd a little
bit of body text
The formwork is then set up for the
moulding of concrete with the steel bar.
Wet concrete is poured into it.
After the concrete harden, the beam is
ready for further construction.
STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3 STEP 4

49. SLABS
Slabs are one of the elements in flooring system that are constructed to provide a horizontal flat surface in every floor of a building. It’s usually constructed
upon the beams and columns which transfer the load to the ground. Thickness of slabs varied from 4 to 20 inches depends on the building and exterior
slab is generally thinner.
SOLID SLAB
Precast concrete unit
reinforced with prestressing
wires or conventional
reinforcing bars.
Also known as voided slab
which mainly use for
construction of floor or roof
deck components for multi-
story buildings. It has tubular
voids extending the full length
of slab.
HOLLOW CORE SLAB
DOUBLE TEE
The strong bond of the
flange (horizontal section)
with the two webs (vertical
section) enhances the
capability of the structure to
withstand high loads while
having a long span.
T-shaped cross section
concrete unit serves as a
flange in resisting compressive
stresses. The web (vertical
section) is to resist the tension
and bending act upon the slab.
SINGLE TEE
The slabs used in construction site are precast slabs. They are manufactured by
other company which transferred to the site by heavy truck. Precast slabs are
used due to its efficiency as it can be install immediately which shorten the time
of construction. The slabs are set in place as a fixed component by cranes.

50. Setting Up Formwork
High-strength steel wires are first
stretched across the casting bed
between two abutments.
Concrete Mixing
Ingredients of concrete is mixed well to
deliver the maximum strength and
durability.
Concrete Feeding
Well mixed concrete is then added to the
hollow core slab machine.
Hollow Core Slab Production
The machine is used to create voids at
the inner slab which reduce the concrete
use. It pours the wet concrete on
prestressing wires while running along it.
Hollow Core Slab Cutting
A machine with cutter is used to cut the
slabs to specific length prior to leaving the
factory.
Lifting and Pile Up
IThe slabs are lifted using clamp to other
places to be stored or placed on the
trucks to be delivered to site.
Delivering of Slabs
Slabs are delivered to construction site by
heavy trucks made specifically for the
transportation of precast building
elements.
Placing of Hollow Core Slab
The slabs are then lifted using cranes to
the determined location of the building for
installation.
Due to the slabs are in different sizes, they are given a number and would be
placed according to the number shown in construction drawings.

51. WALL
Wall is the vertical construction of a building. It provide enclosure and
security; it delimit property boundaries, can control crowds and creatures,
and can also provide wind shelter and, if solid, create a noise barrier. Walls
higher than eye level to give a complete physical and visual barrier; walls
below eye level provide both a visual and physical separation, and act as a
partial enclosure, while ‘dwarf walls’ provide a physical barrier and can form
plinths for seating.
Materials used in wall construction include:
- brick
- stone
- concrete
- clay blocks
- in situ concrete
- rammed earth
-filled structures
- turf
- sods
- timber sleepers
- steel sheets
- gabions
- earth
The most common wall materials are masonry units and in situ concrete.
Masonry here refers to brick and stone, or to precast concrete blocks.
These can be surprisingly flexible in application, but in situ concrete is the
most versatile wall material because it can be moulded to virtually any
desired form and can be easily curved.
- To provide protection from weather, animal
- To divide the areas
- Act as sound barriers
- As fire walls to attenuate the spread of fire from one building unit to another
- Separate the interior spaces
- To improve the building appearance
- To provide privacy
Two types of wall including :
- Load bearing wall
Walls that able to carry the load from above (own weight & load from roof)
and transfer it to the foundation.
- Non load bearing wall
Walls that only carry their own weight.

