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2. Content
Introduction1.0
1.1 Introduction to Site Pg1
Site Safety
2.0
2.1 Site safety Pg2 (John)
2.2 Construction Safety Pg3 (John)
External Works
Foundation
Superstructure
3.0
3.1 Signage
3.2 Temporary Buildings
3.3 Services and Facilities
3.4 Fencing Works
3.5 Machineries
3.6 Equipment
3.7 Sewerage works
3.8 Drainage system
4.0
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Foundation Types
4.3 Foundation Laying Process
5.0
5.1 Beams and columns
5.1.1 Beams
5.1.2 Types
5.1.3 Installation
5.1.4 Connections
5.1.5 Columns
5.1.6 Joints
Roof
5.4 Staircase
5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Methodology
5.4.3 Material Types
5.4.4 Installation I
5.4.5 Stair Plans
5.4.6 Installation II
5.4.7 Skirting
5.4.8 Finishes
5.4.9 Standard Requirements
5.5 Railings
5.5.1 Types
5.5.2 Methodology
5.5.3 Safety Issues
5.6 Floors
5.6.1 Introduction
5.6.2 Types
5.6.3 Concrete Ground Slab
5.6.4 Concrete Slab
5.6.5 Ground Slab
5.6.6 Reinforce Concrete Floor
5.6.7 Material
5.2 Walls
5.2.1 Types of masonry
5.2.2 Structural Support
5.2.3 On-site brick wall
5.2.4 Construction Technique
5.3 Ceiling
5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.2 Types
5.3.3 Jointless ceiling
5.3.4 Skim coating
5.3.5 Installation
6.0
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Roof Type
6.3 Installation
6.4 Roof Insulation
Door7.0
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Type
7.3 Subframing
7.4 Main Frame
7.5 Door Panel & Iron Mongery
7.6 Architraves
Window8.0
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Material
8.3 Type
8.4 Sub-frame
8.5 Installation
8.6 Glazing
Summary
Pg11 (Victor)
Pg11
Pg12-13
Pg14 (Raymond)
Pg14
Pg14
Pg15
Pg15
Pg16
Pg16
Pg17 (Jia Jun)
Pg18
Pg19
Pg20
Pg21
Pg22 (John)
Pg22
Pg22
Pg23
Pg23
Pg24-25
Pg26 (Pui San)
Pg26
Pg27
Pg28-29
Pg30
Pg31
Pg32
Pg32
Pg33
Pg34
Pg35 (Nianzi)
Pg35
Pg36
Pg37
Pg38 (Jit Ying)
Pg38
Pg38
Pg38
Pg39
Pg40
Pg41-42
Pg43
Pg44
Pg45-46
Pg46
Pg47
Pg48 (Nianzi)
Pg48
Pg49
Pg50
Pg51
Pg52
Pg53
Pg53
Pg54
Pg55
Pg55
Pg55
Pg5 (Jit Ying)
Pg5 (Jit Ying)
Pg5 (Jit Ying)
Pg6 (Jit Ying)
Pg6-8 (John)
Pg9 (John)
Pg10 (Andrew)
Pg10 (Andrew)
9.0 Reflection & citation
Pg56-57

