Bcon compilation-final-ilovepdf-compressed

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION I
( BLD 60303 )
ASSIGNMENT 1 :
EXPERIENCING CONSTRUCTION
TAYLOR’S LAKESIDE UNIVERSITY

LEE YET YEE ( L ) 0322328
HENG SY HUA 0321999
JUSTIN CHONG YONG SHENG 0322845
KAREN CHOO QIAO YING 0322480
NG KWANG ZHOU 0322802
LIM WOO LEON 0322180
MADELINE LIEW ZHI QI 0322150
KOO JIAN XIANG 0322975
GROUP MEMBERS

Introduction
- Introduction to development site
Site and Safety
- Plants and Machinery
Preliminaries Work
- Site Layout
- Setting Out
- Earth Work
Foundation
- Foundation type and construction process (from site visit)
- Foundation type and construction process (from reference)
Superstructure
- Beam and Column
- Slab
- Wall
- Staircase
Doors And Windows
Roof
- Roof type and construction process (from site visit)
- Roof type and construction process (from reference)
Summary
References
CONTENT 3
1 - 3
4 - 11
12 - 15
16 - 19
20
21-22
23
23
24
25
26 - 35
36
37 - 40
41 - 42
43 - 45
46 - 49
50 - 58
59
60 - 74
75 - 77
78
79

4
INTRODUCTION
SITE 1 : LOCATED AT SENAWANG
CAREPLUS GROUP BERHAD IS A COMPANY THAT PRODUCE RUBBER PRODUCTS. CURRENTLY, THEY ARE
BUILDING A NEW 4 STOREY FACTORY SITUATED JUST BESIDE THEIR CURRENT OLD FACTORY, IN ORDER TO
EXPAND THEIR PRODUCTION FACTORY’S TOTAL SURFACE AREA.
LOCATION PLAN (NOT TO SCALE)
BY . KOO JIAN XIANG

5
The location of the factory is situated at Senawang, Seremban, the primary industrial area of the prosperous
Senawang town. The construction of the new factory is currently at it’s Superstructure Stage. They had just
completed the ground slab of the factory 2 months ago. The whole development of this factory will take
around 2 years of construction time to finish.

6
SITE 2 : LOCATED AT TAMAN PUNCA EMAS
INTRODUCTION
THIS SITE IS OWNED BY MR.HOE SOON YEE AND HE HAD PROPOSED TO BUILD A 1 AND A HALF STOREY
BUNGALOW HOUSE AT TAMAN PUNCA EMAS, SEREMBAN, A HOUSING AREA SURROUNDED BY TAMAN VISION
HEIGHT AND TAMAN LOOP.
BY . KOO JIAN XIANG

7
The bungalow itself is located at the prime area of the neighbourhood as it is easily accessible to the
highway which leads to the city centre of Seremban not more than 10 minutes of driving. The
bungalow now is currently at it’s Superstructure Stage and estimated time to finish the whole
construction will be around a year and a half.

8
INTRODUCTION
SITE 3 : LOCATED AT TAMAN SEREMBAN
THIS SITE IS OWNED BY MR.LEE SIEW WAI AND HE HAD PROPOSED TO BUILD A 2 STOREY BUNGALOW
HOUSE AT JALAN SEROJA 3, SEREMBAN, A HOUSING AREA SURROUNDED LOCATED NEAR TAMAN KIAN KEE.
BY . KOO JIAN XIANG

9
The bungalow itself is located at the prime area of the neighbourhood as it is easily accessible to the
highway which leads to the city centre of Seremban not more than 10 minutes of driving. The
bungalow now is currently at it’s Superstructure Stage and estimated time to finish the whole
construction will be around a year and a half.

10
INTRODUCTION
SITE 4 : LOCATED AT JALAN TOK UNGKU
BUKIT BLOSSOM COMMERCIAL CENTRE IS A PRESTIGIOUS BUSINESS CENTRE , STRATEGICALLY LOCATED IN
THE HEART OF SEREMBAN TOWN. IT WILL BE A PRIME COMMERCIAL CENTRE EASILY ACCESSIBLE VIA THE
NORTH-SOUTH HIGHWAY, JALAN RASAH TO JALAN TOK UNGKU RAHANG KECHIL AND A MERE 2 KM DRIVE
TO SEREMBAN TOWN.
BY . KOO JIAN XIANG

11
The area is well-connected to a network of banks, offices, shops, food & beverages outlet and etc. It is
surrounded by more than 30 housing area which captured about 90,000 population, and strategically
located in heart of Seremban whereby it’s only 100m away from the Middle Ring Road that is linked to
S2,S3, Town Center and etc. The development of the commercial building is currently at it’s
Preliminaries Stage and it will be taking about 2 years to complete the whole project.

12
SITE AND SAFETY
Construction work is a dangerous land-based job which include many dangerous task and unsafe
condition such as falling from height, collapsing and electric shock. However these can be controlled
by the management to decrease the rate of hazards occur in construction site. Safety equipment and
training are needed to provide for construction worker to create a safe construction environment.
Safety awareness is required to everyone who are included in the construction site
BY . KAREN CHOO QIAO YING

13
SITE AND SAFETY
Scaffolding
Scaffolding often caused dangers like worker falls from
height, falls of materials, and collapse of structure. Fall
hazards may occur when scaffolds are not used or erected
in a proper way. Scaffold must be sound, rigid and sufficient
enough to carry its own weight included the intended load
without settling and displacement. It must be erected on
solid footing to prevent collapse. All scaffolding should be
design, erected and disassembled by a competent person
and to be inspected before the start of the work every day
to make sure it is safe to be use. Personal fall protection is
required on all scaffolds that is higher than 10 feets. Fall-
arrest systems must be used in high-wind or storm condition
to prevent falling of worker.
Ladder
Another source of injuries caused in the
construction site included ladders and
stairways. Falls and slips on ladder and
stairways are the main source of injuries
happened in the site. Appropriate length of
ladder should be used and it has to be
inspect by worker who are in charge of
safety. The ladder should have the ability to
support the weight of the worker and the
materials. Slippery condition of ground base
should be avoid for ladders to decrease the
hazards of slipping.
Public and visitors have the hazard to be
injure in or nearby the construction site. The
boundaries of the construction site has to be
fenced to prevent outsider. Fencing should
not be lower than 2 meters high to prevent
the accessing of unauthorized people to the
construction site. Pedestrians and road users
should not be affected by vehicles entering
or leaving the construction site. Netting are
required on scaffolds for high rise building to
prevent object fly off the construction site.
Holes and uneven ground has to be covered
and lighting has to be provided during the
night. The construction site must hire security
to secure the site during day and night to
prevent access of unauthorized people.
Public Protection

14
SITE AND SAFETY
Storage For Materials
Materials will be affected by improper handling and
storage. All the materials that are used in construction site
have to be store in a proper place to avoid accident.
Storage areas should be free from accumulated materials
that will cause tripping, fires and explosion. All the materials
such as steel bar and plywood are not allowed to be stack
for more than 2 meter to prevent falling and sliding.
Materials that are affected by weather have to be stored
and placed on flat and dry surface. Flammable material
should be stored far away from other material and
protected from accidental ignition. Timber must be placed
under a certain level to prevent moisture. Explosive materials
such as gas should store upright. All stored materials must not
create a hazard for construction workers. Place stored
materials inside buildings that are under construction have
to be at least 6 feet from hoistways, or inside floor openings
and at least 10 feet away from exterior wall.
Personal Protective Equipment
Personal protective is vital for all construction worker because it decreases the
hazard of been injured while working. Boots with slip-resistant are required for all
construction worker. It is worn to prevent crushed toes from falling objects when
working around with equipment. Safety glasses or face shields have to be worn at
any time work operations which may cause foreign objects getting into the eye.
For example during welding, cutting, grinding, nailing, or when working with
concrete and harmful chemicals or when exposed to flying particles. When
construction worker has to be exposed to any electrical hazards, safety glasses or
face shields have to be worn. Gloves are required when worker doing heavy duty
work and insulated gloves are required when exposed to electrical hazard. Hard
hats is required when there is a potential for objects falling from above or bumps
into the worker’s heads from fixed objects, or accidental head contact with
electrical hazards. Hard hats are routinely inspected by people in charge for
dents, cracks or deterioration and have to be in good condition at all time. It
must be replaced after an electrical shock or heavy blow.

