Buildng construction report

TAN CHIN WERNG
WONG LIENG KAM
YUEN XUAN HUI
0324408
0323566
0324292
0328561
0324495
0327462
YEE MAE YUEN
CLARA LEE PEI LIN
WONG TECK POH
CONSTRUCTION
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION l (BLD 60303)
PROJECT 01 | SEM 02 | MAR 2017
TUTOR: MS SATEERAH HASSAN
EXPERIENCING, DOCUMENTING AND
ANALYSING THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
EXPERIENCING

CONTENT SITE AND SAFETY (3-10)
2.1 SIGNAGE
2.2 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
2.3 CONSTRUCTION SAFETY
02
FOUNDATION
4.1 SUBSOIL MOVEMENT
4.2 DEFECT OBSERVATION
4.3 FOUNDATION MATERIALS
4.4 CONSTRUCTION PROCESS OF
FOUNDATION
4.5 TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION
4.6 FOUNDATION BED
4.7 STEPPED FOUNDATION
4.8 SIMPLE RC FOUNDATION
4.9 SIMPLE RAFT FOUNDATION
4.10 SHORT BORED PILE FOUNDATION
4.11 FOUNDATION DESIGN PRINCIPLES
4.12 BASIC SIZING
4.13 FOUNDATION TYPES AND
SELECTION
4.14 PILE CAPS
4.15 ON SITE OBSERVATION
04
INTRODUCTION TO SITE (1-2)
01
PRELIMINARIES WORK
(11-20)
3.1 SITE INVESTIGATION
3.2 SOIL INVESTIGATION
3.3 TEMPORARY SERVICES
03 3.4 EARTHWORK
3.5 SETTING OUT
3.6 SITE LAYOUT
DOORS AND WINDOWS
6.1 DOORS
6.2 WINDOWS
06
ROOF
7.1 ROOF FUNCTIONS
7.2 ROOF FORMS
7.3 ROOF SHAPES
7.4 ROOFING MATERIALS
7.5 ROOF CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
7.6 ROOF ON SITE
07
SUPERSTRUCTURE
5.1 BEAMS
5.2 COLUMNS
5.3 SLABS
5.4 WALLS
5.5 STAIRCASES
05
(21-44)
(45- 79 ) (80-90)
(91-107)
TAN CHIN WERNG
TAN CHIN WERNG
WONG LIENG KAM
YUEN XUAN HUI
YEE MAE YUE (5.1, 5.2, 5.3),
CLARA LEE
( 5.4, 5.5)
CLARA LEE
WONG TECK POH

INTRODUCTION
TO SITE
01
TAN CHIN WERNG

Desiran Bayu, a much-anticipated upcoming
development by LBS. A lakeside residential
development, on a Malay Reserve land. The central
attraction in the development is that homes and facilities
are built around a 43-acre lake. And with any water-
side living, one experiences the beauty of water, breeze
and rustling sounds from the surrounding lush greenery.
Hence the name, Desiran Bayu. It aims to depict the
perfect calm of tranquil waters, gently laced with the
sound of leaves rustling with the occasional breeze.
DESIRAN BAYU, PUCHONG
LAUNCH YEAR:
2016
PROJECT DURATION:
19 MONTHS
TOTAL ACREAGE:
100.08 ACRES
LAND TYPE:
MALAY RESERVED LAND
CURRENT STAGE:
PHASE II
2

SITE
AND SAFETY
02
TAN CHIN WERNG
2.1 Signage
2.2 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
2.3 Construction safety
The construction work has long been considered as a high-risk
and dangerous occupation due to high percentage of injuries
and death. For examples, falling from heights, electric shocks,
exposure to a hot or harmful substance etc.

SIGNAGE The reason of placing the safety signs are to deliver the important
message to the public and warn the public that accidents could be happen
in construction site.
Signage of assembly point to indicate the location of the emergency
gathering point during any unforeseen accidents or emergencies.
Different colours of symbols and signage give identity
different actions or procedures to be used.
Meaning of Colour
Safety Signs
4

SCAFFOLDING
Scaffolding is a temporary structure to support the original structure as
well as workmen used it as a platform to carry on the construction works.
Types of scaffolding varies with the type of construction work. Scaffolding
is made up of timber or steel. It should be stable and strong to support
workmen and other construction material placed on it. All scaffolding
should be designed and inspected before the start of the work every day
to make sure it is safe to use.
CONSTRUCTION
SAFETY
FENCING
The boundaries of the construction site should be fenced to prevent
outsiders entering the site. The fencing should be at least 2 meters high to
provide anti-climb feature and avoid accessing of unauthorized people.
LADDER
Appropriate length should be
used and inspection should be
carry by the worker who in
charge of the safety. Slippery
condition of ground should be
avoid for setting up the ladder
to reduce the hard of slipping.
5

PERSONAL
PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
SAFETY HAT
To provide protection from falling
objects and to protect the safety
of workers when they are
operating a construction vehicle EYE PROTECTION
Providing protection to the
eyes of the workers from
hazardous objects such as
dust particles, molten metal as
well as sparks during
construction.
HIGH VISIBLE VEST
To protect the workers from any
direct contact to objects which
may cause harm to the physical
body and allow a worker to be
highly visible in the construction
site..
GLOVE
Protects the hands of the
workers when handling sharp
objects, tools and corrosive
chemicals.
Personal protective equipment (PPE) is a
clothing or equipment designed to be worn
by construction workers to prevent injuries.
BOOT
To provide protection to worker’s feet from
sharp objects which may pierce and injure the
feet and to protect the feet against any
falling objects.
6

Used in the construction industry to shift large amounts of earth
and dig foundations and landscape areas
EXCAVATING &
EARTH MOVING EQUIPMENT
EXCAVATOR
It is a heavy construction equopment
consisting of a boom, stick, bucket and
cab on a rotating platform known as the
"house". They are a natural progression
from the steam shovels. and often
mistakenly called power shovels. All
movement and functions of a hydraulic
excavator are accomplished through the
use of hydraulic fluid, with hydraulic
cylinders and hydraulic motors
BACKHOE
Also called a rear actor or back
actor, is a piece of excavating
equipment or digger consisting of
a digging bucket on the end of a
two- part articulated arm. They
are typically mounted on the
back of a tractor or front loader.
Typically, dig depth is
somewhere between 12 and 16
feet (3 to 5 m).
CRAWLER LOADER
It has the strength to survive
heavy excavating. crawler
loaders are capable of
manoeuvring across the entire
construction site under its own
power
PLANTS AND MACHINERY
7

TELESCOPIC CRANE
This type of crane offers a boom that consists of
a number of tubes fitted one inside of the other.
A hydraulic mechanism extends or retracts the
tubes to increase or decrease the length of the
boom.
For safety purpose, the crane must always work
on a hard, level base. And the weight of the load
must be calculated correctly.
MATERIAL
HANDLING EQUIPMENT
Telescopic cranes are another form of heavy
cranes employed to transport and maneuver
objects from one place to another.
The picture shows that they're transporting and
pouring the cement into the column mold.
8

GENERATOR SET
A generator set is an electronic device that supplies electric
energy to devices and machineries on site.
CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENT
CONCRETE MIXER
is a device that homogeneously combines cement, aggregate such as sand or gravel, and water to form concrete.
For smaller volume works portable concrete mixers are often used so that the concrete can be made at the
construction site, giving the workers ample time to use the concrete before it hardens.
9

CONCRETE
TRANSPORT TRUCK
used to transport and mix concrete
while travelling to the construction
site. The concrete mixing transport
truck maintains the material's liquid
state through agitation, or turning of
the drum, until delivery.
CONSTRUCTION
VEHICLES
The concrete mixing transport truck maintains the material's liquid state through agitation, or turning of the drum,
until delivery. The interior of the drum on a concrete mixing truck is fitted with a spiral blade. In one rotational
direction, the concrete is pushed deeper into the drum. This is the direction the drum is rotated while the concrete is
being transported to the building site. This is known as "charging" the mixer. When the drum rotates in the other
direction, the spiral blade "discharges”, forces the concrete out of the drum. A device that homogeneously
combines cement, aggregate such as sand or gravel, and water to form concrete.
10

PRELIMINARIES
WORK
03
WONG LIENG KAM
3.1 Site Investigation 3.4 Earthwork
3.2 Soil Investigation 3.5 Setting Out
3.3 Temporary Services 3.6 Site Layout
The purpose of preliminaries is to describe the works as a
whole, and to specify general conditions and requirements for
their execution, including such things as subcontracting,
approvals, testing and completion.