3. 1.0 Introduction
1.1 Introduction to Project
This project requires us, in a group of 9, to select a minimum of one
on-going construction site to survey. The site chosen should be a
medium rise building with a maximum of 4-storeys level or a low rise
building such as a bungalow house, etc. From the site, we are to
identify various types of the building elements. Apart from that, we
need to observe as well as to record the construction process, the
details such as the specification of the materials used, including the
diameters, sizes and procedures in constructing the components. In
addition to that, we need to analyse and explain on how the
construction chosen affect its surroundings.We have decided to survey
only one site for this project. This is because the information from the
site are enough us to obtain on the processes that occur on the
construction site due to the variation of the type of elements, material
as well as the process in completing the building.
1.2 Introduction to sites
Kota Puteri is a new township in Selangor, Malaysia. Have 12 Section
in this township. Selangor State Development Corporation is the
developer for Kota Puteri. Kota Puteri are under the administration
of Majlis Perbandaran Selayang. This township is located near Ijok.
Kota Puteri also known as Bandar Baru Batu Arang. Kota
Puteri located at the east of Kuala Selangor and west of Rawang. It is
at the end of the Gombak district and Kuala Selangor district border.
In addition, Kota Puteri near Batu Arang, Bandar Tasik
Puteri, Ijok, Kampung Bukit Badong, Bestari Jaya and Hutan Simpan
Rantau Panjang.
The site we visit is the Double storeys townhouse in Kota Puteri,
Rawang, Selangor.
The biggest attraction of the townhouse is it consist two storeys
respective house for two different families. Such arrangement allows
the selling price to be lower than the normal terrace house. Aslo,
sprawling a vast 820 acres (approximate value), Kota Puteri is located
at the east of Kuala Selangor, close to the town of Ijok. With a master
plan of 12 sections, Kota Puteri features a range of homes and
commercial space, amongst other amenities such as school,
recreational hubs and more.
In the pipeline are elegant homes in a wide 24’ x 45’ built up. In
its very own enclave of Kota Puteri within Seksyen 5, these
thoughtfully-designed homes are just around the corner from
the Kota Puteri Lake.
Kota Puteri is developed by Perbadanan Kemajuan Negeri
Selangor (PKNS) which has become synonymous with success
and growth in the property development sector within
Selangor.
1

4. 2.0 Site Safety
2.1 Site safety
The Department of Occupations Safety and Health (DOSH) has
stipulated roles of 1994 Section 17 “Duties of employers and self-
employed to their employees” which contractors are aware to play
in promoting safety programs and safe behaviour. They have an
obligation to ensure that their workers are not exposed to risks
which can affect their safety and health. This role in not only the
workers at the place of work but also the public. These roles and
regulations are supply to all Construction Sites in Malaysia who
cover by the Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994, Act 514.
2.1 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Personal protective equipment, commonly referred to as "PPE", is
equipment worn to minimize exposure to serious workplace injuries
and illnesses. These injuries and illnesses may result from contact
with chemical, radiological, physical, electrical, mechanical, or other
workplace hazards. Personal protective equipment may include
items such as gloves, safety glasses and shoes, earplugs or muffs,
hard hats, respirators, or coveralls, vests and full body suits.
Equipment worn to minimize exposure to serious workplace injure
and illnesses, items such as gloves, safety boots, safety helmet,
respirators and vests. All personal protective equipment should fit
well and be comfortable to wear. If the personal protective
equipment does not fit properly, it can make the difference
between being safely covered or dangerously exposed.
Safety Helmet
A safety helmet is a type of helmet predominantly
used in workplace environments such as industrial
or construction sites to protect the head from
injury due to falling objects, impact with other
objects, debris, rain, and electric shock. Suspension
bands inside the helmet spreads the helmet's
weight and the force of any impact over the top of
the head. A suspension also provides space of
approximately 30 mm (1.2 inch) between the
helmet's shell and the wearer's head, so that if an
object strikes the shell, the impact is less likely to
be transmitted directly to the skull. Some helmet
shells have a mid-line reinforcement ridge to
improve impact resistance.
Safety Gloves
Safety gloves are hand garments meant for the
protection of the wrist, hand, fingers, and
thumbs from adverse processes or conditions.
These items are virtually limitless in application
and find employment in both industrial and
commercial marketplaces. Their functionality is
determined by the material and design of the
glove.
Safety Boots
Safety boots is a durable boot or shoe that has a
protective reinforcement in the toe which
protects the foot from falling objects or
compression, usually combined with a mid-sole
plate to protect against punctures from below.
Although traditionally made of steel, the
reinforcement can also be made of a composite
material, a plastic such as thermoplastic (TPU)
or even aluminum. Steel-toe boots are
important in the construction industry and in
many industrial settings.
2