52. MASONRY WALL
Masonry walls consist of modular building blocks bonded together with
mortar to form walls that are durable, fire-resistant, and structurally efficient
in compression. Masonry walls may be unreinforced or reinforces.
Unreinforced masonry walls, also called plain masonry.
- SOLID MASONRY
Solid masonry walls may be constructed of either solid or hollow masonry
units laid contiguously with all joints solidly filled with mortar.
- GROUTED MASONRY
Grouted masonry walls have all interior joints fills entirely with grout as the work
progresses. The gout used to consolidate the adjoining materials into a solid mass
is a fluid Portland cement mortar that will flow easily without segregation of the
ingredients.
- CAVITY WALLS
Cavity walls are constructed of a facing and a backing wythe of either solid or
hollow masonry units, completely separated by a continuous air space and bonded
with metal wall ties or horizontal joint reinforcement.
Reinforces masonry walls use steel reinforcing bars placed in thickened joints
or cavities with a fluid grout mix of Portland cement, aggregate, and water for
greater strength in carrying vertical loads and increased resistance to buckling
and lateral forces. It is essential that a strong bond develop between the
reinforcing steel, grout, and masonry units.

53. After laid a solid foundation for the bricks, work out how
many courses of bricks needed. Mark out the height of
each course on a piece of wood, so that it can be used as
a guideline to make sure its straight and can you this as
the gauge rod.
Important step that make sure the bricks are laid level.
Feed the string line behind the piece of wood that is
clamped to the wall, at the level you want your first
course of bricks to be. Pull the string to the other wall and
clamp it off, making sure that it’s tight and is level
Lay a small bed of mortar for the first brick to lie on
and use the spirit level to make sure it’s level.
Place a small amount of mortar on the top of the
first brick and place another brick on top of it, at a
downwards angle. Carefully pull the string line
under this bricks. Lay a bed of mortar on the solid
foundation for your wall. Apply mortar to the side
of the bricks but feather it away from the sides.
Lay the bricks next to each other in a straight line
and use the spirit level to make sure it’s flat.
To cut a brick to size, use the back end of your
claw hammer. Mark where you want to cut the
brick and with your safety galsses on, hold the
brick in your hand and gently tap it with the
hammer until a crack appears. When it does,
hit it a little harder until the brick breaks.
Move your string line up to where the top of the
next course of bricks will be. Lay a bed of mortar on
top of your first course of bricks, so that it’s in a
triangle shape. Use your trowel to feather throught
it, to create an air pocket for you to lay your bricks
on. Lay your first brick, so that it’s staggered and
have one brock sitting on top og two bricks. Use
your spirit level to make sure it’s flat. Place mortar
on the side of the bricks and lay them next to each
other. Repeat this until your wall has reached the
height you want.

54. The masonry wall with ‘Flemish garden-wall bond’ pattern
Flemish bonds can be replicated in the half-brick outer leaf of a
cavity wall by using whole bricks as stretcher, while the headers
are created by half bricks called bats or snap-headers. It Is not as
strong as English bond at one brick thick.
Originally used for single brick walls, it became the obvious choice for
cavity walls with the least amount of cutting required. It is therefore
the most economical bond pattern and is extensively used in modern
building
Masonry wall that using ‘Stretcher bond’ pattern

55. STAIRCASE
Stairs provide means for moving from one level to another and are therefore
important links in the overall circulate scheme of a building. The landing of a
stairway should be logically integrated with the structural system to avoid
overly complicated framing condition. Safety and ease of travel are, in the
end, the most important considerations in the design and placement of stairs.
Baluster – The vertical posts in the space under the banister to the treads
or floor ( on the side of a landing )
Banister – The handrails up the side (or sides) of a stairway and, as an
extension, along the edge of a landing
Curtail Step – The bottom step of a staircase which curves around
sideways beyond the side of the staircase.
Fascia – The vertical covering under the edge of an exposed landing which
covers the gap between ceiling and floor.
Finial – The decorative ornament used to decorate the top ( and possibly
the bottom) of a newel post; often in the shape of an ball, spike, urn, un or
figure.
Half Landing – The flat area of flooring where a stairway makes a turn
between main floors.
Inner (closed) string – The side of a staircase set against a wall which
locates the treads and risers
Landing – The flat area of flooring at the top and bottom of a staircase
leading to room
Newel Post – The vertical post at the end or turn of a banister
Outer (open) string – The side of a staircase open to view which locates
the treads and risers.
Return nosing – The moulding, (normally half round) fixed to the ends of
the treads exposed in a hallway and which covers where the balusters fit
into the treads.
Riser - The vertical part of a step
Riser wedges – The usually wooden, wedges used vertically underneath a
staircase in slots cut into the strings to secure the risers.
Tread - The horizontal part of a step
Tread wedges – The usually wooden, wedges used horizontal underneath a
staircase in slots cut into the strings to secure the risers.
Tread/ Riser blocks – The usually wooden, blocks used by gluing to secure
the front of the treads to the top of the risers at the front edge of each
step.
Staircases may be all sorts sizes and arrangements to suit
different properties but the main parts which go up to make any
stair case are fairly common. A typical staircase is illustrated
below.