3.1 SITE
INVESTIGATION
A process of evaluation of factors influencing the selection and use of the most appropriate locations for a project
which is done at the early stage of project that include the aspects of measurement of land, economy, site
surrounding, public infrastructure, planning condition and regulation, land regulation and so on. It is limited to the
proposed site only but sometime include the site surrounding where adjacent structure exist.
IMPORTANCE OF SITE INVESTIGATION
The most important process in project development is it can give a clear view on the actual site condition and problems
that may arise during construction. Without site investigation or inadequate site investigation ground is a hazard and
the geotechnical design is incomplete and inadequate. The consequence of an inadequate design or poor interpretation
of the site investigation results can be disastrous, i.e. construction delay, cost overruns and disputes due to design has
to be amended or even failures may be encountered.
OBJECTIVE OF SITE INVESTIGATION
To assess the general SUITABILITY of the site and the environs for the proposed works including implications of
previous use or contamination which enable and adequate economic DESIGN to be prepared, including the design of
temporary works. In addition, To plan the best method of CONSTRUCTION; to foresee and provide against difficulties
and delays that may arise during construction due to ground and other local conditions. Furthermore, to determine the
CHANGES that may arise in the ground and environmental conditions. Either naturally or as result of the construction
works. Last but not lease, where alternatives exist, to advise on the relative suitability of DIFFERENT SITES, or
different parts of the same site.
12

TYPES OF SITE INVESTIGATION
a) Site for new works
b) Defects or failures of existing works
c) Safety of existing works
d) Material for constructional purposes
STAGE OF SITE INVESTIGATION
a) DESK STUDY
Collection of a wide variety of information relating to the site.
Example: maps, drawings, details of existing or historic development, local
authority information, geological maps, memoirs, record; details of utilities,
services, restrictions, right of way, ownership of adjacent property, aerial
photographs.
b) SITE RECONNAISSANCE
An early examination of the site by appropriate experts, e.g. geologist, land
surveyor, soil engineer, hydrologist, etc.
Information should be collected on the overall site layout, topography, basic
geology, details of access, entry and height restrictions, climate, stream flows,
groundwater conditions, site utilization related to weather and time of year.
Where possible photographic records should be kept.
13

c) DETAIL EXAMINATION AND SPECIAL STUDIES
Further assessment of the relevant aspects required for the design and construction of the project.
i) Detailed LAND SURVEY
ii) Detailed GROUND CONDITION
iii) HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
iv) CLIMATE
v) EXISTING and ADJACENT STRUCTURES
vi) Location of UNDERGROUND structures
d) DETAIL EXAMINATION AND SPECIAL STUDIES
i) Laboratory testing of samples
ii) In situ testing
A process to determine the nature of the soil on site.
OBJECTIVES OF SOIL INVESTIGATION
i) The actual soil conditions at site
ii) The actual bedrock condition
iii) The actual ground water condition
3.2 SOIL
INVESTIGATION
METHOD TO INVESTIGATE THE SOIL
i) JKR/Mackintosh probe
ii) Trial holes
iii) Plate bearing test
iv) Hand auger
v) Deep boring
14

3. 3 TEMPORARY WORK
Before commencement of any actual construction work, the contractor has to consider throughly all temporary
facilities required for the work. Some of these facilities are required as spelt out in the contract documents under the
Preliminaries.
Construction site will generally
require office facilities to provide
accommodation for site manager,
provide space for meetings and to
provide storage for site
documentation. It is important that
site offices are comfortable,
attractive and versatile, as well as
being suitably robust and secure
SITE OFFICE
The workers’ accommodation is a
composition of large numbers of
cabins to accommodate the
workers. The accommodation is
constructed using containers and
zinc roofing, which results in the
containment of hot air within the
living space. Stairs are provided
to allow accessibility to the first
floors.
WORKER ACCOMODATION
TEMPORARY FACILITIES
TEMPORARY SIGNAGES
To promote & advertise the
ongoing construction as well as to
provide information regarding site
& safely displayed in a location
immediately adjacent to the
business premises to which the
sign relates.Baseline
15

Helps to protect the heath of the
workers.
TEMPORARY TOILET CONSTRUCTION HOARDING
Provides a changing room for
workers to clean up and change
before heading back home
3.4 EARTHWORK
Electrical supply needed for
powering the machineries during
the construction process.
ELECTRICITY SUPPLY
CLEARING THE SITE
Demolition of existing building: removal of trees; removal of topsoil (the top 300mm will contain plant life and
decaying vegetation. This mean that the top soil is easily compressed and would be unsuitable for foundation)
IMPORTANCE OF EARTHWORK
Earthwork, though broad by its many aspects, is a specific and important engineered phase of construction.
Engineered earthwork begins with a sol investigation and ends as a foundation for all construction. Thee widest
highway, the longest bridge, and the tallest building could not exist were it not for a solid foundation; this is
foundation is earthwork
16

The purpose of this section is to
establish uniform practices to be
followed for removal of trees and
stumps. Where such removals are
set up on a lump sum basis, varying
interpretations as to the extent of
removal are possible.
SITE CLEARING
Compaction reduces the volume of
air space in the soil. This
compaction increases the dry unit
weight and strength of the soil to
better support structures. This is a
very important step,
During earth excavation check
that slope is maintained in slide soil
COMPACTIONSLIDE-SLOPE IN EXCAVATION
3.5 SETTING OUT
SETTING OUT THE BUILDING
The building is set out to clearly define the outline of the
excavation and the center line of the all, so that
construction can be carried out exactly according to the
plan. Undertaken once the site has been cleared or any
debris or obstruction and ant reduced level excavation
work is finished.
METHOD OF SETTING OUT
i) Setting out building by coordinates
ii) Setting out with theodolite and level
iii) Checking verticality
iv) Setting out and alignment in steel framed buildings
v) Alignment and verticality in form work
yi) Control and calculation for route surveying
17

A baseline is a straight reference line with respect
to which corners of the building are located on the
ground. It may be outer boundary of a road or curb
or boundary of the area or simply a line joining any
two points.
BaselineBaseline
Turn odd a right
angle and measure
x horizontally
Proposed structure
Corner
profile
Offset peg
Marks on profiles
Once points specifying the layout are located on ground
pegs are driven in the ground at that spot. Once
excavations for foundations begin, the corner pegs will be
lost. To avoid these extra pegs called offset pegs are
used. Batter boards are normally erected near each offset
peg and are used to relocate the points after the
excavation has been done.
BASELINES OFFSET PEGS 18

STAGES OF SETTING OUT
FIRST STAGE
In practice, first stage setting out involves the use of many of the horizontal and vertical control methods and
positioning techniques. The purpose of this stage is to locate the boundaries of the works in their correct position on
the ground surface and to define the major elements. In order to do this, horizontal and vertical control points must be
established on or near the site.
SECOND STAGE
Second stage setting out continues on from the first stage, beginning at the ground floor slab, road sub-base level etc.
Up to this point, all the control will be outside the main construction.
HORIZONTAL CONTROL TECHNIQUE
These are the points that have known coordinates
with respect to a specific point. Other points such
as layout corners can then be located. Plenty of
control points should be used so that each point of
the plan can be precisely located on the ground.
VERTICAL CONTROL TECHNIQUE
In order that design points on the works are
positioned at their correct levels, vertical control
points of known elevation relative to some specified
vertical datum are established.
Secondary site control
point on baseline
established by bearing
and distance from E and F
Design corner point
Building Z
Baseline
Bevel top
Set bolt
Angle bolted
to wall
19

3.6 SITE LAYOUT
ACCESS
SECURITY; HOARDINGS
WORKSHOPS AREAS
SITE NAME BOARDS
ACCOMODATION
SITE OFFICE
Baseline
20

04
4.1 Subsoil movement
4.2 Defect observation
4.3 Foundation materials
4.4 Construction process of
foundation
4.5 Types of shallow foundation
4.6 Foundation bed
4.7 Stepped foundation
4.8 Simple Rc foundation
4.9 Simple raft foundation
4.10 Short bored pile foundation
4.11 Foundation design principles
4.12 Basic sizing
4.13 Foundation types and
selection
4.14 Pile caps
4.15 On-site observation
FOUNDATION
YUEN XUAN HUI

-to safely sustain and transmit to the ground on which it
rests the combined dead, live and wind loads in such a
manner as not to cause any settlement or other
movement which would impair the stability or cause
damage to any part of the building
4.1 SUBSOIL MOVEMENT
SUBSOIL MOVEMENT
Primarily to changes in volume (subsoil becomes wet or
dry and occurs near the upper surface of the soil)
-Compact granular soils -gravel
-suffer very little movement
-Cohesive soils -clay
-suffer volume changes near the upper
surface
-Frost heave
- Trees
FUNCTION
22