15
SITE AND SAFETY
Disposing Waste Materials
Waste materials in construction site can cause hazard to the
environment especially materials that contain chemical
property. Flammable material has to dispose properly to
prevent fire on site. Plasterboard will cause environmental
hazard once it is landfilled because it will release toxic gas in
such condition. Most of the waste materials in construction
site have the potential to be recycle. Most of the waste
wood can be recycle. Planning for disposal of waste
material is an important role in site safety and have certain
procedure to be follow.
Electricity Supply
Electricity is one of the main cause of fire on site and electric shock to the
construction worker. All electrical equipment has to be safe condition and
maintain regularly and has to be planned, managed and monitor by person in
charge to reduce the risk of construction worker exposed to electricity.
Equipment such as scaffolds and ladders should be placed not more 3 meters
from electrical power line. Damage and worn electrical cords have to be
replaced and multiple plug adapters are strictly prohibited in the construction site
Vehicle
Vehicles can cause on-site accident to the construction worker and road traffic
accident to the public. Traffic road must be properly planned in the construction
to ensure the safety of the site. Fire and explosion may occurs on the vehicles that
carry explosive and flammable materials into the site. Advance planning of route
for transportation in the site is vital to ensure both drivers and vehicles are
capable and competent to carry out the task. Traffic rule in site is also necessary
to be included into the site safety plan.

16
PLANTS AND MACHINERY
Plants and machinery act as an important role in all construction site. It can be categories to transport
vehicles, earth-moving and excavating equipment and material handling machinery. However,
supervisor in the construction site should make sure that a safe and suitable access are provided, the
traffic and pedestrian routes are organized and be in controlled.

17
Earth moving and excavating equipment
Earth moving and excavating equipment is known as heavy
equipment which refers to heavy-duty vehicles. It designs to
perform earth moving and excavating works in the construction
industry. There are also known as heavy machines, heavy trucks,
construction equipment, engineering equipment, heavy vehicles,
or heavy hydraulics.
Excavators
E x c a v a t o r i s h e a v y
construction equipment
which consists of a
boom, dipper, bucket
and a cab on rotating
platform which is known
as a “house”. The house
s i t s a t o p a n
u n d e r c a r r i a g e w i t h
tracks or wheels. They
are a natural progression
from the steam shovels
and often mistakenly
Bulldozer is a very powerful vehicles
used in the construction site. The
tracks in bulldozer gives it a great
ground mobility and it has the ability
to hold through rough surface. It was
designed in a way that has high
torque capacity which gives it
power to dag object from the
ground. Besides that, it can also uses
to remove object from the ground.
In construction site, the bulldozer is
used mainly to clear obstacles or
earth for the building. A bulldozer
has variety of blade which has it
owns function. Straight blade is used
only for fine grading which it has no
curve and no side wing. Universal
blade has the ability to carry
material around and it is very tall
and is curved. Combination blade is
the combination of straight blade
and universal blade which is short
but less curved and has small wings.
Bulldozer
A loader is a type of vehicle that is
primarily used to clear, dig or load
material such as rock and sand into
another type of machinery. It is often
used to carry loose object from the
ground and move it from one place
to another without push the object
on ground. However, there is a
limitation a loader can dig which is
that it cannot dig a lot below the
level of its own wheels. The deep
bucket can store around 3-6 cubic
meters of earth and it is depending
on the model. Most of the loader are
wheeled but not tracked. Although
the sharp edged materials on
construction site would damage the
rubber wheels but it provides better
mobility and speed to the loader
and it do not damage the paved
roads.
Loader
called power shovels. The used of hydraulic system achieved the
function and the movement of the excavator. It uses to excavate and
dig the natural surface below or above the ground, lifting the earth
and general grading work in the construction site.

18
Transporting vehicles
Transporting vehicles are mainly used to transport
excavated material from a distance in construction.
Standard Dump Trucks
Tipper is a type of truck or lorry
which the rear platform allow
to be raised at the front end to
e n a b l e t h e l o a d t o b e
discharged by gravity. A
c o m m o n d u m p t r u c k i s
equipped with a hydraulically
operated open box bed that
hinged behind, which the front
part is able to be lifted for the
materials to be discharged by
gravity to the ground.
Haul truck is mainly design to
use for high production mining
and heavy-duty work in the
construction site. It is usually has
an open 4 wheeled vehicle
with a load skip in front of the
driver, while its cab in front of
the load. The skip can tip to let
the load falls on the ground. It
has a capacity that range from
40tons to 100 tons.
Haul Truck
Material Handling
Crane is designed to move equipment or machinery in the construction site. It can
be used both to lift and lower materials and to move it horizontally. It is mainly used
to lift heavy materials or equipment and transporting it to another places.
Mobile Crane
Mobile crane is the most basic type
of crane and is mounted on a mobile
platform. A mobile crane is a cable-
controlled crane mounted on
crawlers or rubber-tired carriers or a
hydraulic-powered crane with a
telescoping boom mounted on truck-
type carriers or as self-propelled
models. It is designed to transport or
lift heavy object easily to a site with
the flexibility to access the sites which
may be difficult to other types of
cranes.
Tower crane is used for tall buildings
and skyscrapers in the construction
site. It is considered to be the tallest
types of cranes. The tower cranes
can reach up to 256 feet and
outwards of 230 feet. The cranes are
settled to the ground by mounting a
strong concrete pad, so anchor bolts
can be implanted into the pad. While
being secured, this permits the crane
to balance when lifting heavy loads.
T h e s e c r a n e s a r e a l s o o f t e n
assembled and affixed inside the
building itself during construction.
Tower crane

19
Crawler crane
The crawler crane is a crane
mounted on an undercarriage
with a set of crawlers which
provide stability and mobility. It
is a lifting machine which
m o u n t e d o n a t r a c k e d
movable platform. This crane is
capable to perform lifting
operations on different types of
ground surfaces, even soft
grounds because the entire
weight of the machine is
Forklift is a material handling
equipment that have the ability
to lift and move a certain
object or material in a short
distance. Most forklift have a
certain load capacity in
between 1 to 5 tons. It is
available in many variation
and load capacity that some
of the forklift is able to lift up to
50 tons.
Forklifts
Concrete Mixer
Concrete mixer is an equipment that
combines cement, aggregate (sand
and gravel) and water to create
concrete. A concrete mixer has a
drum to mix all the components. A
portable concrete mixer is often seen
in the construction site to create small
volume of concrete which gives the
construction workers enough time to
use the concrete before it hardens.
Concrete transport truck is made to
transport and mix the concrete up to
A road roller is a type of engineering
vehicle used to compact soil, gravel
and concrete in the construction
roads and foundations. It has 2
smooth wheels which is fixed in front
and on the rear side. Both wheels
have the same diameter. Vibrator is
fixed with smooth wheel rollers and
the used of vibration is to reduce the
air voids in between the particles. The
weight of the wheels exert direct
pressure on the layer to make it
smooth.
Road roller
equally deployed on the tracked platform. Because it is on tracks and not on
wheels, the crawler crane is more stable and it can lift more weight than the
wheeled crane. However, the negative side of crawler crane is that some
models are so large that it has to be dismantled in smaller pieces to transport
it to another location.
the construction site. This concrete transport truck is able to maintain the concrete
in liquid state before reaching the construction site by turning the drum while on the
roads.