56. There are varies types of staircases.
Straight-run stair
- A straight-run stair extends from one level to another without turns
of winders
Winding stair
- A winding stair is any stairway constructed with winders, as a circular
or spiral stair. Quater-turn and half-turn stairs may also use winders
rather than a landing to conserve space when changing direction.
Quarter-turn stair
- A quarter-turn or L-shaped stair makes a right-angled turn in the path
of travel.
- The two flights connected by an intervening landing may be equal or
unequal, depending on the desired proportion of the stairway opening
Spiral Stair
- A spiral stair consists of wedge-shaped treads winding around and
supported by a central post.
Circular Stair
- A circular stair, as its name implies, has a circular plan configuration
Half-turn stair
- A half-turn stair turns 180° or through two right angles at an
intervening landing.
- A half-return stair is more compact than a single straight-run stair.
- The two flights connected by the landing may be equal or unequal,
depending on the desired proportion of the stairway opening.

57. There are three types of materials that can used for building staircases:
- Wood stairs
- Steel stairs
- Concrete stairs
- They contain strong fire resistance capabilities
- They are long-lasting, solid, nice looking and be presented non-slippery
- They are conveniently designed for higher widths, higher length and any
height
- They are molded in any type of shape to meet the needs of the
architect
- They can be easily refined
- Maintenance cost is very normal or zero
- They can be pre-cast or cast-in-situ
- To modify their look, R.C.C. stairs can be covered/ finished with fine slabs
of stone, marble tiles or terrazzo finish.
In the construction site, concrete are use to build the stairs. The pattern
of the staircase is straight-run stairs.
SIDE VIEW OF THE STAIRCASE
FRONT VIEW OF THE STAIRCASE

58. Calculate the dimensions for each step based on the difference in
floor height, the length of stairway and the number of risers. This is
to prevent ending up with a concrete staircase consisting of
uneven steps.
To simply ensure that the ground that you will build your
staircase upon is very compact to prevent any sinking in
during cement pouring. .
It is very important that the finalized form panel is very sturdy,
as it is essentially holding up the shape of the cement
staircase as it sets into shape. Ensure that the base of
paneling is fully flat on the ground to prevent ending up with a
lopsided staircase.
Drill in bars of steel into the concrete foundation to better
support and extend the lifespan of stairs.
Bracing the paneling basically means enforcing the structure to
ensure that the concrete will not flow out and lose its shape
before it has time to fully set.
Before pouring the concrete , the inner surface area of the panel
should be greased with form oil or diesel fuel to make it easier to
release the panels once the cement has set.
The best method of getting the perfect, tight finish for each step is
to repeat the troweling process several times for each step. First,
screed to surface of steps with a magnesium trowel. Next, an edger
will be used to clean the edges.. The process will be repeated.
Get started on building wood from panels, which are
basically two panels made out of wood that help maintain
the shape of the steps while the concrete is being poured
in.
Installing the stair risers based on the formwork design. Each
riser should be cut out and nailed into the form panels with
nails.
Once a further 24 hours has passed, you can then remove the form
board panels and then lightly spray the surface of the concrete
steps with water. To get a better curing, floor the staircase until
there are visible puddles. Next, cover the entire stairs with plastic to
prevent evaporation and allow the curing process to run for at least a
whole week.