Cracking in Walls - caused by applied forces which
exceed those that the building can
withstand
- superficial, materials dry out and
subsequently shrink to reveal minor
surface fractures of < 2 mm.
-Severe cracking in walls may result from foundation
failure, due to inadequate design or physical damage.
A survey should be undertaken to determine:
1) The cause of cracking, i.e.
* Loads applied externally (tree roots, subsoil
movement).
* Climate/temperature changes (thermal movement).
* Moisture content change (faulty dpc, building
leakage).
* Vibration (adjacent work, traffic).
* Changes in physical composition (salt or ice formation).
* Chemical change (corrosion, sulphate attack).
* Biological change (timber decay).
2) The effect on a building's performance (structural and
environmental).
3) The nature of movement, completed, ongoing or
intermittent (seasonal).
Simple method for monitoring cracks
4.2 DEFECT OBSERVATION
20
23

Concrete (durable material of adequate strength)
-cement + aggregates + water (in controlled proportions)
Cement
-manufactured
from clay and
chalk and is the
matrix or binder of
concrete mix
Aggregates
- natural rock which has
disintegrated or crushed stone or
gravel
MIXES
- expressed as a ratio:
- 1:3:6/ 20 mm which means-
1 part cement
3 parts of fine aggregate
6 parts of coarse aggregate
Water
- must be quality fit for drinking
-Water is added to start the chemical reaction
and to give the mix workability
- amount used is called Water/ cement ratio
(usually 0.4 to 0.5)
4.3 MATERIALS
24

10. When Concrete gains
sufficient strength,
dismantle the formwork
9. Set, curing, hardening8. Pour concrete7. Add more ties
to the formwork
6. Erect the
reinforcement
for stump
5. Lay the reinforcement
(main rebar , tranverse
rebar)
4. Add spacer blocks3. Build the formwork2. Pour a layer of
lean concrete
1. Excavation
4.4 FOUNDATION CONSTUCTION PROCESS
25

Traditional strip
Solid slab raft
Deep strip or trench fill
Beam and slab raft Combined pad
Isolated pad
4.5 TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION
26

4.6 FOUNDATION BED
- A concrete slab resting on and supported by the
subsoil, usually forming the ground floor surfaces.
4.7 STEPPED FOUNDATION
- usually considered in the context of strip foundations
- used mainly on sloping sites (to reduce the amount of
excavation and materials required to produce an
adequate foundation)
27

Concrete Foundations
Concrete – high compression strength, weak tensile
strength
METHOD OF PROVIDING TENSILE RESISTANCE
- include in the concrete foundation bars of steel as a
form of reinforcement to resist all the tensile forces
induced into the foundation.
-Steel - readily available
- high tensile strength
CONSTRUCTION OF SIMPLE SUPPORTED RC SLABS
1) Assemble and erect formwork
2) Prepare and place reinforcement
3) Pour and compact or vibrate concrete
4) Strike and remove formwork in
stages as
curing
process.
28

- example: 2T20-1-200B
2: number of bars
T: deformed high yield steel (460 N/mm², 8-40
mm dia.)
20: diameter of bar (mm)
1: bar mark or ref. no
200: spacing (mm)
B: located in bottom of member
21= shape code
TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT
Steel bars
- mild steel (R) or high yield steel (T) / (Y)
-contains about 99% iron, manganese, carbon, sulphur
and phosphorus
-proportion of carbon determines the quality and
grade of steel
IDENTIFICATION OF CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT
Bar coding
- a convenient method for specifying and coordinating
the prefabrication of steel reinforcement in the
assembly area
- Common notations- R = plain round mild steel (250 N/
mm², 8-16mm dia.)
S = stainless steel
W = wire reinforcement (4-12 dia.)
T (at the end) = located in top of member
Abr = alternate bars reversed
(useful or offsets)
4.8 SIMPLE RC FOUNDATION4.8 SIMPLE RC FOUNDATION
29

MILD STEEL REINFORCEMENT
-located in areas where tension occurs in a
beam or slab. Concrete specification is
normally 25 or 30 N/m in this situation.
- Mild steel:0.25% carbon
- grade 250 or 250 N/mm2 characteristic tensile strength
(0.25% carbon, 0.06% sulphur and 0.06% phosphorus)
- High yield steel:0.40% carbon
- may also be produced by cold working or deforming mild
steel until it is strain hardened.
- grade 460/425
(0.40% carbon, 0.05% sulphur and 0.05% phosphorus).
- 460 N/mm2 characteristic tensile strength: 6, 8, 10, 12 and
16 mm diameter
- 425 N/mm2 characteristic tensile strength: 20, 25, 32 and 40
mm diameter
Example of steel reinforcement
30

4.9 SIMPLE RAFT
FOUNDATIONS
- used for lightly loaded buildings on poor soils or where
the top 450 to 600 mm of soil is overlaying a poor-quality
4.10 SHORT BORED PILE
FOUNDATION
- a form of foundation which are suitable for domestic
loadings and clay subsoils where ground movements can
occur below the 1„000 depth associated with traditional
strip and trench fill foundations.
31

Concrete Foundations
Concrete – high compression strength, weak tensile
strength
METHOD OF PROVIDING TENSILE RESISTANCE
- include in the concrete foundation bars of steel as a
form of reinforcement to resist all the tensile forces
induced into the foundation.
- Steel - readily available
- high tensile strength
CONSTRUCTION OF SIMPLE SUPPORTED RC SLABS
1) Assemble and erect formwork
2) Prepare and place reinforcement
3) Pour and compact or vibrate concrete
4) Strike and remove formwork in
stages as
curing
process.
4.10 SHORT BORED PILE FOUNDATION
32

4.12
BASIC SIZING
-the size of a foundation is
basically dependent on two
factors:
1 . Load being transmitted, max
70kN/m (dwellings up to three
storeys).
2. Bearing capacity of subsoil
under proposed foundation.
4.11 FOUNDATION DESIGN
PRINCIPLES
- to ensure that the structural loads are transmitted to the subsoil(s) safely,
economically and without any unacceptable movement during the
construction period and throughout the anticipated life of the building or
structure
BASIC DESIGN PROCEDURE
1. Assessment of site conditions in the context of the site and soil
investigation report.
2. Calculation of anticipated structural loading(s).
3. Choosing the foundation type taking into consideration:
- Soil conditions
- Type of structure
- Structural loading(s)
- Economic factors
- Time factors relative to the proposed contract period
- Construction problems.
4. Sizing the chosen foundation in the context of loading(s), ground bearing
capacity and any likely future movements of the building or structure.
33

STRIP FOUNDATION
- for most subsoils and light structural loadings such as those encountered in low to medium rise domestic dwellings
where mass concrete can be used.
- Reinforced concrete is usually required for all other situations
Continuous columnDeep strip or trench fill Reinforced concrete
strip
Isolated pad
Traditonal strip
4.13 FOUNDATION TYPES AND SELECTION
34

PAD FOUNDATION
-for most subsoils except loose sands, loose gravels
and filled areas. Pad foundations are usually
constructed of reinforced concrete and where
possible are square in plan
RAFT FOUNDATION
- used to spread the load of the superstructure over a
large base to reduce the load per unit area being
imposed on the ground and this is particularly useful
where low bearing capacity soils are encountered and
where individual column loads are heavy.
35

CANTILEVER FOUNDATION
-used where it is necessary to avoid imposing any
pressure on an adjacent foundation or underground
service
PILED FOUNDATION
- a series of columns constructed or inserted into the
ground to transmit the load(s) of a structure to a lower
level of subsoil
- used when suitable foundation conditions are not
present at or near ground level making the use of deep
traditional foundations uneconomic
- The lack of suitable foundation conditions may be
caused by:
1. Natural low bearing capacity of subsoil.
2. High water table - giving rise to high permanent
dewatering costs.
3. Presence of layers of highly compressible subsoils such
as peat and recently placed filling materials which
have not sufficiently consolidated.
4. Subsoils which may be subject to moisture movement
or plastic failure.
36