20
PRILIMINARIES
In construction, preliminaries present the GENERAL DETAILS of a project as well as going into the
specifics that should be known, like what will be required to execute the project and what conditions
are relevant.
Preliminaries, in general, tend to outline numerous details concerning a construction project that is
nearing the end of its planning stages
BY . JUSTIN CHONG YONG SHENG

21
PRILIMINARIES
Cleaning
Removing access trees from the plotted area. Trees or
excess greenery that are found on site have to be unrooted
completely to prevent any incidents.
Huge trees and other
obstacles are excavated
to ensure easy construction
Excavator
Thoroughly level the ground to ensure the safety. If there is
any hole in the ground, it must be filled up completely.
Leveling
Fencing
When the plotted area is cleaned
and levelled, contractors will then
secure the site by placing a
per manent boundary wall or
temporary fencing around the plot.
The company’s sign board as well as
safety precaution signs will be placed
on the fence for good measure.
Site office is a temporary structure
with the necessary accommodations
for the contractors or architects to
either plan out the schedule for the
day or to just take a break.
Site ofﬁce
The fencing was built to avoid any outsiders
from entering

22
PRILIMINARIES
Storage
The storage area is commonly used to keep various building
materials such as bricks or steel from unwanted damage or
stole. A separate storage for cement is also built because
cement is affected by the weathering impact.
Storage places are
huge and secured
for the materials
As civil construction needs continuous power and water
supply, a generator as well as a connection to the area’s
water line is made to help ease the construction process.
Utility connection
Labor shed
It is common practice for the foreign
workers who work in the construction
project to stay at site. A shed with the
essential facilities like water and
power supply and sanitation is
provided.
Site office is a temporary structure
with the necessary accommodations
for the contractors or architects to
either plan out the schedule for the
day or to just take a break.
Site ofﬁce

23
PRILIMINARIES
Setting Out
The method of setting out is the reverse of surveying process. The
process involves the positions and levels of building lines and road
alignments shown on the construction plans to be established on
the ground by various techniques and instruments.
A building can be set out by taking referencing from an
already established baseline. For each corner of the
building, a grid line can be established from the baseline.
Setting out buildings by COORDINATES
Plumb Bob
To check the verticality
of buildings less than
20m in height)
The ground floor is to be at or just
above ground level at the highest
point, some dry fill material such as
broken brick or concrete hardcore is
imported to raise the level of the
oversite concrete and floor. This fill will
be placed, spread and consolidated
up to the external wall once it has
been built.
The natural surface of ground is not leveled to the extent that there is an
appreciable slope either across or along or both across and along the site.
Earthworks
The thickness of the wall should be at least a
quarter of the height of the fill bearing To
make sure that the stability of the wall is
adequate to withstand the some horizontal
pressure on the wall. S o l i d f i l i n g
under the floor
Floor level
Ground level
Earthworks are engineering works created
through the moving or processing of parts of
the earth's surface involving quantities of soil
or unformed rock. The earth may be moved
to another location and formed into a
desired shape for a purpose.
After the earth works are done, the
contractors will place wooden poles or even
flags around the site to indicate the
boundaries set for the shop lots or houses to
prevent any mistakes of calculation from
occurring during the next process.
Picture above shows wooden poles

24
FOUNDATION
The function of any foundation is to safely sustain and transmit to the ground on which it rests the
combined dead, imposed and wind loads in such a manner as not to cause any settlement or other
movement which would impair the stability or cause damage to any part of the building.
BY . LIM WOO LEON & NG KWANG ZHOU

25
FOUNDATION
Foundation type on Site
BY . LIM WOO LEON
The site applies only pad foundation or shallow foundation because the
building is constructed below 4 feet below ground which doesn’t require any
deep piling and it also has good subsoil condition.
Pad Foundation
RC or steel column Pad Foundation
The pad foundation uses RC or steel
column instead of grillage as it doesn’t
required to transmit heavy loads from
steel columns but just enough to act as a
load bearing foundation
The bars of steel added into the concrete
foundation resist all tensile forces induced
into the foundation.
It is used to support isolated loads such
as those in columns, piers
Also, it is constructed with a square
base where its reinforcement patterns
are distributed in both ways.
Isolated foundation
Pros and Cons of Pad Foundation
Pros
Relatively cheap and easy to construct
Suitable for framed construction
Reinforcement for tension and shear can be added
Cons
Pads are very shallow and can be easily uprooted
Construction Process of Pad Foundation
Reinforced
C o n c r e t e
Column
Pad Foundation
R C o r
S t e e l
Column
Blinding
Two way reinforcement pattern
Isolated or pad foundation designed
to span in two directions threfore main
bars are placed in the bottom both
ways.
Excavation S e t t i n g l e a n
concrete
Build formwork
Add spacer BlockAdd reinforcement
Bar
Reinforcement for
Slump
A d d t i e s f o r
formwork Pour concrete
Set, curing and
strengthening of
concrete

36
SUPERSTRUCTURE
Superstructure is the building part that is above the foundation or basement, serves the purpose of the
building function. It includes beams, columns, slab, wall and staircase.
BY . HENG SY HUA & MADELINE LIEW ZHI QI

37
Bea
Beam is a structure that can carry and support external load
preventing the whole structure from collapsing
Diagram 1 shows the transmission of load and force from beam to ground
Beam columns ground
Type of beam used in the site
Concrete beam D2
Extended into column for more
stable structure
Tension reinforce for upward
bending
Bent bars resist diagonal
tension
concrete
Reinforce bar
Reinforce bar is used as a frame for the beam
-act as support system for the whole stucture
Advantages of concrete
beam
-low cost
-high tensile strength
-combine with slabs
-withstand thermal heat
Effective depth is
measured from the
compression face to the
centroid of tension
reinforcementWhenever possible, vary
required steel reinforcement
rather than beam size
Hooks are
bends given to
the end of
tension bars to
develop an
equivalent
embedment
length for
anchorage. A
standard hook
is a 90°, 135°,
or 180°
Beam without wall and slabs
Beam with wall and slab
150 mm
spacing
R6 link
Beam
37
BY . HENG SY HUA

38
Type of beam connection
Simply supported beam (beam found on site)
Beam that support freely at the ends on wall and column
Fixed beam has 2 fixed ends into the wall for higher load and strength
Cantilever beam
One end fixed into the wall to create an open yet sheltered space
Continuous beam
Has 2 or more support and used for a longer distant
Tension side
Compression side
Other material for beams
Steel beam
Advantage
-withstand corrosion
-withstand higher presuure and load
-shorter fixing time
Type of steel beams
Type of connection
S shape
W shape
C Shape
Structural
tubing
To connects
the girder and
beam
Stabilising
angle
Moment connection
Shear connection
Semi rigid connection
Ratio of concrete
6 bucket of stone : 4 bucket lake sand : 1 packet cement : 8 bucket water
Beam 38

39
Vertical structure which responsible in transferring load from ceilings to
foundation as well as provide height for the building
Column on site
Concrete column
-easy to be mould
-lower costing
-high durability and stability
Column donein different stages can be found on site
Type of concrete column used in the site
Columns with 6 main bars and column with 8 main bars as Position of the 2 different
Types according to the engineers calculation of the pressure and load
Rebars
All the rebar comes with identification card upon government approval
Rebar structure for column
Size of the rebar
Grade / tyoe of the rebar
Number of rebars per ton
Series number
Logo for the government unit
Main rebars for structural support
Curved rebars to prevent the main bars
from bending
Lapping area-shorter bar is tied beside
main bar to reinforce the column
Links -steel tying intersected joint to
prevent movement
Grove -to increase the grip of concrete
on bar
Rebars are actually tied manually on each
intersection part . Different tyoe of knot tying
is apply to prevent the bending of rebar
during hot climate
Columns 39
BY . HENG SY HUA