59. < Stair that finish curing on site
End product of stair on site >

60. DOORS AND WINDOWS

61. DOORS
- Provide to give access to the inside space of a building. (room)
- Serves as a connecting link between the various internal portion of building.
- Lighting and ventilation of rooms.
- Admitting ventilation and light.
- Control the physical atmosphere within a space by enclosing it excluding air
drafts, so that interiors may be more effectively heated or cooled.
- Act as a barrier to noise.
- Used to screen areas of a building for aesthetic purposes, keeping formal and
utility areas seperated.
Primary functional : Means of access
Secondary function: Privacy
- Structure's strength and stability
- Resistance to weather
- Durability and freedom from maintenance
- Fire safety
- Resistance to passage of heat
- Resistance to passage of sound and security
Doors can be classified into internal doors and external doors. The
exterior doors are usually thicker compared to the internal doors as the
internal doors require more functions.
- The number should be kept as minimum
- It should meet the functional requirements
- It should preferably be located at the corner of the room, nearly 20cm from corner.
- If a room contains more than 2 doors, they shall be located facing each other. .

62. Facts and issues concerned:
1. Type and function of the building
2. Requirements and the preferences of the clients
3. Planning restriction
4. Site restriction
5. Capital resources
6. Maintainence and adaption
7. Legal restrictions and requirements
Positioning and decision making on the size and
shape of doors based on the building's
requirement
Decide on basic materials for fabric of roof and
walls
Decide on style, character and materials for
opening
Decide on basic materials for fabric of roof and
walls

63. Door Frame is an assembly of horizontal and vertical members forming an
enclosure to which door shutters are fixed. The vertical members are known
as jambs or posts. The top horizontal member is known as head. The
horizontal projections of the head are known as horns. A rebate cut of
12mm is provided all-round the frame to receive door shutter.
This is the top or uppermost
horizontal part of frame.
These are the horizontal projections of a
frameAdd a little bit of body text
A Rebate Kit is an ironmongery accessory
that is used to allow a lock or latch
mechanism to be fitted correctly on a pair of
double opening rebated doors.
Frame:
It is an assembly of horizontal and vertical members,
forming an enclosure to which the shutters are fixed.
_________
_______
________
________
_________
_______________
_____________________
________________
________________

64. _____________
_____________
_________________
_________________
______________
SLIDING MECHANISM
The common width-height relations used
- Width = 0.4-0.6 height
- Height = (width + 1.2)m
External door - 1.0 x 2.0 to 1.1 x 2.0m
Internal door - 0.9 x 2.0 to 1.0 x 2.0m
Bathroom and WC - 0.7 x 2.0 to 0.8 x 2.0m
i) Residential
1.2 x 2.0m or
1.2 x 2.1m or
1.2 x 2.25m
ii) Public
In general :
Frames
-Timber
-Steel
-Aluminium
-Concrete
-Stone
Shutter
-Timber
-Plywood
-Glass
-Block

65. WINDOWS
_________
______
______
______
_____
_________
______
Casement windows are hinged at the sides. When fully opened, it offers the
maximum amount of ventilation. Operates like a hinged door, except that it
opens and closes with a lever inside the window. The shutter consists of
styles, top rail, bottom rail and intermediate rail. Depending upon the design,
the frame can have additional vertical and horizontal parts like mullion and
transom respectively. The panels may be either glazed, unglazed or partly
glazed and are fixed in the grooves made in rails and styles.
- Hinges, Bolts, Handles and Locks