-Classification of Piles
-piles may be classified by their basic design
function or by their method of construction:
REPLACEMENT PILES TYPES
1) Percusion bored ( small or medium size
contracts with up to 300 piles
- load range – 300 to 1300 kN
- length range – up to 24,000
- diameter range – 300 to 900
- may have to be formed as a pressure pile in waterlogged
subsoils
2) Flush bored ( large projects – these are basically a rotary bored
pile using bentonite as a drilling fluid)
3) Rotary bored
(small diameter – <600mm)
Light loadings- can also be used in group or clusters wish a
common pile cap to receive heavy loads
End bearing piles Friction or floating piles
Replacement Piles Displacement piles
37

belled toe loads
DISPLACEMENT PILES
- driven piles (usually driven into the ground displacing the earth around the pile
shaft)
- preformed or partially preformed
- driven into the required position to a predetermined depth or to the required
“set” which is a measure of the subsoil's resistance to the penetration of the pile
and hence its bearing capacity by noting the amount of penetration obtained by
a fixed number of hammer blows
- types
- preformed- timber, concrete, steel ( box, tube, “h”, screw)
- driven in- situ
- cast in situ
- partially preformed – PCC and in-situ concrete , steel and in-situ concrete
( large diameter – >600mm)
Heavy concentrated loadings-
may have an under reamed or
38

PREFORMED CONCRETE PILES
-used on medium to large contracts of not less than one
hundred piles where soft soil deposits overlie a firmer
strata
-piles are percussion
driven using a drop
or single-acting
hammer
PARTIALLY PREFORMED PILES
- composite piles of precast concrete and in-situ concrete
or steel and in-situ concrete
- used on medium
to large contracts
where bored
piles would not
be suitable owing
to running water
or very loose
soils
39

DRIVEN IN-SITU PILES
- used on medium to large contracts as an alternative to
preformed piles particularly where final length of pile is a
variable to be determined on site.
- typical example (franki driven insitu pile
Piles can be used singly to support the load but often it is
more economical to use piles in groups or clusters linked
together with a reinforced concrete cap. It can also be
linked together with reinforced concrete ground beams.
-usual minimum spacing for piles is:
1) Friction Piles – 1,100 or not less than 3 ✕ pile diameter
2) Bearing Piles - 750 mm or not less than 2 ✕ pile diameter
- should not form part of the actual
foundations
-Suitable testing methods are:
1 . Jacking against kentledge placed
over test pile.
2. Jacking against a beam fixed to anchor piles driven in on two
sides of the test pile.
CAST IN-SITU PILES
-an alternative to the
driven in-situ piles
PILE TESTING
-it is advisable to test load at
least one pile per scheme
-should be overloaded by at
least 50% of its working load
and this load should be held
for 24 hours
4.14 PILE CAPS
40

Due to the subsoil movements, the shallow foundation used on site is pad foundation and the deep foundation used is RC piles
Reinforcement is
erected, ties are
added to
formwork, the
next step is to
pour the concrete
Pit is being
excavated for
lean concrete(
blinding) to pour
inside later
Cast- in- situ
blinding and
ground beam
4.15 ONSITE OBSERVATION
41

Concrete: 1: 2: 4 ( 4 pounds of coarse aggregate and 2 pounds of sand for every pund of cement, grade 35
Rebar (loop)
Rebar
Rc pre-cast pile
42

Rebar(loop):
Size: 1 units, Mild steel
(R) 10mm thick
Rebar:
Size: 4 units, High yield
(T) 12mm thick
Binding layer:
50mm THK lean
concrete
Rc pre-cast pile:
1 units, 150mm x 150mm
length 6m, max load
200kN
Rebar(loop):
Size: 2 units, High
yield steel (T) 10mm thick
Rebar:
(T) 16mm thick
Binding layer:
50mm THK lean
concrete
Rc pre-cast pile:
length 6m, max load
200kN
43

Rebar(loop):
steel (T) 10mm thick
Rebar:
(T) 16mm thick
Binding layer:
50mm THK lean
concrete
Rc pre-cast pile:
length 6m, max load
200kN
Rebar(loop):
Size: 2 units, High
yield steel (T) 10mm thick
Rebar:
(T) 16mm thick
Binding layer:
50mm THK lean concrete
Rc pre-cast pile:
length 6m, max load
200kN
44

YEE MAE YUEN
CLARA LEE PEI LIN
SUPERSTRUCTURE
5.0 Superstructure 5.3 Slabs
5.1 Beams 5.4 Walls
5.2 Columns 5.5 Staircase
05

Onsite Photos
The superstructure of a building is the part
that is entirely above its foundation or
basement. It is the part of the building that is
above ground level, and it usually serves the
purpose of the building's intended use.
The plinth is the portion of the building
between the ground level and the surface of
the floor immediately above the ground. It is
part of the superstructure.
Superstructure
Sub-structure
Foundation
5.0 INTRODUCTION
46

Load
Compression
Tension
1. Concentrated Loads
2. Uniformly Varying Load
w (N/m)
w (N/m)
3. Applied Couple
M
4. Uniform load
5.1 BEAMS
Beams are structural elements that mainly resists transverse loads. When a load is applied, an equal and opposite
reaction is produced at the support points. The total effect of all forces produce shear forces and bending
moments within the beam, causing internal stress, strains and deflections of the beam.
LOAD BEARING BEAMS MECHANISM TYPES OF LOAD
47

1. R.C.C (Reinforced Cement Concrete) Beam
Singly Doubly
2. I/H Beam
Has an I or H shaped
cross-section
The web resists shear
forces while the
flanges resist most of
the behinding moment
experienced by the
beam
Web
Flange
3. Simply Supported Beam
- Supported freely on two ends of wall
4. Fixed beam
- Both ends fixed rigidly on respective walls
TYPES OF BEAMS
5.1 BEAMS
48

TYPES OF BEAMS
5.1 BEAMS
5. Cantilever beam
- Fixed on one end of the column/wall while the
other end is free
- Tension zone on top side and compression zone
at the bottom
6. Continuous beam
- Supported on more than two supports
7. Overhanging beam
- Either one or both ends extend beyond the column
support
Simply supported portion
Overhanging portion
49

PROCESS OF BEAM CONSTRUCTION
5.1 BEAMS
Beams used onsite : Doubly RCC Beams
1. Fixed rods of steel to tensile machinery. Rods
are arranged in 2 layers of equal numbers.
2. A formwork
is built around
steel rods,
ensuring rods
run through
the center of
the beam
3. Pour concrete into formwork
4. Concrete is then poured into the column and left to
cure. If it has achieved 70% of its strength, then the
formwork may be removed which is roughly. *
*Please refer to page 60 to 65 for further information on
Slump Test and Concrete Cube Test.
50

Columns are a structural element that transmits, through compression, the load from the slab above to the Earth or
structural element below the column independently.
1. Concrete Columns
These columns have an embedded
steel mesh (known as rebar) to
provide reinforcement
3. Steel Columns
These columns have good
compressive strength, but have
a tendency to buckle or bend
under extreme loading.
2. Wood Columns
Solid wood such as Tualang, Kapur and Kempas
used to withstand load of the building
4. Masonry Column and Pilaster
Pilasters are structurally a pier
but architecturally known as a
column
Masonry Column Masonry Pilaster
5.2 COLUMNS
TYPE OF COLUMNS
51

3. Tied Column
- Longitudinal reinforcement bars are tied
together by smaller diameter latitudinal bars at
fixed intervals along the height of
the column
- To ensure stability of columns against local
buckling
- Cross sectional shape : Square or rectangular
- No. of reinforcement bars : Minimum 4 bars
2. Spirally-Reinforced Columns
- Longitudinal reinforcement
bars arranged in a circle and
tied together by a closely
spaced continuous spiral
- Cross sectional shape :
Circular or square
- No. of reinforcement bars :
Mininum 6 bars
1. Composite Columns
- Structural steel shapes surrounded or filled by concrete
(longitudinal reinforcement is optional)
REINFORCEMENT OF COLUMNS
5.2 COLUMNS
52

This can be due to their:
- Length
- Cross-sectional area
- Method of fixing
- Shape of the section
The cross-sectional area and the section shape are incorporated into a geometric property of section,
known as the radius of gyration. This refers to the distribution of an object's components around an
axis. It can be calculated
Where, I = 2nd moment of area, A = cross-sectional area
Buckling Compression Shear
HOW WILL A COLUMN FAIL?
5.2 COLUMNS
53

1. Marking the location of columns by tying reinforcement steel bars for
columns onto the foundation rebar
2. Stirrups are tied around and secured in place latitudinally
3. More vertical reinforcement bars is linked with each other to increase
height of column
5. Steel wedge is used to secure the formwork in place when concrete is
left to cure. To maintain the shape of the column and ensuring no
alteration to form or shape while curing takes place
6. A crane will pour the concrete from the top and into the column. A
worker will be positioned above the column, adjusting before allowing
wet concrete into the formwork
4. The formwork using plywood is placed before casting takes place
7. If it has achieved 70% of its strength, then the formwork may be
removed. *
CONSTRUCTION OF COLUMN
1
2
4
6
5.2 COLUMNS
54