40
Framework
Process
.
Plywood column
Margin pieces to support
incoming beam
Cleats
Raking struts
Place for clamps and
yoke to resist pressure
Lift out pieces to enable
formwork to be cleaned out
before casting
Foot form around
kicker
Opening for beam
form
Main rebar for
column
Lapping
Rebars are set up according to the
engineered calculation , tied and
stabilised together . Columns
foundation (column stumps) are
applied if the columns is ground floor.
This acts as the skeleton of the column
stucture
Formwork are inserted
surrounding the column to
create a space for liquid
concrete to pour inside . Yorks
and tropping are added at
the side to support the
formwork from pressure and
secure it from movement.
Yorks
Wooden fromwork
Casting liquid
Concrete is poured into the formwork when rain is
not present. The max height to pour the concrete
is 3metre and the pouring process can only be
separated into maximum 3 times to prevent the
separation of concrete and produce a weak and
unstable column. After pouring, the concrete is
shaken to eliminate any air bubble trapped inside
the concrete.
Excess rebal
for lapping
of the next
floor
Excess rebal
for lapping
of the next
floorConcrete casting go through
hydration reaction to increase
its strength up to 2.5 times and
the formwork is left to dry for 25
to 30 days. The form work will be
taken off leaving the rough
surface. A coat of cement
render will be used to smoothen
the surface.
Different type of yorks are used
to ensure no leakage of
concrete casting.
Raking struts are used to prevent the column
to be slanted plump line is used to measure
the straightness of the column
Columns 40

41
SLAB
BY . MADELINE LIEW ZHI QI
Slab is a flat horizontal plane that is a common yet important structural element
of modern buildings. It functions as a walking surface for the users but may be
also serve as a load bearing element. The depth of a concrete slab floor is
relatively smaller compared to its span. Slabs may be supported on two sides
only or have beams on all four sides.
Precast concrete slabs is one-
way spanning units that may
be supported by site cast
concrete, precast concrete, or
masonry bearing walls.
Manufactured with normal
density or structural lightweight
concrete and prestressed for
greater structural efficiency.
Size may be limited by the
means of transportation.
Precast Concrete Slab
One Way Slab
One Way Slab is supported by
parallel beams only.
Bends in only one direction.
Main reinforcement is provided in
only one direction.
Suitable for light and moderate load.
Ratio of longer side to shorter side is
more than 2.
Two Way Slab
Two Way Slab is supported by beams
in all four sides.
Main reinforcement is provided in
both direction for two way slabs.
Effective for medium spans and
heavy load.
Ratio of longer side to shorter side is
less than 2 or close to 1
P r e c a s t
concrete
slabs
Structural
frame
Cast In-Situ Concrete Slab (site) (reference)
Advantages:
Time saving, construction can be done in a shorter time span.
Less labour is required compared to casting concrete on site
Cheaper if large structures are to be built
Disadvantages:
Less resistance to Earthquake and wind forces
Limited to sizes that manufacture have in hand
Higher maintenance cost

42
SLAB
In site, the slabs are casted both separately with the beam and also together
with the beam
Advantages and Disadvantages of Cast In-
Situ Concrete Slab
Advantages:
Flexible to the design
Less maintenance cost
More resistance to earthquake and wind
forces
Cheaper for small scale projects
Do not require large handing equipment to
ship the slabs pieces
Disadvantages:
Requires more time to let the concrete cur
Will be affected by the weather condition
More skilled labours are required on site
(site)
Ground beams are installed first, continued by the ground floor slab.
Formwork is inserted at the correct placement for ground slabs.
Sand is filled and levelled, followed by a layer of damp prove
membrane. BRC mesh is inserted and concrete is casted and cured.
Formwork is removed after drying.
Ground Slab Layers
Concrete slab
- Resists compressive force
BRC wire mesh
- Extra reinforcement:
transfer load to beams
Damp-proof membrane
- Prevent water from
entering
Sand
- To flatten out the ground
surface
Hardcore
- To fill in any voids on the
ground
Construction Process
Site using Wooden Formwork
Shoring is set up around the
existing columns to support
the formwork of beams
and columns.
Site using Wooden Formwork
B R C m e s h i s p l a c e d f o r
reinforcement and concrete is
casted after that.
The scaffolding and formwork is
removed after the concrete has
completely dry.
Formwork is inserted at the correct
placement.
Construction Process of Higher Slab

43
A vertical structure that made up of stone, brick or concrete. It acts as a divider
to create and divide spaces as well as as protection for human. Walls also act as an
essential part for superstructure as it is used for load bearing, sound
and heat insulator.
Type of wall
Masonry wall
-from by bricks and cement
- good heat and sound insulator
- flexible in form and texture
-high durability
-high workmanship is required
Reinforce concrete work
-common used as load bearing
wall
-smoother surface
-formwork and concrete casting
needed
-lowered working duration
Type of brick
cement sand brick
Clay brick
Concrete
-made of clean sand, fly ash and
dolomite lime
- duration to produce shorter
-greyish colour
-compressed by machine to become
a block
-cheaper than clay brick
-made by clay
Redish colour
-duration to produce longer
-compressed by burning in furnace
*Choosen to used for the site wall as
it can withstand highest level of
vibration, more stronger and stable ,
more grip between each other and
can insulation more heat and noise
-combination of cement ,
water, and mine sand
-form work is needed
-cheaper for mass production
Wall
43
BY . HENG SY HUA

44
Type of bond
Concrete is used to bond all the bricks together and different arrangement
of brick will produce different effect .
Bonds found in site
Stretcher bond
Flemish bond
Cement
Construction process for brick wall
Joint
used to connect brick to brick and form a wall
Joints found in site
Flush joint
-a kind of trowelled joint which is finished by striking off excess mortar with
trowel
Raked joint
-made by removing mortar to a given depth
-for interior use only
-Commonly used in veneer wall
-consist of all stretcher overlapping
each other
-alternating of stretcher and header
arranging side to side
-commonly used for external wall
-higher sound and heat induction
Mind sand is used in mixture for cement
as it consists of more aggregates which
can produce higher and stronger grip
Wood board is then place as a formwork for
concrete footing before concrete is poured
Wood board
2 bricks are layered at each side
of the corner while laser light is
used to measure and mark the
position of the wall
10mm
Lengthof wall
A line is being pull
according to the leser
light to ensure a
vertical wall
Bricks are continue
to be laid according
to the line . the
excess concrete
mortal is being cut
off by trowel
Wall
Concrete mortar is mix and
prepared
44

45
Construction technique
On site
Layering technique
-Bricks are laid in 45 degree at
the top most part to ensure no
empty space is left
-make the laying process easier
as worker has larger space to
lay the bricks
Dowel bars
-Dowel bars are added into the
wall the prevent collapsing of wall
due to vibration
-The bars are added every in
every 4 layers
Lintel
-act as the support system above door
frame
-to lessen the load of the door frame
-prevent the wall above door frame from
collapsing
Stiffener
-Used to prevent enhance the
stability of the brick wall
-horizontal stiffener is added
when the length of the wall
exceed 4 metres
-vertical stiffener is added when
the height of the wall exceed 3
metre
Off Site
Damp proof membrane
-used to protect the wall from
soaking in water during rainy days
-made of plastics
-layered at the bottom of the wall
Wire mesh
-commonly used in cement
sand brick
-to enable the cement sand
wall withstand vibration
Wall 45

46
STAIRCASE
Half Turn Stair Two Quarter Turn Stair
Plan & Elevation Plan & Elevation
-Turns 180° at an intervening landing.
-More compact than a single straight-run stair.
-Two flights connected by the landing may be equal or unequal.
-Makes a 180° turn in the path of travel.
-Three flights connected by intervening landing may be equal or unequal.
Advantages:
- Easier to fit into an architectural plan
- Offer architectural interest
- Offer a resting point part way up the stairs
Advantages:
- More visually interesting
- The landing provide a resting area while ascending
Disadvantages:
- More difficult to build compared to a straight run stair
Disadvantages:
- More difficult to build compared to a straight run stair
FUNCTION:
- Provide access between levels
- Provide safe means of travel between floors
- An essential part of an emergency egress
In the sites that we had visited, there are two main types of stair that is present:
-Half Turn Stairs
-Two Quarter Turn Stair
These two types of stairs are commonly used and the area beneath it is used
as storage spaces for most of the buildings.
- Made on site that requires high construction skills
- Quality control is more difficult compared to
precast concrete stairs
- More time consuming than precast concrete stairs
- Enable to have flexibility with the building shapes
- Provide a sense of solidity and a strong,
contemporary look.
- Concrete is able to be poured into a variety of
creative shapes
- Concrete has a tendency to crack so frame
support must be well engineered
- Concrete may suffer from chipping on the tread
edges and making repairs is difficult
Material: Cast In-Situ Concrete Stairs