66. ROOF

67. 1. Gable - Also known as pitched or peaked roof, gable roofs are some of the
most popular roofs in the US. They are easily recognized by their triangular
shape.
2. Hip - A hip roof has slopes on all four sides. The sides are all equal length
and come together at the top to form a ridge.
3. Mansard -A mansard roof, also known as a French roof, is a four-sided roof
with a double slope on each side that meet forming a low-pitched roof. The
lower slope is much steeper than the upper. The sides can either be flat or
curved, depending on the style.
4. Gambrel - A gambrel, or barn roof, is much like mansard in a sense that it has two
different slopes. The difference between the two is that the gambrel only has two
sides, while the mansard has four. Similar to mansard, the lower side of the gambrel
roof has an almost vertical, steep slope, while the upper slope is much lower.
5. Flat - Flat roofs appear to be completely flat with no pitch. However, they do
have a slight pitch to allow for water run-off and drainage. These roofs are
generally used on industrial or commercial buildings. However, they can also be
installed on residential houses in both high and low rainfall areas.
6. Skillion - Skillion is also referred to as a shed roof or lean-to. It is a single, sloping
roof, usually attached to a taller wall. - It can be thought of as half of a pitched roof,
or as a more angled flat roof.
7. Jerkinhead - A Jerkinhead roof uses elements of both gable and hip roofs. It can
either be thought of as a gable roof with hipped ends (cut short with the points
turning downward). Or, it can be described as a hip roof with two short sides. - They
may also be referred to as clipped gable.
8. Butterfly - V-shaped roof constructed of two tandem pieces which are angled
up on the outside. The midsection is angled downward where the two pieces meet
into a valley. The overall effect is of a butterfly’s wings in flight. The butterfly roof is
popular for modern
9. Bonnet - Kicked-eaves, are double sloped with the lower slope set at less of an
angle than the upper slope. It’s like a reverse Mansard. The lower slope hangs over
the side of the house. This overhang is an excellent cover for an open porch.
10. Saltbox - A salt box roof is asymmetrical in design, with one side being more of
slightly sloping flat roof and the other more of a lean to, with gables at each end.
Add a little bit of body text

68. 11. Sawtooth - A sawtooth roof is two or more parallel pitched
roofs in which the sloped and vertical surfaces alternate. The roof
resembles the side view of a saw blade. Sawtooth roofs were
once only used in industrial buildings.
12. Curved - A curved roof is much like the Skillion, or Shed roof,
but the planes are curved. It is very modern and provides a unique,
creative roof design. The amount of curve can vary from slightly
curved up to an arch shape.
13. Pyramid - A pyramid roof is a type of hip roof. All four sides
come to a point at the top of the roof. There are no vertical sides
or gables. Pyramid roofs are mostly used for smaller buildings,
such as bungalows and cabins.
14. Dome - A pyramid roof is a type of hip roof. All four sides come
to a point at the top of the roof. There are no vertical sides or
gables. Pyramid roofs are mostly used for smaller buildings, such
as bungalows and cabins.
15. Combination - A combination roof incorporates a design using
various roofs on the same structure for aesthetic and practical
reasons. Add a little bit of body text

69. Extra living space on the roof for a patio, garden or partially
enclose for a penthouse room. Heating and cooling units
can also be placed on flat roofs, keeping them out of sight.
- This is especially common practice in commercial roof
designs.
The design is also conducive for installing PV solar panels
for a more energy efficient and energy independent home.
Flat roofs are easier to construct than pitched roofs and
require fewer building materials, keeping costs down
The low pitch makes flat roofs more susceptible to water
leakage. They are not advised for high rainfall or high
snowfall areas.
Although the upfront cost of building a flat roof is less
expensive than a pitched roof, they can be more expensive
in the long run due to maintenance and ongoing roof repair
and replacement costs.
Ensuring a flat roof is waterproof is imperative. Using
material that is continuous with no seams is the best. The
most common materials used are tar and gravel, roll
roofing, metal sheets, PVC, TPO, and rubber membrane.
Note: Green roofs are also on the rise in popularity. They are
aesthetically pleasing, energy efficient, thanks to all the vegetation
acting as an additional layer of insulation, with cooling properties, and
help combat the urban heat island effect. Layers are created using
beneficial plant life, soil, drainage, and waterproofing membrane.