5. 2.2 Construction Safety
Construction is one of the most dangerous land-based work
sectors. The problem is not that the hazards and risks are
unknown, it is that they are very difficult to control in a
constantly changing work environment.
Hazards
Various workplace safety signs commonly used at
construction sites and industrial work
environments. Some of the main health hazards on
site are asbestos, solvents, noise and manual
handing activities.
Fire Extinguisher
A fire extinguisher, or extinguisher, is an active fire
protection device used to extinguish or control
small fires, often in emergency situations. It is not
intended for use on an out-of-control fire, such as
one which has reached the ceiling, endangers the
user, or otherwise requires the expertise of a fire
department. Typically, a fire extinguisher consists
of a hand-held cylindrical pressure containing
an agent which can be discharged to extinguish a
fire.
ABC is the most used and most popular
multipurpose powder fire extinguisher for
construction sites, can be used on class A (burning
solids), B (liquid fires) & C (gases fires).
Temporary Handrail
Temporary Handrail do provide
temporary handrail leading people
go to the site office and prevent
people fall from the slope or
staircases.
Fencing
Temporary fencing prevent people get into the side easily and
provide security and safety.
Safety Harnes
A safety harness is a form of
protective equipment designed to
protect a person, animal, or object
from injury or damage. The harness
is an attachment between a
stationary and non-stationary
object and is usually fabricated
from rope, cable or webbing and
locking hardware. Some safety
harnesses are used in combination
with a shock absorber, which is
used to regulate deceleration when
the end of the rope is reached. One
example would be construction
used
3

6. 3.0 External Works
LEGEND
Drainage System
Site Office Building
Small Scale Sundry Shop
Temporary Sheds
External works are all the works that are completed before any
foundations are laid. External works are all items outside the building
footprint but inside the site boundary, encompassing wastewater and
surface water drains, supply of utilities (e.g. gas, electricity and cabled
services), footpaths, and access for vehicles including car parks and hard
standings to be found in the vicinity of buildings.
4

7. 2. Temporary electric supply
Electric power supply is essential to provide site office, temporary sheds
and machinery on site to function properly.
2. Small scale sundry shop
It is set up to provide food and drinks for labourers
during their break time so as to accommodate
labourers with refreshment conveniently.
3.2 Temporary Buildings
1. Site office building
Site office buildings are fundamental for smooth-running
operations in any industry. Whether permanent or portable, an
on-site office portable cabin must be durable and functional in
order to accommodate the intricate demands of daily work. At
the same time, it needs to be comfortable and inviting for
workers and visitors. This is especially important in remote
locations where modular transportable offices are places for
both working and living through long hours and in
unpredictable environments.
3. Temporary sheds
It is used to organize and store
materials besides acting as
shelter for the labourers
3. Temporary toilets
Temporary toilets are normally use
in construction site as there is
limited space and it is as important
to provide restroom facilities that
are clean, comfortable and
convenient to the labourers as it is
part of their welfare. The amount
of toilet is equivalent to one toilet
to seven people.
3.3 Services and Facilities
1. Existing water supply
Supplying drinking water
throughout construction sites is
now a requirement from health
and safety standards. Some
water usage for construction is
for site welfare, drilling
operations, hydro-demolition
and also wheel washing.
3.1 Signage
Safety signs must be used whenever a hazard or danger
cannot be avoided adequately or reduced in another
way. Before installing safety signs an employer should
examine whether the hazard can be avoided or reduced by
collective precautions (precautions that protect everybody)
or safer ways of doing the work.
The Regulations cover a variety of methods of
communicating health and safety information in addition
to the traditional safety sign or signboard.
5

8. 3.5 Machineries
3.5.1 Backhoe Loader
Backhoe Loader is a piece of excavating equipment
or digger consisting of a digging bucket on the end of a two-part
articulated arm. They are typically mounted on the back of
a tractor or front loader. The section of the arm closest to the vehicle
is known as the boom, and the section which carries the bucket is
known as the dipper or dipper-stick (the terms ”boom" and ”dipper"
having been used previously on steam shovels). The boom is
generally attached to the vehicle through a pivot known as the king-
post, which allows the arm to slew left and right, usually through a
total of around 200 degrees.
3.5.2 Backhoe Excavator
Backhoe Excavator is a heavy construction equopment consisting of
a boom, stick, bucket and cab on a rotating platform known as the
"house". The house sits atop an undercarriage with tracks or wheels. A
cable-operated excavator uses winches and steel ropes to accomplish the
movements. They are a natural progression from the steam shovels. and
often mistakenly called power shovels. All movement and functions of a
hydraulic excavator are accomplished through the use of hydraulic fluid,
with hydraulic cylinders and hydraulic motors. Due to the linear actuation
of hydraulic cylinders, their mode of operation is fundamentally different
from cable-operated excavators.
Hoarding is a temporary structure of solid
construction, erected around the perimeter of
construction sites to shield them from view
and prevent unauthorised access.
It also minimise disturbances and improve
privacy, both for the general public and for
workers on site. It must be structurally stable,
as it can be exposed to strong wind loads, or
impact.
Hoarding is made up of wide range of
materials such as steel, timber or plywood
which may be re-useable or disposable after a
particular construction work is done.
Hoarding/Fencing
3.4 Fencing
6