Formwork (Made from
plywood)
Crane to carry the wet
concrete
Steel wedges to keep
formwork secured
Column Reinforcement
bars (Vertical)
Stirrups (Latitudinal
reinforcement bars)
Concrete column (End
result)
Worker adjusting
before pouring wet
concrete
Type of column : Tied
column with 4
reinforcement bars
ON SITE
5.2 COLUMNS
55

They are designed to carry either uniformly distributed loads or concentrated loads. Concrete is usually used
for construction of slabs due to high compressive strength.
1. One way slab
- Length is two more times the width. It is supported
on two sides and bending is predominantly in one
direction
2. Two way slab
- Length is less than double of the width (approximately
square shaped). It is supported on all four sides and bends
in two directions
3. Suspended slab
- They are not in contact directly to the ground. They form
roofs or floors above ground level. They receive structural
support from beams connected to this slab
TYPES OF SLABS
5.3 SLABS
Solid with beams
Solid with band
beams
Precast and composite slab with
beams
Ribbed with beams
Ribbed with band
beams
Ribbed slabs with integral
beams
Solid with beams Waffle with beams Waffle with integral beams
Solid Solid with edge beams
and column head
Waffle
56

1. Fix the formwork and making sure there are no gaps
to prevent wet concrete from dripping out of cast
3. Install the service pipes such as plumbing or electrical
pipes as well as sleeves for air-conditioning and piping
2. Fixing reinforcement mesh frame
5. Curing of concrete slab to prevent cracking from
happening. If it has achieved 70% of its strength, then
the formwork may be removed. *
4. Wet concrete is poured to form the slab
CONSTRUCTION OF SLAB
Wet concrete
5.3 SLABS
57

Suspended slab is used in this site. This means the slab is connected to the beam by the ends of its framework
Suspended slab
A rock of standard thickness placed between formwork
and cardboard to ensure the concrete covers the entire
formwork.
If formwork is not covered by the concrete, it will
affect the strength of slab. This is not achieve safety
standards. Hence, it will be a hazard to occupants of
household.
ONSITE
5.3 SLABS
58

Service pipes installed before pouring
concrete into formwork
5.3 SLABS
59

To test the compressive strength of the concrete. This will depend on its water-cement ratio, cement strength,
quality of concrete material and quality control during the production of concrete.
CONCRETE CUBE TEST
60

1. Make a cube with sides of 150 mm with the mold
provided with a steel ruler. The mold can be adjusted
by loosening and tightening the nut bolds of the mold.
2. After lubricating the insides of the mold, the concrete
mix will be poured in three layers. Each layer of 50 mm
thickness.
3. The layers are compacted with a tamping rod with
the bullet ended side
5. Trim the top of the mold and smoothen it out with a
trowel
6. Steps 1-5 are repeated for another 5 cubes
4. The mold is then struck from the outside on all four
sides to ensure no honeycomb forms at the surface
where the concrete and mold come in contact
7. After an hour, label the molds from 1 to 6 and the
date to keep track of the duration of left to cure
8. After a day or 24 hours, open the molds and release
all 6 cubes from their molds. These concrete cubes are
then immersed into water at room temperature (28oC)
9. On the 7th day from the date of preparation, 3 of
the 6 cubes will be dried with a cloth and then tested
in a compression testing machine. We test the cubes on
the 7th day because it is believed that the concrete will
achieve 70% of its strength by this time. If the cubes
fail to show this, early action can be taken to improve
the concrete mixture
11. The compressive strength of the cube is obtained
from this formula :
The compressive strength obtained from the results is
then compared to the standard compressive strength
(depending on the grade of concrete)
10. On the 28th day, step 9 is repeated for the 3 other
cubes and the results of compression tests are noted
STEPS :
CONCRETE CUBE TEST
61

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (BY GRADE OF CONCRETE) ON THE 7TH AND 28TH DAY
CONCRETE CUBE TEST
62

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE AT
DIFFERENT AGES
CONCRETE CUBE TEST
63

This test is to determine the workability and consistency of the concrete mix. The test is carried out from batch to
batch to ensure uniform quality of the concrete during construction. The difference between the concrete cube
test and slump test is that the slump test provides immediate results.
SLUMP TEST
1. The internal surface of mold is cleaned and applied
with grease. Place the mold on a flat and smooth
non-porous base plate.
STEPS :
2. Fill the mold with concrete mix in 4 equal layers.
64

3. Using a tamping rod, tamp each layer in a uniform
manner over the cross section of mold.
5. Clean the mortar or water that leaked between the
mold and base plate
6. Slowly raise the mold from the concrete in a vertical
direction immediately after step 5
4. Remove the excess concrete from the top and
smoothen it with a trowel
7. Measure the slump as the distance between the
height of the mold and the height of the point of the
specimen being tested.
SLUMP TEST
65

1) True slump
It is the only slump that can be measured in the test.
The measurement is taken between the top of the
cone and the top of the concrete after the cone has
been removed
2) Zero slump
It is the indication of very low water-cement ratio,
where the concrete is not very workable and dry.
This ratio is generally used for road construction
3) Collapsed Slump
This is an indication that the water-cement ratio is too
high. Which means it has too much water in the cement
mixture.
4) Shear Slump
It is an incomplete result. Therefore, the concrete has
to be retested
CONCRETE SLUMP RESULTS
1 2 3 4
SLUMP TEST
66

5.4 WALLS
Walls are the vertical
constructions of a building
that enclose, separate, and
protect its interior spaces.
Exterior walls support vertical
loads from floor and roof to
the foundation structure and
withstand the horizontal wind
loading as well as serve as a
protective shield against the
weather for the interior spaces
of a building. However,
interior walls subdivide the
space within a building.
WALL FUNCTION
TYPES OF WALLS
1. Load Bearing Walls
2. Non- Load Bearing Walls
LOAD BEARING WALLS
A load-bearing wall or bearing wall is a wall that bears the weight of
your house, from the roof and upper floors, all the way to its foundation
structure. The materials most often used to construct load-bearing walls
in large buildings are concrete, block, or brick.
1. Retaining Wall
A structure that holds or retains soil behind it, it is designed and
constructed to resist the lateral pressure of soil, when there is a
desired change in ground elevation that exceeds the angle of repose
of the soil
(done by Clara Lee)
67

5.4 WALLS
LOAD BEARING WALLS
2. Cavity Wall
A wall constructed from two skins of masonry,
the outer skin of which can be brickwork or
blockwork and the inner skin of which is generally
of blockwork, separated by a cavity to prevent
the penetration of moisture and to allow for the
installation of thermal insulation. Cavity walls are
normally used in colder climate countries
NON- LOAD BEARING WALLS
1. Partition Wall
A non-load bearing wall that separates the internal
spaces of a building. As well as spatial division, they
can provide; privacy, acoustic and fire separation
and flexibility of layout.
68
The lower wall
supports the floor and
wall above. The upper
wall is non load
bearing since the
weight of the truss
roof is totally borne by
the trusses's bearing
point on the outer wall

5.4 WALLS
1. Concrete Wall
2. Masonry Wall
3. Glass Wall
WALL MATERIALS
CONCRETE WALLS
i. CAST-IN-SITU WALLS
Cast-in-situ concrete refers to a
liquid concrete, that is to be cast
on site into a wall.
Characteristics
- Concrete that is cast into forms
on the building site
- Any shape that can be formed
can be cast
- Certain types of concrete
elements cannot be precast, and
can only be cast in-situ
Advantages
- Easy transportation of wet
concrete
- Flexible when it comes to
geometric shapes
- Relatively easy to do late
changes to structure
- Structure becomes monolithic
Disadvantages
- Produced in an unprotected
environment
- Additional time required for drying
out process
- Requires more temporary work
- Complex process with many inputs
and flows
Process
69
1. Set up skeletal structure
with steel bar
2. Set up the formwork
and pour mortar into the
formwork.
3. After the mortar
has completely dried,
remove the
formwork.