Landing
The flat surface between flights of
staircase to act as a resting area for
people
Nosing
The exposed edge of tread that
protrudes over the riser below
Ledger
- Horizontal timber in a scaffold
that is attached to the vertical
- To support the putlogs
Wedges
Timber wedges were used
vertically and horizontally
underneath staircase in slots
cuts into stringer to secure riser
and treads
Stringer
- Relates to the portion of
stairs running along the
stair’s side
- Acts as main structural
support for the surface
part of stairs
Riser
The vertical part of a
step between two
consecutive treads
Tread
The upper surface of a step
on which the foot is placed
Carriage
An inclined beam which
supports the steps or adds
support between the strings of a
wooden staircase, usually
between the wall and outer
string
Step
Consist of a tread and riser
Handrail
A protecting member fixed to
posts or a wall for people to
hold on to for support
Baluster
The vertical infill member
between a string and handrail
STAIRCASE
47
Terminologies

STAIRCASE
48
Concrete In-Situ Staircase Construction Process (on-site)
Concrete is poured from the top
to the bottom. Concrete
vibrator is used to ensure the
concrete mixed throughly.
The area of stairs is calculated
and then marked with a box.
Timber formwork is built in the
box that is marked earlier.
Scaffolding is added to the
bottom to support the load
when concrete is poured in.
The high tensile reinforcement
bar is placed along the stairs
and overlapped with the starter
bar of the slab.
The stringer and riser board are
constructed to create riser and
thread.
1 2 3
4 5 6
Lastly, it is installed at the desired
placement by fixing it with suitable
fixations.
Next, it is shipped to the site. It will
then be moved in by using cranes.
To begin with, precast concrete
steps are built off-site in a factory,
rather than at the site itself.
Precast Concrete Staircase
Mould of Concrete Staircase Crane
Precast
Concrete
Staircase
Precast
Concrete
Staircase
In-Situ RC
Landing
(Reference)
Advantages
- Time saving
- Do not stress the foundation wall of building
- Lighter than in-situ concrete stairs
- Better quality control because built in
controlled environment
- Cheaper
- Suitable for large scale projects
- Able to install easily anytime
Disadvantages
- Limited to the sizes that manufacturer has
- Requires big machineries to move it
Starter
Bar

STAIRCASE
49
The most traditional staircase
material
Wood is strong and easy to work
with and provides an element of
warmth in the home.
Most affordable staircase material
Strong and easy to work with
Wood is less durable than other
staircase materials and will
require maintenance from
time to time.
Wood can also be damaged by
high humidity.
Cost more than timber stairs
their strength and durability makes
them an excellent material option.
offers a flexibility of design
Durable, strong and able to be
used in a variety of settings
Can be more light-weight in
appearance than concrete
and timber
Perfect for spiral stairs and for tight
spaces
Metal stairs can be noisy when
traversed
Susceptible to corrosion in high-salt
areas
Heavy to transport and thus a more
expensive option
- add a touch of contemporary
glamour to an interior.
- lightweight and allow open views
and filtered light through the
levels in a house.
- one of the more expensive
material options.
strong and are able to be
strengthened to
accommodate heavy traffic
Timber Stairs Metal Stairs Glass Stairs
Staircase Materials(Reference)

DOORS AND WINDOWS
Door: An opening or closing structure which is commonly use as an entrance. It divides both interior
and exterior spaces as well as connects each other.
Window: An opening that allows light, sound and air to pass through. It contributes in air circulation
and heat reduction.
BY . LIM WOO LEON & JUSTIN CHONG YONG SHENG & MADELINE LIEW ZHI QI
50

51
DOORS
Terminology
Rough opening
wall opening into which a
doorframe is fitted.
Head
uppermost member of
a doorframe.
Jamb
either of the two side
members of a
doorframe.
Stop
projecting part
of a doorframe
against which a
door closes.
Casing
trim that finishes the
joint between a
doorframe and its
rough opening
Threshold
sill of a doorway, covering the
joint between two flooring
materials or providing weather
protection at an exterior door.
Doors and doorways give access from the outside into the interior of a building
and entry between interior spaces. Doorways ought to be sufficiently large to
travel through effectively and accommodate the moving of interior fittings.
Door Operation
Door Operation (references)
Swinging (On-Site)
Bypass Sliding
Pocket Sliding
Surface Sliding
Folding
- Door turns on hinges about a
side jam when pushed or pulled
- Most common and effective
way for thermal resistance.
- Provide access with full width
of doorway
- No operating space needed
- Slides on an overhead track
- Used at spaces where normal
swing door would be obstruct
- Slides on overhead track and
guides
- Low resistance to weather
and sound
- Folds flat against each other
- Require less operating space

52
DOORS
BY . LIM WOO LEON & JUSTIN CHONG YONG SHENG
Block Frame hinged door
• Offering quiet operation, effective sound and light proofing, and a reduction
in draughts. They’re also easy to use and can be fitted with a range of
optional additions, such as larger pull hands, transparent panels that allow for
vision through the door, and an automatic door closer.
• While hinged doors are usually fitted to swing inwards into the room that’s
being opened, they can also be installed to open outwards, maximising
space in small rooms. This versatility allows for hinged doors to be installed and
utilised in many office environments.
Misalignment
Hinge leaf on frame
Hinges
Non-Removable Pin Hinges
• This is a common feature in most commercial door
hinges, but is also available for residential use.
• It is a security hinge where the hinge pin prevents them
from removing the door to break in. In order to remove
the door, someone would have to cut the barrel off of
the hinge.
Pin must be fully inserted
in leaf for set screw to line
up with notched section
of pin.
Set screw
engages with
notched section
of pin.

53
DOORS
Installation of block frame hinged door
A hinged door is installed on a concrete or masonry wall.
The door is attached using screws through the frame or clips.
The door is sealed to the exterior brick, siding or stucco.
1. Prepare the opening
Clean the opening.
Ensure it is dry and free
from dirt, oil and debris.
Apply water
resistant
coating
Confirm the
opening is plumb,
level and square.
Measure and mark the
opening where the interior of
the new door will be placed
2. Prepare the Door
Install the clips into the fin
grooves and secure the clips
to the frame.
3. Set and fasten the door
Attach wood
blocking flush with
the opening sill.
Center the bottom of
the door in the
opening and tilt the
door into position and
check door
placement.
Plumb and square the door
Finish pre-drilling and driving
screws through the door
frame or clip
Check door operation

54
DOORS
Materials: Door (reference)
Sliding Glass Door
Sliding glass doors are accessible with
wood, aluminum, or steel frames. Wood
framed doors might be treated with
additive, prepared for painting, then
again clad in aluminum or vinyl. Metal
frames are accessible in an assortment
of finishes.
Sliding glass doors are produced as
standard units completed with all the
requirements needed.
1880,2490.3100 (Wood)
1830 3050 3660 (Aluminium)
2030,3050,3660
Door Designs
Panel
Panel
with
sash
Louvered French
Door
French
Door
with
divided
lights
Door designs varies from panels, to louvered and
others. Different design suits different type of
atmosphere and style. It is mostly made out of
wood, metal and glass. It maybe solid or divided
to increase the light penetration.
Wood rail-and-stile doors are made up of a
framework of vertical stiles and horizontal rails that
hold the desire material in place.