9. 3.5.5 Compactor (Vibratory Roller)
A compactor is a machine or mechanism used to reduce the size
of waste material or soil through compaction. A trash compactor is
often used by a home or business to reduce the volume of trash.
Normally powered by hydraulics, compactors take many shapes
and sizes. In landfill sites for example, a large bulldozer with
spiked wheels called a landfill compactor is used to drive over
waste deposited by waste collection vehicles (WCVs).WCVs
themselves incorporate a compacting mechanism which is used to
increase the payload of the vehicle and reduce the number of
times it has to empty. This usually takes the form of hydraulically
powered sliding plates which sweep out the collection hopper and
compress the material into what has already been loaded.
Different compactors are used in scrap metal processing, the most
familiar being the car crusher. Such devices can be of either the
"pancake" type, where a scrap automobile is flattened by a huge
descending hydraulically powered plate, or the baling press,
where the automobile is compressed from several directions until
it resembles a large cube.
3.5.3 Bulldozer
A bulldozer is a crawler(continuous tracked tractor)
equipped with a substantial metal plate (known as
a blade) used to push large quantities of soil, sand,
rubble, or other such material during construction or
conversion work and typically equipped at the rear
with a claw-like device (known as a ripper) to loosen
densely compacted materials. Bulldozers can be found
on a wide range of sites, mines and quarries, military
bases, heavy industry factories, engineering projects
and farms. The term "bulldozer" refers only to a
tractor (usually tracked) fitted with a dozer blade.
3.5.4 Pile Driver (Crane Mounted Frame – Drop Hammer)
A pile driver is a mechanical device used to drive piles (poles)
into soil to provide foundation support for buildings or other
structures. The term is also used in reference to members of the
construction crew that work with pile-driving rigs. One
traditional type of pile driver includes a heavy weight placed
between guides so that it is able to freely slide up and down in a
single line. It is placed above a pile (pole). The weight is raised,
which may involve the use of hydraulics, steam, diesel, or
manual labor. When the weight reaches its highest point it is then
released and smashes on to the pile in order to drive it into the
ground.
7

10. 3.5.6 Mobile Crane (Truck Mounted)
A mobile crane is "a cable-controlled crane mounted on
crawlers or rubber-tired carriers" or "a hydraulic-powered crane
with a telescoping boom mounted on truck-type carriers or as
self-propelled models.” They are designed to easily transport to
a site and use with different types of load and cargo with little
or no setup or assembly.
3.5.7 Truck
Truck is a motor vehicle designed to transport cargo. Trucks vary
greatly in size, power, and configuration, with the smallest
being mechanically similar to an automobile. Commercial trucks
can be very large and powerful, and may be configured to
mount specialized equipment, such as in the case of fire
trucks and concrete mixers and suction excavators.
3.5.8 Forklifts
A forklift (also called a lift truck, a fork truck, or a forklift
truck) is a powered industrial truck used to lift and move
materials short distances. The forklift was developed in the
early 20th century by various companies including
the transmission manufacturing company Clark and the hoist
company Yale & Towne Manufacturing.
3.5.9 Concrete Mixing Transport
Trucks
Concrete Mixing transport trucks are made to transport and
mix concrete up to the construction site. They can be charged
with dry materials and water, with the mixing occurring
during transport. They can also be loaded from a "central
mix" plant, with this process the material has already been
mixed prior to loading. The concrete mixing transport truck
maintains the material's liquid state through agitation, or
turning of the drum, until delivery. The interior of the drum
on a concrete mixing truck is fitted with a spiral blade.
8