5.4 WALLS
CONCRETE WALLS
2. PRECAST CONCRETE WALLS
Precast concrete are building
components are manufactured in a
central plant and later brought to
the building site for assembly.
Types of Precast Concrete Walls
i. Solid Concrete Wall
It is solid concrete wall panels
which requires some form of
insulation and an interior wall
finishing inside the building.
Advantages
- Easier to control the mix,
placement, and curing
-Quality is easily controlled
- Precast wall can be installed on
site immediately
- superior strength and durability
Disadvantages
-Limited building design flexibility
- Skilled workmanship is required on
the site
- Connections are difficult
ii. Sandwich Wall
The sandwich wall can be
insulated or not (a.k.a typical wall
panel). The difference between
this two is that the insulated
sandwich wall panels are cast with
rigid insulation "sandwiched"
between two layers, or wythes, of
concrete. The insulation thickness
can vary to create the desired
thermal insulating property ("R"
value) for the wall.
70

5.4 WALLS
iii. Thin shell wall
Thin-shell wall panels consist of a thin, outer-wythe of concrete typically ranging between
1.5 and 3 inches in thickness. This is connected to a "back-up" system, usually constructed
of steel framing or studs, or sometimes concrete. The back-up system is what connects the
wall panel to the structural system of the building and often provides the furring for
interior finishes, such as drywall to be attached.
PROCESS
71
1. Plotting the wall element
Mark the outline of the wall with
the dimensions you want
2. Moulding and placing
electric/ water installations
Place the electric and water pipes
on the mark (depending on what
you need).
3. Inserting reinforcement (ironing)
Insert iron bars within the outline of
the wall.
4. Concrete filling
Pour mortar onto the iron bar
5. Vibration and rotation (double
wall formation)
After the mortar has dried, rotate
the dried mortar and stack it with
another prepared wall.
6. Storing the walls
Hook the wall off to a side as it is
available to be cast to construction

5.4 WALLS
MASONRY WALL
TYPE OF BRICKS
Masonry walls consist of modular
building blocks bonded together with
mortar to form walls that are durable,
fire-resistant, and structurally efficient
in compression.
bla bla
TERMINOLOGY
TYPE OF BOND
72
Brick on edge (shiner, bull stretcher)
Soldier- A brick laid vertically with the long narrow side of the
brick exposed.
Sailor- A brick laid vertically with the broad face of the brick
exposed
Concrete Brick Sand Lime Brick
Clay Brick Stone Brick

5.4 WALLS
GLASS WALL
Advantages
1. Distorting image to create privacy
2. Resistance in heat, sound and impact
3. Cost effectiveness (minimal maintenance)
4. Transmit light in both direction
5. Glass blocks come in variety of options
6. Resistant to earthquakes.
In masonry, glass wall
are normally made
from glass blocks
1. Determine the number of
glass blocks. Plan and measure
as glass blocks cannot be cut.
Remember to leave space for
the mortar as well
PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION OF GLASS BLOCK WALL
73
2. Mix enough mortar for
your usage.
3. Lay a bed of mortar. Place the
glass blocks. The spaces between
the end of the block will be filled
with expansion strip instead of
mortar due to temperature change.
4. Repeat step 3. After filling
the second row, place panel
anchors on the glass blocks
and screw them into the side
wall of both ends.

5.4 WALLS ON SITE
SAND LIME BRICK WALLS
Description of Sand Lime Brick
- Sand lime brick is used to construct both internal and external walls of
the 2-storey terrace houses of Desiran Bayu.
-The sand lime bricks were pre-made and then transported to the
construction site to be used.
- The bricks were laid out in an running bond formation.
Walls found in the 2-storey terrace houses and Semi-D’s of Desiran
Baru can be categorized as masonry walls, and in specific, brick walls.
The types of bricks which are used for the construction of the houses
are sand lime bricks.
Advantages
- Their color appearance is gray instead of the regular reddish color.
- Their shape is uniform and presents a smoother finish that doesn’t
require plastering.
- These bricks offer excellent strength as a load-bearing member.
- The cost of sand lime brick is cheaper than clay brick.
- The brick wall made with sand lime brick offers high sound insulation.
- The brick can withstand firs for 2 hours.
The photograph above shows the sand
lime bricks used to make the wall of the
terrace house.
The
photograph on the
left shows
the sand lime
bricks stacked up
outside the terrace
houses.
74

5.5 STAIRCASE
FUNCTION
The stairs are important component in the overall circulation scheme of the building as it helps a person move
from one level to another. During the consideration of design and placement of a staircase, safety and ease of
travel are one of the most important factors.
1. Straight- run
2. Winder
3. 2 Quarter Winder
4. 2 Qurter Landing
5. Double-Winder
6. Half Landing
7. Curved
8. Spiral
TERMINOLOGY TYPE OF STAIRS PLANS
75
1 2 3 4
7 8
5 6

5.5 STAIRCASE
MATERIALS USED
Wood is the most traditional
staircase material and the
most affordable. Wood is
strong and easy to work
with and provides an
element of warmth in the
home. Wood also provides a
lighter-weight staircase
that will not place undue
stress on your floor.
Glass staircases add a
touch of contemporary
glamour to an interior. The
advantage of glass
staircases is that they are
lightweight and allow open
views and filtered light
through the levels in a
house. However, glass
staircases are one of the
more expensive material
options.
While metal stairs usually
cost more than wooden
varieties, their strength and
durability makes them an
excellent material option.
Metal also offers a flexibility
of design and can be used in
a variety of styles ranging
from heavy industrial looks to
lightweight, elegant designs.
Concrete stairs can provide a
sense of solidity and a strong,
contemporary look. Concrete
stairs are usually supplied
precast in sections and ready
to be assembled on site. The
cost of concrete staircases
varies considerably based on
the complexity of the design,
the specialized manufacturing
required and the installation
costs.
76

5.5 STAIRCASE ON SITE
The staircase found at the construction site were in two types of houses. In phase 1, the terrace houses and in
phase two, the semi-detached houses.
TERRACE HOUSE STAIRCASE TERRACE HOUSE STAIRCASE
The type of staircase
The staircase plan shows that this staircase is a
half-turn staircase. The staircase turns twice
and 90° at each turn.
The photo shows a completed staircase from the
terrace house.
The type of staircase
The staircase is straight-run staircase as it
extends from one level to another without
turns or winders.
The photo shows a incomplete staircase in the
semi-detached house.
77

1. Measure and mark the dimension of the
stairs on the floor.
-Total rise of the stairs
-The run of the stairs
-The width of the stairs
PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION OF STAIRCASE
Reinforcement bars are carefully bent at the
necessary height and length and positioned
into the formwork.
3. Reinforcement
4. Preparing Concrete
Sufficient and well mixed mortar was
prepared using portable cement mixer.The formwork was made by using
plywood or framing timber. The side
forms are cut per the tread and riser
calculations.
6. Add finishing
A simple wood float was used to clean
and smoothen the surface of the mortar.
7. Curing
The steps were sprayed with curing
compound and covered with burlap.
Once the concrete has hardened for a
week, the plywood formwork was then
be removed
2. Building and Assembling Formwork:
5. Pouring concrete
The process starts from the bottom
and concrete was poured one step at a
time. Mortars are spread evenly and
spade is used to remove the trapped
air bubbles.
78

PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION OF STAIRCASE
The handrails were positioned onto the staircase at the location where they will be installed.
- The position of the railings are marked
- Pilot holes were drilled into the staircase on the marks made.
- The railings were placed into the pilot holes.
- Cement was then poured into the holes to fix the handrails.
Partially completed handrails at the
terrace house.
8. Installing Handrails
79

DOORS AND
WINDOWS
06
CLARA LEE PEI LIN
Doors may be defined as an open-able barrier secured in a
wall opening while windows are a vented barrier secured in a
wall opening. Windows and doors connect the interior of a
house to the outdoors, provide ventilation and daylight, and
are important aesthetic elements.
6.1
6.2
Doors
Windows

6.1 DOORS
Doors provide an opening from the outside in to the inside of the buildings as well in between interior spaces.
Doorways should be designed to be big enough to move through easily and allow the moving of furniture and
equipment. Moreover, doorways should be located so the patterns of movement they create between and within
spaces are appropriate to the uses and activities housed by the spaces.
DOOR FUNCTION
DOOR TERMINOLOGY
These are the components of a door.
DOOR HARDWARE
81
Hinge Door Knob
Door Handle

6.1 DOORS
A revolving door normally has four
wings/ leaves that hang on a center shaft
and rotate one way about a vertical axis
within a round enclosure. The central shaft
is fitted with ball bearing arrangement at
the bottom, which allows the shutters to
move without any jerk and making noise.
TYPES OF DOORS
Sliding doors consist of either one, two or
three doors that slide by each other on a
track depending upon the size of opening
and space available for sliding. In these
doors, the shutter slide horizontally along
tracks with the help of runners and rails.
Sliding glass doors are common in places
where there is no space to swing the door.
The swing doors are fitted to its frame by
special double action hinges. The hinges
permit the shutter to move both ways,
inward as well as outward. To open the
door, a slight push is made and the spring
action returns the shutter back to a closed
position. .
Collapsible doors are used in garages,
workshops, public buildings etc. to provide
increased safety and protection to
property. The shutter operates between
two rails, one fixed to the floor and other
to the lintel. Rollers are mounted at the top
and bottom.
Shutter doors are commonly used for
shops, warehouses, stores etc. These doors
are made from thin metal slabs interlocked
together. These doors acts like a curtain
and thus provides adequate protection and
safety against fire and thefts.
Folding doors are made of many vertical
strips or creases that fold back to back into
a compact bundle when pushed open. These
strips or creases hang and run on a track on
top. They save space as they do not swing
out of the door opening. Folding doors are
usually noisy, and considered not so durable
and have sound and weather insulation.
82