55
WINDOWS
Metal windows (Site)
Aluminium casement windows
• Casement windows have operating sashes that are side-
hinged and usually swing outward.
• When open, the sash is able to direct ventilation.
• The inner end of the sash may slide along a track on the sill
or jamb as the sash swings outward.
• A pair of sashes may close on a vertical mullion or having
afloating astragal to close on each other.
Advantage and disadvantage of aluminium windows
Advantages
Thermal Performance
Easily achieve improvements in heat gain and heat loss
Durability and low maintenance
Corrosion and weather resistant
Affordability
Aluminium frames can be significantly less expensive than
other framing options, providing a strong yet economical
window
Design Flexibility
aluminium offers a vast range of possibilities from the
economical to most elaborate systems while also delivering
excellent thermal performance.
Disadvantages
Doesn’t hold heat in well. The thermal conductance of
aluminium is high. Thus aluminium windows may not work well
in cold climates. Condensation or even frost forms inside the
windows and can present a variety of problems.

Aluminium Hollow profile Casement Windows
• Thermal Insulation
Poor insulation and high conductivity are characteristics of solid profile
metal windows. This is much less apparent with hollow profile outer
members, as they can be considerably enhanced by a thermal infilling
of closed cell foam.
• Finish
Paint application prevents surface oxidation of the aluminium frames.
• Condensation
Polyurethane--resin thermal breaks between internal and external
profiles inhibits cold bridging. This reduces the opportunity for
condensation to form on the surface.
The extruded aluminium profiled sections at the site are designed and
manufactured to create lightweight hollow window framing members.
Double glazed unit
sub-sill
56
WINDOWS
Synthetic rubber
sealing gasket
Hollow core may be
filled with closed cell
foam
Double Glazing of Metal casement
windows
• Double glazing insulates (reduces
solar gain) almost twice as well as
single glazing.
• The air space between the panes
of glass has a large effect on
energy performance. A thin air
space does not insulate as well as a
thicker air space because of the
conductivity through that small
space.
• The edge spacer is what holds the
panes of glass apart and provides
the airtight seal in an insulated glass
unit. Essentially they are hollow
aluminium channels, filled with
desiccant beads, to absorb
moisture.
Approximate solar gains with
ordinary float glass -

Aluminium Window Installation
Install window frame
into wall leaving gap
all around over the
rough plastered
masonry wall.
Align window frame
horizontally and vertically
with thick aluminium
composite panel packing
or any other hard metal.
FIx frame with aluminium
composite panels.
Drill hole through
aluminium
composite packing
around fame to be
screwed through the
wall and shall remain
below track
permanently.
Dowel and screw the
frames onto wall. Hang in
window and check all
mechanism.
Feel gap between frame
and walls with
Polyurethane Foam and
cover the surface with
cement plaster on
exterior side with paint
from inside.
Hang the
window after
total curing.
Install window sill if
necessary.
Trim and shape gaps for
protecting and sealing
polyurethane foam.
57
WINDOWS

Steel window frame and sash sections are
produced from hot-rolled or cold-rolled steel.
Sections of steel are more rigid and thinner than
aluminium. It allows more light to come into the
building as it overall thinner than other material.
Steel has a lower coefficient of heat transfer than
aluminum hence steel window frames do not
require thermal breaks
Wood frames are normally thicker than aluminum or
steel frames, but they are also more effective as
thermal insulators.
The frames are usually of kilndried, clear, straight
grain wood, factory treated with a water repellant
preservative. The 
wood may be stained, painted, or primed for
painting on site. To minimize the need for
maintenance, the majority of wood frames are now
clad with vinyl or bonded to acrylic coated
aluminum sections that require no painting.
Materials: Windows (reference)
58
WINDOWS

59
ROOF
Roof , an essential part of every building where it act as a protection towards weather and primary
sheltering element for the interior spaces of a building . The construction of roof must be strong to
withstand wind loads therefore each components has to be securely fastened to each other. The roof
also add attractiveness to the building in creating different architectural effects which will enhance
the ambience of the building when viewing it as a whole.
BY . LEE YET YEE

60
ROOF
ROOF TYPE ON SITE
BY . LEE YET YEE
A hip roof has four sloping or pitched sides and a
rectangular base. The hip ends are triangular in shape and
the sides have a trapezoid shape. The inclined rafters at
either end of the ridge will brace the roof.
A hip & valley roof is simply a modified or extended hip roof.
The shape and pitch of the surfaces are basically the same,
however the base shape changes from a simple rectangle
to a ‘T’ or ‘L’ shape, on plan.
The hip & valley roof has an additional ridge, which joins the
main roof ridge at the same height, which creates a single
valley for an ‘L’ shaped roof. It may also join the roof surface
at the same height or at a lower level on a side or end,
without connection to a hip, creating two valleys for a ‘T’
shaped roof.
Hip And Valley Roof
Hip Roof Hip and Valley Roof
Hip Valley
• The pyramid shaped hip roofs are highly preferred
at hill stations where heavy snowfall is recorded in
winter seasons.
• Hip roofs generally have consistent fascia from all
directions, so it becomes easy to make installations
for gutters.
• Hip roofs are also well suited for warm climates as
they create the perfect shade for houses from all
sides while assisting in fine cooling.
• Hip roofs also possess eaves along all directions that
help to provide complete protection to a house
from sun, as well as other atmospheric troubles.
• One of the most important advantages of hip roofs
is their ability to provide drainage of water; as all
sides of the roof are angled properly so there is no
chance of water accumulation on these roofs.
• They help to create prevention from a roof
collapsing.
• Hip roofs that have 30-degree tilting are considered
as the best designs for long life results.
Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages
• O n e o f t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t
disadvantages of hip roofs is their
typical or complicated construction
procedure.
• Hip roofs demand large labor mass,
as well as need additional raw
material, which adds to more cost.
• They need maintenance from time to
time to ensure long life service.
Disadvantages

61
ROOF
STRUCTURAL ROOF MEMBERS
BY . LEE YET YEE
Fascia
Top Plate
Centring Rafter
Ridge Board
Collar Tie
Common Rafter
Creeper Rafter
Crown-end Rafter
Top Plate
Purlin
Valley Cripple Creeper
Valley Rafter
Valley Creeper Rafter
Fascia
Collar Tie

62
ROOF
CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
BY . LEE YET YEE
ThePre-construction
1. Calculating Roof Slope
2. Laying Out Roof Framing Plan
Construction
3. Roof Framing
4. Underlayment
5. Roofing
6. Roof Drainage
7. Roof Flashing
Pre - Construction
1. Calculating Roof Slope
The slope of a roof must be calculated before construction begins.
Factors affecting the roof slope : Roof’s span, run and rise.
Span : Distance between outer edges of top plates
Total Run : 1/2 the span
Unit Run : Set length used to figure the slope of rafters
Total Rise : Vertical distance from top plate to the upper end of measuring line
Unit Rise : Number of inches that a roof rises for every 12” of run ( unit run )
Slope = Ratio ( Unit Rise : Unit Run )
Pitch = Ratio ( Total Rise : Span )
Total Rise
Total Run
Unit Rise
Span
Unit Run
12
8
Total Run
Span
Unit Run
Unit Rise
Pitch
Total Rise
Tail
Ridge Board
Rafter
Measuring Line
2. Laying Out Roof Framing Plan
Hip And Valley Roof
Roof framing plan created when one or more hip roofs
intersect at 90’ angles
A : Outline of building
B : Outline largest rectangle unsure the building outline
C : Draw centrelines for every rectangle formed inside the
building outline
D : Draw 45’ line from each inside and outside corner
( Extend Lines to intersect with centrelines : Indication of hip
rafters on outside corners and valley rafters on inside
corners )
E : Center lines drawn in C connect the hip and valley rafters.
Draw these as solid lines where the ridges will be located
F : Figure distance between rafters , lay them out on roof
framing plan
A B C D E F

63ROOF
TRUSSERS AND RAFTERS LAYOUT PLAN
BY . LEE YET YEE
Bungalow at Taman Seremban

64
ROOF
BY . LEE YET YEE
3. Roof Framing
In trussed-roof construction, prefabricated trusses are
attached as a unit. Their lower chords form the ceiling of the
room while the top chords form the roof. In conventional
roof construction, carpenters assemble the roof from
individual ceiling joists and rafters. The rafters should not be
erected until the ceiling joists have been fastened in place.
The ceiling joists act as a tie to prevent the rafters from
pushing the exterior walls outward.
Steel Joists : • To resist uplifting wind forces, every
joist must be securely anchored to
its supporting structure.
• Top chord extension for roof
overhang
• Joists may frame into a bearing wall
rising to form a parapet or bear on
the wall to form a flush or
overhanging roof edge
• Roofing membrane over rigid foam
or lightweight concrete insulation
• Roof deck may consist of metal roof
decking, plywood panels,
cementitious roof planks.
• Continuous bearing angle for roof
deck bolted to concrete or masonry
• Bridging should be securely
anchored to end wall
• Horizontal bridging angles for K
series joists are welded to top and
bottom chords.
• Diagonal bridging angles for LH/DLH
series joists; weld or bolt bridging to
clip angles secured to masonry wall
or steel edge beam.