11. 3.6 Equipment
Hoist (device)
A hoist is a device used for lifting or lowering a load
by means of a drum or lift-wheel around which rope
or chain wraps. It may be manually operated,
electrically or pneumatically driven and may use
chain, fibre or wire rope as its lifting medium. The
load is attached to the hoist by means of a lifting
hook.
Concrete Drum Mixer
A concrete mixer (also commonly called a cement mixer) is a
device that homogeneously combines cement, aggregate such
as sand or gravel, and water to form concrete. A typical
concrete mixer uses a revolving drum to mix the components.
For smaller volume works portable concrete mixers are often
used so that the concrete can be made at the construction
site, giving the workers ample time to use the concrete before
it hardens. An alternative to a machine is mixing concrete by
hand. This is usually done in a wheelbarrow; however, several
companies have recently begun to sell modified tarps for this
purpose.
Power Generators
Power Generators is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy for use in an external circuit. The source of mechanical energy may
vary widely from a hand crank to an internal combustion engine. Generators
provide nearly all of the power for electric.
Circular Electric Saw
A circular saw is a power-saw using a toothed or abrasive discord blade to
cut different materials using a rotary motion spinning around an arbor.
Ahold and ring saw also uses a rotary motion but are different from a
circular saw. Circular saws may also be loosely used for the blade itself.
Circular saws were invented in the late 18th century and were in common
use in sawmills in the United States by the middle of the 19th century. A
circular saw is a tool for cutting many materials such as
wood, masonry, plastic, or metal and may be hand-held or mounted to a
machine.
9

12. 3.7 Septic Work
A septic tank is a key component of the septic system, the
small-scale sewage treatment system common in areas that
lack connection to main sewage pipes provided by local
governments or private corporations. Other components,
generally controlled by local governments, may include
pumps, alarms, sand filters. and clarified liquid effluent
disposal methods such as a septic drain field,, ponds,
natural stone fiber filter plants or peat moss beds. This
septic tank is to be used basically by 50 residential houses
in the site.
3.8 Drainage System
Drainage system is provided to discharge effectively the
sewage of the building into the public sewer. With efficient
drainage, waste matter in residential area can be collected
and remove systematically. Size of the drain should be
sufficient so that they do not over flow at the time of
maximum discharge.
1

13. 4.0 Foundation
Choosing a kind of foundation depends on:
• The ground conditions
• The groundwater conditions
• The site, the environment (the buildings nearby)
• The structure of our building
Advantages
Usually it is constructed under the ground, so it is out of sight
Disadvantages
It is expensive and difficult to repair
An bad/ misapplied foundation could demolish the building
4.2 Foundation Types
Strip foundation (Wall footing)
Strip foundations consist of a continuous strip, usually of concrete,
formed centrally under load bearing walls. This continuous strip serves
as a level base on which the wall is built and is of such a width as is
necessary to spread the load on the foundations to an area of subsoil
capable of supporting the load without undue compaction.
There are four type of foundation in general, which is strip foundation, pad foundation, grillage foundation and mat foundation. The type of
foundation that has used on the site we have chosen was STRIP FOUNDATION.
4.1 Introduction
Foundation is the structure that transmits the load of the building to the soil and it is also the soil layer that has the sufficient load bearing capacity in relation to the chosen
foundation type.
Requirements:
• Structural requirements: safe, be able to carry the load of the
building
• Constructional requirements: schedule, minimal resources,
minimal cost
The mistakes:
• Construction technology mistakes
• Planning mistakes: the type of foundation is inadequate for the
ground layers / for the building
When is it applicable?
-The load-bearing layer is near to bottom floor level
-The loads of the building are light-medium
1

14. 4.3 Foundation Laying Process
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3 (CASTING SLAB)
Wood dividers to form the shape of
footings, concrete to be poured into
the compartment after rebar is being
placed.
After concrete is being poured into the
compartments.
Every exceeded rebar in the middle
of footings’ corner from the ground
will be built as pillars.
-Compacted gravel
-Moisture barrier
-Laying rebar
-Pouring concrete
Before rebar is laid, sand, soil, or gravel are required to fill the underneath
of concreate densely (fig.1) to minimize the empty space which concrete
might not able to reach as well as saving concrete.
There are a few steps of procedures need to be done in order to make a proper and strong foundation. Without these steps, a foundation might not able to
withstand the structure properly, which might lead to a lot of defects in the future.
GRAVEL
Gravel is a loose aggregation of
pounded stones that has been
widely used in construction
industry.
Layer Sequence
1