6.1 DOORS
Hinged doors are hinged along
one side to allow the door to
pivot away from the doorway in
one direction but not in the other.
The axis of rotation is usually
vertical. The most common door
type. It is a simple & rigid. The
panel swings, opens and closes,
on hinges.
TYPES OF DOORS
DOOR MATERIALS
DOOR DESIGNS
Timber Fiberglass Steel Glass UPVC/Vinyl Aluminium
83
Six Panel Flush Four Panel Two Panel Two Panel Full Lite
Half Moon Half Lite 3/4 Lite
Single Side Single Side Two Side Panels Double Door
Panel Right- Panel Left- Left-Hand Swing One Side Fixed
Hand Swing Hand Swing

6.1 DOORS ON SITE
The wooden doors used are flushed, hollow core
doors. They are used in the terrace houses and
double-storey cluster- link houses There are two
thickness of wooden doors used, the thicker
door (220mm), A is being used as the entrance
door, while the thinner door (190mm), B is used
as doors for back entrances,bathrooms,
bedrooms and storerooms
TYPES OF DOORS
1. Wooden doors
The two types of doors used: wooden and glass doors.
2. Glass Sliding doors
Only the terrace house
has a double glass
sliding door. The door
operates by bypass
sliding.
Wooden door A Wooden door B Sliding glass door
84
Top rail
Hollow core
Stile
Lockblock
Door face
Bottom rail
Hollow core door diagram

6.1 DOORS ON SITE
DOOR FRAME
The door frame is made from aluminium.
Benefits of using aluminium frame
- Slim profile
- Durable
- Narrow sight lines
- Low maintenance
- Light yet strong
- Poor heat conduction compared to other materials
The components of door hardware seen on the door are
the door hinges and the mortise plate. These components
are made from the stainless steel as they are long lasting
and do not rust easily
Close up photo of hinge and latch strike taken at terrace house.
Photograph shows the unfinished door at terrace houses.
85

6.2 WINDOWS
FUNCTION OF WINDOWS
A window Is an opening that provides visual contact between the exterior and the interior of the building. It also
admits light, control air ventilation and influences thermal comfort in the building.
WINDOW TERMINOLOGY TYPES OF WINDOWS
86
Head Jamb
Glass Pane
Upper Sash
Trim
Sill Slopes
Side Jamb
Stop
Lower Sash
Vertical Pivot Horizontal Pivot Fixed
Sliding Casement Awning

6.2 WINDOWS
WINDOW FRAME MATERIALS
Aluminum frames are known
for being rugged and long
lasting. They won’t wear out
in sunlight and won’t rot, or
mold or suffer from most
common wear problems that
affect wood, vinyl or
fiberglass windows. But, they
are quite expensive. You’ll
spend more for aluminum
windows than you will for
vinyl or fiberglass, though
they are usually a bit
cheaper than wooden
windows.
Vinyl frames made of PVC
(polyvinyl chloride). The
material is extruded into a
straight shape and then
crafted together into a
window frame and filled with
glass to make the window.
Vinyl windows are
affordable and they are
known for being good
insulators. However, they
are not as durable as
wooden, fiberglass or
aluminium window frames.
Wooden frames are highly
durable, attractive, and
they last for a long time
when properly maintained.
However, wooden windows
are expensive and require
maintenance. If the
windows re not repainted
when needed, the frame will
expand and contract
severely due to moisture
changes in the wood. They
are also susceptible to rot
and weathering in certain
climates.
Fiberglass frames are highly
durable, resists weathering
and can bear extreme
temperature changes better
than any other material as
fiberglass is so close in
composition to the glass panes
used to make up windows so
both materials expand and
contract about the same
amount with temperature
changes. Fiberglass is an
excellent insulator and makes
window frames that work to
prevent the transfer of heat.
87

6.2 WINDOWS
WINDOW FRAME INSTALLATION PROCESS
1. Position the sub frame using
aluminium plate and ride up blocks.
88
2. Check the alignment of
the sub frame.
3. Anchor the sub frame to
the rough opening.
4. Seal the anchor heads and
the joints with the wall with
protection tape on the frame.
5. Placing main frame on to
the sub frame. Millet is use to
knock the finishing trim..
Sub Frame System
The sub-frame system comprises a sub-
frame which is either cast in or anchored
to the wall. The main frame is then
installed onto the sub frame at a much
later stage of the construction.
This process was used to install the frame
onto the rough opening at the site.

6.2 WINDOWS IN SITE
TYPES OF WINDOWS ON SITE
Advantages of sliding window
- fewer parts than conventional windows
- low-maintenance and cost-effective choice
- Durable.
- Easier and faster to open
1. SLIDING WINDOW
Sliding window includes one fixed sash and one
that slides horizontally to the left and right.
2. FIXED WINDOW
Fixed windows can't be opened. It allows light to enter
the space. However, there is no air ventilation allowed to
get in. These windows are often used in combination with
operating windows. In this case. the sliding window to
allow air ventilation.
The photograph shows the latch
used to lock the sliding window.
The photograph shows the window
frame is made from aluminium.
Sliding window
Fixed window
89

6.2 WINDOWS IN SITE
TYPES OF WINDOWS ON SITE
3. CASEMENT WINDOWS
Casement windows are windows that are
hinged on the side and the sash opens
horizontally opposite the hinge.
Advantages of Casement Windows
- Easily operated
- Wide openings to allow good air ventilation
- Extended window directs air into house
- Superior security as locks are embedded into
frame
4. AWNING WINDOWS
Awning are hinged at the top and swing outward
from the bottom. They glide open and shut with the
turn of one easy-to-reach handle.
Advantages of Casement Windows
- Privacy is maintained as it can be installed higher
than normal windows
- Operation of the window helps keep the rain out
even when kept open
90

ROOF
07
WONG TECK POH
The roof system is the primary protecting element of the
interior spaces of a building. The design and shape of the roof
has a major impact on the image of a building. Several factors
determine the choice of roof such as the technology available,
economic consideration as well as aesthetics purposes.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
Roof Functions
Roof Forms
Roof Shapes
Roofing Materials
Roof Construction Process
Roof On Site

7.1 ROOF FUNCTIONS
A typical roof should be able to provide the following : opening for natural light if necessary, weather protection,
resistance to excessive heat loss, sound insulation, able to be accessed for maintenance, able to accommodate all
stresses encountered, resistance to spread of fire and drainage of roof coverings.
Provide weather exclusion,
durable to external factors and
contains aesthetics value
Provide resistance to excessive
heat loss
Able to withstand overstressing,
support its own weight or reasonable
imposed loads such as wind or rain
Provide drainage system
for
Accessible for maintenance
Provide the
required degree
of sound
insulation
Provide natural lighting through
opening if necessary
92

7.2 ROOF FORMS
Basic roof forms can be classified as flat roof or
pitched/sloping roofs.
FLAT ROOF
Has a minimum recommended slope ratio of 1:50.
Pitch usually ranges from 0° to 10°.
Structure may consist of (1) reinforced concrete
slabs, (2) flat timber or steel trusses, (3) timber or
steel beams and decking, (4) wood or steel joists
and sheathing.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
93

7.2 ROOF FORMS
Roofs with a pitch of more than 70° are usually
considered walls for design purposes.
The type of roof forms will affect the materials
used.
PITCHED ROOF
Classified as low slope roofs (ratio of 3:12 or below) or
medium- to high-slope roofs (ratio 4:12 to 12:12).
Pitch over 10° but less than 70°.
Shed water easily to eave gutters.
Provides a space for locating cold water storage
system.
Structure may consist of wood or steel rafters and
sheathing, timber or steel beams, purlins and decking,
timber or steel trusses.
(1)
(2)
(3)
94