65ROOF
TRUSSES
BY . LEE YET YEE
3. Roof Framing
Roof trusses are engineered and pre-fabricated,
triangulated structures which are built in a factory. They are
designed to carry the load of a home’s roof to the outside
walls, shipped to the construction site, and installed using a
crane after the home’s walls have been framed.
The triangles formed by the beams, bars and ties allow the
truss to distribute the weight it carries over a broader area.
Steel Trusses
Steel Roof Trusses ~ these are triangulated plane frames
which carry purlins to which the roof coverings can be fixed.
Steel is stronger than timber and will not spread fire over its
surface and for these reasons it is often preferred to timber
for medium and long span roofs. The rafters are restrained
from spreading by being connected securely at their feet by
a tie member. Struts and ties are provided within the basic
triangle to give adequate bracing. Angle sections are
usually employed for steel truss members since they are
economic and accept both tensile and compressive
stresses. The members of a steel roof truss are connected
together with bolts or by welding to shaped plates called
gussets. Steel trusses are usually placed at 3„000 to 4„500
centres which gives an economic purlin size.
• Metal or cementitious roof
decking or panels span purlin
spaces.
• Channel or W-shape purlins
span the truss spacing.
• If not bearing at a panel
point, purlins subject top
chord to local bending.
• Trusses require lateral bracing in a
direction perpendicular to their
planes
• Depth range for pitched trusses:
span /4 to span/5
• Members are bolted or welded with
gusset plate connectors.
• To prevent secondary shear and
bending stresses from developing,
the centroidal axes of truss members
and the load at a joint should pass
through a common point

66
ROOF
Steel Roof Truss Details
BY . LEE YET YEE
3. Roof Framing
Purlin Cleats
Angle Rafter
Angle Strut
Purlin Cleat
Gusset Plate
Shop Bolted
Connections
8mm thick Gusset Plate
Angle Tie
Truss symmetrical
about center line
Concrete Beam
HD
#10 SDS HD-B

67
ROOF
RAFTERS
BY . LEE YET YEE
3. Roof Framing
Rafters are sloped framing members running downward
from the peak of the roof all the way to the plates of the
outside walls. They are the support for the roof load. Ceiling
joists tie the outside walls together, support the ceiling
materials for the room below, and secure the bottom ends
of the rafters.
Carpenters build conventional rafter roof frames on-site. The rafters are
installed one piece at a time.
Types of Rafters:
1. Common Rafter
2. Centring Rafter
3. Hip Rafter
4. Crown-end Rafter
5. Creeper Rafter
6. Valley Rafter
7. Valley Creeper Rafter
These are the main sloping members, which all have the
same length, running from the wall plate to either side of the
ridge. They are spaced at 450 to 600 mm centres for tiled
roofs, and up to 900 mm centres for sheet roofs. They support
the roof battens, which in turn support the roof covering. The
number of common rafters in a hip roof are restricted to the
length of the ridge with the rafters on either side, at the end
of the ridge, being referred to as centring rafters.
Common Rafter & Centring Rafters
Ridge Board
Common Rafters
Hip Rafter
Valley Jacks
Hip Jack

68
ROOF
BY . LEE YET YEE
Ridges
3. Roof Framing
Usually a deep and narrow member, it is the highest
member of the roof, which runs horizontally for the length of
the roof, less twice the half span, plus one rafter thickness. 
It must be level and parallel to wall plates for its length with
the rafters being nail-fixed onto it on opposite sides. The
ridge on a hip roof may be joined in length as for a gable
roof.
The ridges are butt jointed together at the same height to
form a hip & valley ‘T’ or ‘L’ shape. The length of the ridge
forming the ‘T’ or ‘L’ shape will be equal to the length of the
wall plate extension, plus half the thickness of a rafter, less
half the thickness of the ridge
Crown-end Rafter
The crown end rafters are cut and fitted against both ends
of the ridge to form the sloping end sections. They act as
opposing braces making the hip e roof a strong self-braced
frame. The length of the crown end is similar 
to the common rafter, apart from the top end deduction,
i.e. it is shortened by half the rafter thickness as opposed to
the half ridge thickness of the common rafter.
Hip Rafter
The hips are deep-sectioned members, which run from the external corners of the wall
plates to the end of the corner formed between the centring rafter and the crown end
rafter. The hips bisect the 90° external corners at 45°, when viewed on plan or are placed at
the appropriate bisected angle for external corners other than 90°, as would be the case
for a semi-octagonal ended hip roof.
Creeper Rafter
These are basically common
rafters, which are shortened by
equal amounts to fit against the
face of the hips at the maximum
rafter spacing. The lower end is
identical to the common rafters
but the top end has a compound
cut, i.e. face and edge cuts, which
is formed by the plumb bevel for
common rafter and the edge
bevel for creeper. They are usually
set out from a pattern rafter and
cut in pairs to fit on either side of
the hips
Centring Rafter Ridge
Centring Rafter
Crown End Rafter
Pairs of Creeper Rafters
Plan

69ROOF
BY . LEE YET YEE
3. Roof Framing
Purlins
Purlins, also known as underpurlins, are fixed to the underside
of the rafters parallel to the ridge and wall plates. They
provide continuous support under the rafters similar to
bearers under joists in a floor frame. 
They are normally spaced at 2100 mm centres, but this will
depend on their section size and stress grade, including the
section size and stress grade of the rafters. 
They are placed in a continuous line around the four sides of
the hip roof and joined at external corners, under the hips. 
The ends of the purlins, under the hip, have a compound cut
consisting of the face bevel purlin and edge bevel purlin.
The ends may be cut tight against the face of the hip on
either side or have a notch taken out of the edge of both
lengths so they fit tightly under the bottom edge of the hip
for extra support.
Purlin Details :
ELEVATION
Hip
Purlin
PLAN
Underside View Of Purlins Under Hip :
Hip Rafter
Creep Rafter
Underpurlin
Creep Rafter
Crown End Rafter
Tyloc Plates and bolt
Twin Wire support system
Hip
Support Block
Ridge
Common Rafter
Adjustable
Centre Fulcrum
Purlin
Tyloc Plates
and bolt

70
ROOF
- Summary
BY . LEE YET YEE
3. Roof Framing
1. Set out and complete ceiling frames 2. Setting out rafters position on ridge board 3. Fixing first pair of rafter to ridge
4. Fitting Crown End Rafters
5. Fix hips and remaining common rafters
6. Propping the hip and fixing pairs of creeper rafters
7. Complete the Assembly of Structural Frame

71
ROOF
BY . LEE YET YEE
4. Underlayment
The use of super sisaltion under the roof frames.
Super Sisalation
Physical Characteristic
Super Sisalation has an outer later of aluminium foil bonded
to high density Kraft papers, bonded together with a heavy
coating of flame retardant and tear strength.
The blue face of the weave reduces any problems with
reflected glare during installation.
Thermal Performance
When used in conjunction with an
airspace, Sisalation is an effective
thermal insulation material because of
the high reflectivity and low emissivity
of its aluminium foil surfaces.