15. Moisture Barrier
Installing a vapor barrier underneath the concrete slabs properly can prevent
moisture build-up related issues such as:
-Mold and mildew
-Delamination in the overlay or sealer
-Joint failure
-Spalling
-Cracking
-Deterioration
It is also to help prevent expensive repairs due to moisture damage.
Mechanical & Electrical work (M&E)
All electrical wiring and traps need to install properly before being covered by
concrete.
REBAR
After M&E work, rebar will be laid
before concrete is poured. It is to
strengthen and hold the concrete in
tension.
CONCRETE
The final step, mixed concrete
will be poured onto the rebar
from the concrete mixing
machine/truck.
Before this stage is
completely done, workers
will manually balance the
concrete on the surface to
make sure the layer below
is all covered in every
corners and levelling will
be done later on to form a
concrete foundation.
1

16. 5.1 Beams and columns
5.1.1 Beams
A beam is a structural element that is capable
of withstanding load primarily by resisting
bending. The bending force induced into the
material of the beam as a result of the
external loads, own weight, span and external
reactions to these loads is called a bending
moment. Beams are characterized by their
profile (shape of cross-section), their length,
and their material.
.
Reinforcing bars extend into and down
column support for structural continuity
and to develop the required embedment
length for anchorage
Grade beam
To transmit the load from a bearing wall into spaced
foundations such pile caps and caissons.
Used in footing construction when full footing is not
necessary.
Reinforced concrete (RC)
A concrete beam designed to act together with longitudinal and web
reinforcement in resisting applied forces. Cast-in-place concrete beams are
almost always formed and placed along with the slab they support. Because a
portion of the slab acts as an integral part of the beam, the depth of the beam is
measured to the top of the slab.
Types: Rectangular, L-shaped, inverted-T
Advantages: High compressive strength and resistance to fire and weather
Disadvantages: Shrinkage causes crack development.
5.1 Beams and columns Overall Analysis5.1.2 Types
Steel
Types: S shape, W shape, C shape, structural tubing
Wide-flange(W) shapes are commonly used because they are
efficient for carrying both bending and shear loads in the plane of
the web.
Advantages: Flexible, durable, stable, lightweight
Disadvantages: Expensive labour cost
A framed connection is a shear-resisting
steel connection made by welding or bolting
the web of a beam to the supporting column
or girder with two angels or a single tab plate.
Wood
Types: Natural timber, laminated and engineered
Advantages: Economical option, reduce energy cost, highly durable,
aesthetical
Disadvantages: Tendency to split, heavy, susceptible to rot and attacks
by termites
A variety of metal attachments are
manufactured for wood-to-wood, wood-to-metal
and wood-to-masonry connections. Depending
on the magnitude of the loads being resisted or
transferred, the connections may be nailed or
bolted.
Composite
Composite beams are constructed from more than one material to
increase stiffness or strength (or to reduce cost).
Steel and wood are coated to form beam with adequate strength.
Steel and reinforced concrete are most commonly used.
Advantages: Support strong vertical loads
Disadvantages: High labour cost
5.0 Superstructure
1