7.3 ROOF SHAPES
Roof shapes are mainly broken down into hip, gable, shed or a combination of basic forms.
FLAT ROOF
SHED ROOF
PYRAMID ROOF
GABLE ROOF
SIMPLE HIP ROOF
SALTBOX ROOF
BUTTERFLY ROOF
DUTCH HIP ROOF
CROSS GABLED ROOF
CROSS HIPPED ROOF
Most commonly found
in commercial buildings.
Easier to build as it has
minimal pitch.
Used as an addition on
homes or smaller parts
of a building.
Also known as square
hip roof. Suitable for
small structures or
small sections of a
home such as garage
or pool house.
Usually comes with a
steep slope which
promotes rain flow.
Can be costly to
construct.
Durable and strong,
suitable for areas with
high wind.
Due to the difference
in height, homes with
saltbox roof usually
have one storey on
side and two stories on
the other.
Interesting form but
causes ineffective
water drainage.
Hip roof with a small
gable which allows
space on the roof for
light penetration.
Has two distinct slopes.
Provides ability to add
more space to homes.
Maximum utilization of
headspace. Commonly
used for barns.
MANSARD ROOF
GAMBREL ROOF
Involves 'crossing' two
gable roofs together to
create a more
interesting form.
Involves 'crossing'
two hip roofs together
to create a more
interesting form.
95

7.4 ROOFING MATERIALS
Common types of roofing includes shingles, tiles or a continuous membrane (commonly flat roofs).
Types of roofing are chosen based on the climate of the site as well as its roof form.
CLAY TILES
CONCRETE TILES
ASPHALT SHINGLES
SLATE TILES
CEDAR SHAKES
METAL DECK
Durable and long lasting (100 years)
Low maintenance
Brittle, can break under pressure
Heavy, requires reinforced roof
support
Expensive cost
Not suitable in cold climates
Durable and long lasting (50 years+)
Low maintenance
Break less easily than clay tiles
Heavier than clay tiles, requires
stronger roof support
Moderate cost
Can be used in any climate
Organic base or fiberglass base
added with asphalt for
waterproofing
Not durable
Inexpensive
Naturally dense material split into thin
sheets
Long lasting
Tendency to split
Fixed to underlay with mortar to
resist damage
Short lifespan
Periodic maintenance required
Moderate weight
Moderate cost
Energy efficient
Made from metal such as zinc,
aluminium or lead
Differs in cost depending on material
(zinc is cheaper than lead)
Durability depends on material (zinc is
less durable)
Lightweight
Commonly used for flat roofs
96

7.5 ROOF CONSTRUCTION
The wall frames of the building must already be complete before the construction of the roof can occur.
Rafters are one of the type of frameworks used for roof construction. Rafters are usually built on-site using wood.
1. FRAMING - RAFTERS
PROCESS
Hip rafters are
placed from the
outside corner of the
building to the ridge
board.
Valley rafters are
placed at inside
corners to the ridge
board.
Common rafters run
from an exterior wall
to the ridge board.
97

Trusses are another type of framework and are usually pre-made. The commonly used material for trusses is steel.
1. FRAMING - TRUSSES
PROCESS
FLAT TRUSS PRATT TRUSSHOWE TRUSS
BELGIAN TRUSS FINK TRUSS
WARREN TRUSS
BOWSTRING TRUSS SCISSORS TRUSS
Has parallel chords, equal
distribution of load. Not as
effective as bowstring or
pitched trusses.
Made up of a series of
equilateral triangles.
Outermost web members
are angled.
Vertical web members in
tension. Diagonal web
members in compression.
Vertical web members
in compression. Diagonal
web members in tension.
Efficient in load distribution.
Has inclined web members
only.
Subdiagonals are
introduced to the Belgian
truss to reduce the length
of compression web
members.
Identified with a curved top
chord joined by a straight
bottom chord. Vertical or
inclined web members are
part of the truss.
Bottom chords cross each
other at an intermediate
point of the top chord.
98

The next step after framing is sheathing.
1. FRAMING - BRACES
PROCESS
2. SHEATHING
Before installing trusses, temporary braces are
installed to provide support for them before
sheathing and permanent braces. This will keep
trusses to be straight and plumb. The end trusses are
installed before installing the standard trusses at
regular intervals. Once all the trusses are installed,
install permanent braces.
Once the framework of the roof is installed
completely, a suitable material is layered over the top
of the frames to provide a surface for the roof.
Common materials used are plywood, oriented strand
board (OSB), etc.
99

The process of building a typical roof involves framing, sheathing, underlayment installation and roof cover
installation.
3. UNDERLAYMENT INSTALLATION
PROCESS
4. ROOF COVER INSTALLATION
The main purpose of underlayment is to provide
waterproofing. It protects the sheathing from getting
in contact with moisture as well as providing shelter
from rain. If the underlayment, water may leak in and
cause damage to the roof and ceiling. Most commonly
used for underlayment is asphalt-saturated felt or
rubberized asphalt. The underlayment is usually
nailed to the sheathing.
Lastly, the chosen roof cover is installed be it tiles or
shingles. Shingles and tiles are installed from the
bottom up and its upper row should overlap the
bottom row. Roof cover could be fixed to the surface
using nails, screws or mortar.
100

7.6 ROOF ON SITE
Roofs built in Desiran Bayu are hip roofs and shed roofs. There are no flat roofs present on site. The roofs have a
pitch of 23 degrees.
101

7.6 ROOF ON SITE
1. FRAMING
In Desiran Bayu, the framework used for roofs are steel Pratt trusses. Pratt truss can be identified as it consists
of vertical and diagonal members. The vertical members are in compression while the diagonal members are in
tension. This way, the diagonal members which are in tension can be reduced and thus reduce the cost of
structure due to more efficient members on the truss. After the installation of the framework, braces are set up to
keep trusses straight and plumb.
2. SHEATHING
Hexagonal galvanised wire netting (also known as chicken netting) is used for sheathing. It acts as an
economical support for roofing underlay and insulation.
102

7.6 ROOF ON SITE
3. UNDERLAYMENT INSTALLATION
Aluminium foil is laid over the chicken netting to provide a surface for the roof tiles as well as waterproofing. The
aluminium foil is usually reinforced with high quality kraft paper and polyester yam for increased strength. It also
provide heat reflection which allows for a cooler living environment.
4. ROOF COVER INSTALLATION
Lastly, curved concrete tiles are laid over the underlay. The roof tiles are fastened to each other using screws.
The roof tiles will be screwed to each other. Flashing is done by laying the end of roof tiles on top of the end of
another and bolting them on both ends. Flashing will prevent rain water from flowing through the gap between
the roof tiles and the wall.
103

7.6 ROOF ON SITE
4. ROOF COVER INSTALLATION - ROOF DETAILS
When all the roof tiles are installed, ridge tiles are installed for the upper floor's roof and capping is added to the
ground floor's roof.
Tiles are nailed at
both ends to
secure their
position.
104

7.6 ROOF ON SITE
1. FRAMING - PHOTOGRAPHS ON SITE
Photographs below show the trusses on site and its before and after installation.
2. SHEATHING - PHOTOGRAPHS ON SITE
Photographs show clearly the chicken netting place on top of the steel trusses.
A permanent brace on the steel trusses can be seen on the photographs on the right.
105

7.6 ROOF ON SITE
3. UNDERLAYMENT INSTALLATION - PHOTOGRAPHS ON SITE
Photographs below shows the completed laying of aluminium foil on the chicken netting. The overlay of the
aluminium foil can be clearly seen on the photographs on the right.
4. ROOF COVER INSTALLATION - PHOTOGRAPHS ON SITE
Photograph below shoes the concrete tiles used on site as well as the completed roofs.
106

SUMMARY
To conclude our findings and experience throughout the project, we have learned a good deal of the reality
and practical methods of constructing a low-rise building. The site that we chose was Desiran Bayu in Puchong.
Our group has done a couple of site visits to Desiran Bayu. Mr.Phua, the site manager and Mr.Sow, the civil
engineer toured us around the site to observe and document several aspects of construction such as site and
safety, plants and machineries, site layout, foundation, superstructures, doors and windows and lastly, roofs.
During our first site visit, we had little knowledge about the construction process as it was hard to imagine
through lecture notes and videos. So, this visit was an eye-opener to all of us as we could observe and
understand the sequence of constructing a building. Thanks to Mr Phua and Mr Sow’s guidance, they were able to
show us the processes we needed to document and obtained plenty of data to complete this report. Photographs,
videos and hand-written notes were taken during the site visit and then they were further developed using online
sources and lecture notes. Then we had a second site visit to compile missing data that was missed out from the
first visit.
This hands-on experience has been the most practical one throughout the semester. With this knowledge, we
look at our designs and future projects in a better perspective where we also consider the buildability and
construction process. Whatever we gained from this project will definitely be used along our pathway to become
an architect and it will definitely help us understand what it takes to design a good and constructible building.
107

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DOORS (CLARA LEE)

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