72
ROOF
Tile Rooﬁng
BY . LEE YET YEE
4. Rooﬁng
Tile roofing consists of clay or concrete units that overlap 
or interlock to create a strong textural pattern. Like slate,
roofing tiles are fire-resistant, durable and require little
maintenance. They are also heavy (800 to 1000 lb. per
square; 363 to 454 kg per 9.29 m2) and require roof framing
that is strong enough to carry the weight of the tiles. Roofing
tiles are normally installed over a solid plywood deck with an
underlayment of 30 lb. or 45 lb. roofing felt. Special tile units
are used at ridges, hips, rakes, and eaves.
Ridge cover units
Cover starter units
Cement Mortar
Field Tiles
Arris tiles cover the rake
Pan tiles have an S-shaped cross section,
laid so the downturn of one overlaps the
upturn of the next in the same course.  
- Minimum recommended slope4:12  
14"(355)wide;19"(485)long  
- Exposure:16”(405)

73
ROOF
Gutter
BY . LEE YET YEE
6. Roof Drainage
The amount of rain or melting snow a roof and its drainage
system must handle is a function of: 
- The roof are a leading to the roof drains or gutters.
- The frequency and intensity of the rain fall for the region
Flat roofs should be pitched to roof drains that are located
at the low points and that connect to the storm drain system
of the building. A system of scuppers or overflow drains may
also be required with the inlet flow 2" (51) above the low
points of the roof. Rainwater shed by sloping roofs should be
caught by gutters along the eave to prevent ground
erosion.Gutters empty in to vertical downspouts or leaders
that, in turn, discharge into a dry well or storm sewer system.
In dry climates or for small roof areas with adequate
overhangs, gutters may be omitted and a bed of gravel or a
masonry strip set in the ground under the eave line. Gutters
are typically of vinyl, galvanised steel, or aluminium,
although copper, stainless steel, terne metal, and wood
ones are also available. Aluminium gutters can be cold-
formed on-site in continuous runs without joints.
Gutter Details :

74
ROOF
ROOF TYPE ON SITE
BY . LEE YET YEE
7. Roof Flashing
Flashing refers to thin continuous pieces of sheet metal or
other impervious material installed to prevent the passage of
water into a structure from an angle or joint. Flashing
generally operates on the principle that, for water to
penetrate a joint, it must work itself upward against the force
of gravity, or, in the case of wind-driven rain, it would have
to follow a tortuous path during which the driving force
would be dissipated.
Flashing may be exposed or concealed. Exposed flashing is
usually of a sheet metal, such as aluminium, copper, painted
galvanised steel, stainless steel, zinc alloy, terne metal, or
copper-clad lead. Metal flashing should be provided with
expansion joints on long runs to prevent deformation of the
metal sheets. The selected metal should not stain or be
stained by adjacent materials or react chemically with
them.
F l a s h i n g c o n c e a l e d w i t h i n a
construction assembly may be of sheet
metal or a waterproofing membrane
such as bituminous fabric or plastic sheet
material, depending on climate and
structural requirements.
• Aluminium and lead react chemically
with cement mortar.
• S o m e f l a s h i n g m a t e r i a l s c a n
deteriorate with exposure to sunlight.

75
ROOF
ROOF TYPE ( REFERENCE )
BY . LEE YET YEE
A gable roof has two sloping sides that meet at the top to
for a gable at each end. A gable roof may include dormers
( upright window projections ) that add light and ventilation
to second-floor rooms or the attic. The gable roof is the most
common type of roof.
Gable Roof
• Ridge board is a non structural horizontal
member to which the upper ends of the
rafters are aligned and fastened.  
• Common rafters extend from a wall plate
to a ridge board or ridge beam and
support the sheathing and covering of a
roof.  
• Collar ties unite two opposing rafters at a
point below the ridge, usually in the upper
third of the rafter length.  
• The ties that resist the outward thrust of the
rafters may be designed as ceiling joists
supporting only attic loads or as floor joists
supporting habitable space.  
• Rafterspan  
• Load bearing wall or beam

76
ROOF
BY . LEE YET YEE
Gable Roof Framing
• Steel joist roof rafter  
• Angle clip  
• Nested steel joists  
form ridge.  
• Light-gauge steel joist sections serve as
rafters; see 4.23 for types and sizes of light-
gauge steel joists.  
• Rafters are typically spaced at12",16", or
24" (305, 405, 610) o.c., depending on the
magnitude of roof loads and the spanning
capability of the roof sheathing.  
• Steel joist rafter  
• Steel ceiling joist  
• Anchor clips secure both rafter sand
ceiling joists to the top runner of the stud
wall framing.  
• Soffit framed with light-gauge steel stud
sections

77
ROOF
Gable Roof Truss
BY . LEE YET YEE
Structure
Details

Summary
A flat land is choosen for
construction
Excavation process is brought
upon
Pilling is implanted as base
Form work of ground beam is
placed
Back filling of sand is carried
on after the completion of
ground beam
Construction of ground floor
slab formwork
Scaffolding is being built to hold
the formwork for first floor beam
First floor slab is being
constructed after the
completion of first floor
beam
Construction of wall and
staircase is carried out
As conclusion, construction process is the most
essential part for an architect to manipulate to ensure
the quality of the building as well as ensuring the
smoothness of every construction stages
Construction of roof , door ,
windows and also the wall
finishes which also marks the
end of a construction
process
Heng Sy Hua 0321999
78

References
Preliminary works
• Designing Buildings Wiki The construction industry knowledge base. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/
Preliminaries_in_construction
• What are preliminaries in construction? (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from https://www.reference.com/business-finance/preliminaries-
construction-256e2cde9b00e08f# 
Setting out process
• http://www.aboutcivil.org/setting-out.html
Earthworks
• http://www.epa.ie/licences/lic_eDMS/090151b280013e5a.pdf
Site layout
• http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Site_layout_plan_for_construction
Plants and machinery
• Thomas, B. M. (2014). The Purpose Of Crawler Crane - PurposeOf. Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.purposeof.com.au/the-purpose-of-crawler-crane/
• A. (2015). 4 Types of Cranes and Their Functions | CDH Rentals. Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.cdhrentals.com/4-types-of-cranes-and-their-functions/
• Function of Bulldozer in Construction. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.theconstructionmachinery.com/articles/functions-of-bulldozers.html
• Construction Equipments. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.engineeringcivil.com/theory/construction-equipments
Site safety
• UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA3252/3252.html
Superstructure
• Chudley, R. (1999). Construction technology (2nd ed.). Harlow: Longman.
• Ching, F. D., & Adams, C. (2001). Building construction illustrated (4th ed.). New York: Wiley.
Doors & Windows
• Chudley, R. (1999). Construction technology (2nd ed.). Harlow: Longman.
• Ching, F. D., & Adams, C. (2001). Building construction illustrated (4th ed.). New York: Wiley.
• Aluminum Windows Pros and Cons | DoItYourself.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.doityourself.com/stry/aluminum-windows-pros-and-cons
• BUILD LLC. (2015, May 19). A Modern Guide to Windows | BUILD Blog. Retrieved from http://blog.buildllc.com/2015/05/a-modern-guide-to-windows/
• Capral Limited. (2012). The Benefits of Aluminium Windows - Capral. Retrieved from http://www.capral.com.au/The-Benefits-of-Aluminium-Windows
Roofing
• Roofing Designs: Advantages and Disadvantages of Hip Roofs. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.selfhelpandmore.com/building/roofing/designs/
index.php
• HIP ROOF FRAMING AND BUILDING - myrooff.com. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://myrooff.com/hip-roof-framing-and-building/
• Trusses, Rafters... What the Heck is the Difference? (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://activerain.com/blogsview/2135174/trusses--rafters----what-the-heck-is-
the-difference-
• Open web steel joist. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.wikiwand.com/en/Open_web_steel_joist
• ROOF FRAMING - Construction Knowledge.net. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.constructionknowledge.net/public_domain_documents/
Div_6_Woods_Plastics/Partial Carpentry pdfs/Framing_Roofs_NAVEDTRA_14044.pdf
• Layout Of Roof Plan - ChestofBooks.com. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://chestofbooks.com/architecture/Cyclopedia-Carpentry-Building-1-3/Layout-Of-
Roof-Plan.html
79

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