17. 5.1.3 Installation
Simple beam
Rest on support on both ends, with the ends free to
rotate and having no moment resistance.
Cantilever beam
Projecting beam
Projecting beam or other rigid structural member
supported at only one fixed end. Used in balconies and
bay windows.
Overhanging beam
Simple beam extending beyond one supports.
Double overhanging beam
Simple beam extending beyond both its support.
Fixed-end beam
Both ends restrained against translation and rotation.
Suspended span beam
Simple beam supported by the overhangs of two
adjoining with pinned construction joints at points of
zero moment.Pouring concrete beams
1. Fixed rods of steel to tensile machinery. Arrange rods in 2 layers of equal
numbers.
2. Build formwork around steel rods, ensuring rods run through the centre of
the beam.
3. Pour concrete into formwork, ensuring all steel is covered.
4. Allow concrete to cure for a few days and remove the formwork.
Concrete formwork for columns and walls may be
custom-built for a specific job, but prefabricated,
reusable panels are used whenever possible. The framework
and bracing must be able to maintain the position and shape
of the forms until the concrete sets.
5.1.4 Connections
Refer to the American Institute of Steel Construction’s (AISC’s) Manual of Steel
Construction for steel section properties and dimensions, allowable load tables
for beams and columns, and requirements for bolted and welded connections. In
addition to strength and degree of rigidity, connections should be evaluated for
economy of fabrication and erection, and for visual appearance if the structure is
exposed to view.
The strength of a connection depends on the sizes of the members and the
connecting tees, angles, or plates, as well as the configuration of bolts or welds
used. The AISC defines three types of steel framing that govern the sizes of
members and the methods for their connections: moment connections, shear
connections, and semi-rigid connections.
Shear connections
Simple frame connections made
to resist only shear.
Semi-rigid connections
Semi-rigid connections assume beam
and girder connections possess a
limited but known moment resisting
capacity.
Rigid connections
Rigid frames where connections are
able to hold their original angle under
loading by developing a specified resisting
moment.
1

18. 5.1.5 Columns
Columns are vertical load bearing members of the structure frame which
transmits beam loads down to foundations. Columns can be made of reinforced
concrete or steel.
Tied Columns
Individual rebar ties are used to wrap
completely around the vertical bars in
a confined core. Lateral reinforcement
restrains the vertical reinforcement
and strengthens the column against buckling.
Spiral Columns
Single reber wrapped around the vertical
bar
in a spiral. They are stronger than tied
columns but more labour intensive.
Whenever possible, vary required steel reinforcement
rather than column size; when necessary, vary only one
dimension of a column at a time.
Pouring concrete columns
1. Size of columns to be marked.
2. Place the reinforcement in the formwork.
3. Then pour concrete in formwork, ensure all rebar is covered.
4. Concrete is let to dry and cure.
5. Remove the formwork.
5.1.6 Joints
Steel column
A variety of proprietary post bases is
available.
Post bases can also be fabricated to
satisfy specific design conditions.
Wood post
A steel base plate is necessary to
distribute the column load over
an area wide enough that the
allowable stresses in the
concrete are not exceeded.
Precast Concrete Column
Column base plate secured
to column
Splice bars welded to steel angles.
Steel bottom plate secured to
column section with anchor bolts.
1

19. 5.2 Walls
Walls are the vertical constructions of a building that
enclose, separate, and protect its interior spaces. They
may be load-bearing structures of homogeneous or
composite construction designed to support imposed
loads from floors and roofs, or consist of a framework
of columns and beams with nonstructural panels
attached to or filling in between them.
In addition to supporting vertical loads, exterior wall
constructions must be able to withstand horizontal
wind loading and serve as shear walls and transfer
lateral wind and seismic forces to the ground
foundation.
5.2 Wall Overall Analysis
CLASSIFICATION OF WALL SYSTEM
Single Walls System
single wall – single layer Also called a system
because this layer “ concrete” contain other
several layers “concrete layer, thermal
insulation, water proof layer “.
Composite walls system
composite walls that contain several layers of
single walls to achieve the concept of
integration.
Exterior walls
Serve as a protective shield against the weather for the interior spaces of
a building; their construction should control the passage of heat,
infiltrating air, sound, moisture, and water vapor.
Advantages: Durable and resistant to the weathering effects of sun,
wind, and rain.
The interior walls
Acts as wall or partitions, which subdivide the space within
a building, may be either structural or non-load bearing.
Advantages: Provide acoustical separation, accommodate
the distribution and outlets of mechanical and electrical
services.
Openings for doors and windows must be
constructed so that any vertical loads from
above are distributed around the openings and
not transferred to the door and window units
themselves. Their size and location are
determined by the requirements for natural
light, ventilation, view, and physical access, as
well as the constraints of the structural system
and modular wall materials.
1