70. A mono-pitched roof is a single-sloping roof surface, often not attached to
another roof surface. Mono-pitched roofs are sometimes called a pent roof,
shed roof, lean-to roof, or skillion roof.
Shed house plans are a good choice for environmentally-minded homeowners
who like modern contemporary style. A common variation in contemporary and
modern architecture refers to the roof form. A shed roof slopes in only one
direction, with no gable peak.
Shed Roof (Google Reference)
Sloping Flat Truss Process of Installation

71. A truss is essentially a triangulated system of straight interconnected
structural elements. The most common use of trusses is in buildings, where
support to roofs, the floors and internal loading such as services and
suspended ceilings, are readily provided.
Pratt truss ('N' truss)
Pratt trusses are commonly used in long span buildings ranging from 20
to 100 m in span. In a conventional Pratt truss, diagonal members are in
tension for gravity loads. This type of truss is used where gravity loads
are predominant. Trusses are widely used to serve two main functions,
to carry the roof load and to provide horizontal stability
Purlin is a horizontal beam along the length of a roof, resting on a main rafter and
supporting the common rafters or boards. It is installed according to the length
of the roof in order to strengthen the trusses system to sustain the whole roof
frame.
Many of the wire meshes offered below are used in a wide range of building-related
applications, including infill panels, enclosures and safety guards.
It is designed to support for roofing underlays and insulation. However, it can also
be used as to prevent workers falls through a roof. If securely fixed, the roof safety
mesh provides fall protection for roof installers and offers long term protection
against falling for maintenance and repair workers.
Purlins
Wire mesh on roof surface (Google reference)
- Flat roof insulation is often used in constructions to reduce heat loss, provide fire
resistance and reduce noise pollution. Built in Rockwool has been designed to
meet the demands of modern systems, providing durable solutions which simplify
design and lower costs.
Rock Wool (Google reference

72. This is a new environmentally-friendly Heat Insulation material, which is soft,
light and easy to install. It not only overcomes the discomfort and
environmental damage brought by glass fibre and epispastic materials, but can
also resist ultraviolet radiation that can penetrate through sheet iron, concrete,
wood and other common heat insulation materials. This new heat insulation
material not only has good insulation, heat reflection & insulation and anti-
radiation functions, but also has good moisture-barrier, heat preservation and
energy-saving functions in housing construction (roof).
Aluminium Foil Roof
Steel deck is a cold formed corrugated steel sheet supported by steel joists or
beams. It is used to support concrete or insulating membrane of a roof. It was
developed to provide a structurally efficient product for use in roof and floor
systems.
Its design and fabrication maximizes the properties of the steel in order to
create a high strength-to-weight ratio, which lowers the material, handling, and
erection costs but maintains the durability. Despite the fact that it is a
structural component, its uniform quality can offer an attractive appearance,
especially with the use of properly specified shop and field applied coatings.
Metal Deck

73.
• D - Weep hole through external brickwork. The plastic weep hole vents are
gridded to stop insects making nests in the cavity.
• E - Lead Flashing - To cover and seal the joint between the flat roof and the
wall.
• F - The flat roof metal deck covering
• G - Joist hangers
• H - Firring piece - Firring pieces, it raises the flat roof from one point to certain
degree, uneven surfaces or levels which need to be adjusted in some way. This
gives the required slope to allow rainwater to run off.
• I - Purlins
• J - Plasterboard - This is a ceiling and wall covering. Plasterboard is has
resistant to almost everything and its portable too
• K – Inserted with Rock wool
• L - The fascia board
• M - External wall to the lean-to extension. This can (and most often is) a cavity
wall but can also be a single support wall.
Elevation of Flat Roof
• A - Internal wall
• B - External wall which, when the lean to extension is added, becomes
an internal wall below the level of the extension roof.
• C - A cavity tray must be inserted in all cavities where an external wall
becomes an internal wall in any circumstances. The water gets into the
cavity and drops down to ground level where it drains away through the
bottom of the same wall it entered by. This is one of the reasons for
having a cavity wall. From there it simply runs down the roof.

74. SUMMARY

76. REFERENCE
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2. https://www.slideshare.net/ashishvasava1995/doors-and-windows-building-construction
3. https://theconstructor.org/building/types-of-doors-building-works/11898/
4. https://www.thebalance.com/types-of-windows-844567