20. 5.2.1 Types of masonry wall systems
1. Running bond,
Commonly used for cavity and veneer walls, is composed of overlapping stretchers.
2. Common bond
Has a course of headers between every five or six courses of stretchers; also known as
American bond.
3. Stack bond
Has successive courses of stretchers with all head joints aligned vertically.
Because units do not overlap, horizontal joint reinforcement is required @ 16" (405)
o.c. in unreinforced walls.
4. Flemish bond
Has alternating headers and stretchers in each course, each header being
centered above and below a stretcher. Flare headers with darker ends are often
exposed in patterned brickwork.
5. Flemish cross bond
A modified Flemish bond in which courses of alternate headers and stretchers
alternate with stretching courses.
6. Flemish diagonal bond
A form of Flemish cross bond in which the courses are offset to form a diamond
pattern.
7. Garden-wall bond
Used for lightly loaded boundary walls, has a sequence of a header and three
stretchers in each course, with each header being centered over a header in
alternate courses.
8. English bond
Has alternate courses of headers and stretchers in which the headers are
centered on stretchers and the joints between stretchers line up vertically in all
courses.
5.2.2 Extra structural support to openings of the wall or corner
Masonry Cavity Wall Typical 2”
to 3” cavity Metal ties used to
bind wythes
together
Reinforced masonry walls use steel
reinforcing bars placed in thickened
joints or cavities with a fluid grout
mix of Portland cement, aggregate,
and water for greater strength in
carrying vertical loads and
increased resistance to buckling and
lateral forces. It is essential that a
strong bond develop between the
reinforcing steel, grout, and
masonry units.
Reinforcing steel bars
are fully embedded in
portland cement grout
For horizontal
joint
reinforcement, a
metal “ring”
was place onto
the bricks.
Horizontal bond
beamAll cells containing
reinforcement are filled solidly
with grout
• Cells are aligned vertically
to form a clear, continuous
vertical space.
• Reinforcement continues
down to a reinforced
concrete footing.
Horizontal joint
reinforcement
Fulbed mortar at end walls and cross webs
from grouted cells; Cleanouts was provided
at bottom course of cells to be grouted;
before grouting, it need to be inspect and
seal.
1
8

21. Reinforced grouted
masonry should
conform to the
requirements for
plain grouted
masonry.
Metal wall ties
between
reinforcement and
masonry for fine
grout” cover with
coarse grout.
REINFORCED GROUTED
MASONRY
Raked joint is made by removing mortar to
a given depth with a square-edged tool
before hardening.
Raked joints are for interior use only.
Mortar joints vary in thickness, but
typically 10cm thick.
Tooled joints are mortar joints compressed
and shaped with any tool other than a
trowel. Tooling compresses the mortar and
forces it tightly against the brick surfaces,
providing maximum protection against
water penetration in areas subject to high
winds or heavy rains.
Troweled joints are finished by striking off
excess mortar with a trowel. In troweled
joints, the mortar is cut or struck off with a
trowel. The most effective of these is the
weathered joint because it sheds water.
MONTAR
JOINT
Reinforced Brick Lintels
Steel Angle Lintels6’’(150) minimum bearing
Reinforcing steel fully
embedded in Portland cement
grout
Four to seven courses high
Lintel may be visually articulated
with a soldier course.
Flashing
Interior angle
Exterior angle
Concrete Masonry Lintels
Precast Concrete Lintels
Bearing on solid or grouted
masonry
Lintel or bond beam block with
Portland cement grout fill and
reinforcing steel.
Precast reinforced concrete
lintels may be used to span
openings in both bricks and
concrete masonry walls.
1

22. 5.2.3 On-site wall-brick wall analysis
The walls as seen in the double-storeys townhouse,
Kota Puteri, Rawang, Selangor are brick walls,
which also known as masonry walls.
The brick used are burnt clay bricks and sand lime
bricks. The type of masonry binding used is
running bond.
Burnt clay bricks were used to make walls in
between two houses. The reason behind choosing
burnt clay bricks is the properties of burnt clay
bricks have good fire resistance and low heat
conduction.
Therefore it can minimize damages and prevent
damages spread from one house to another when
fire disaster occurs. Also burnt clay bricks are more
durable and suitable for structural support.
While sand lime bricks were used for other facing
of the building’s walls because it has properties of
smooth finish and surface for detailed and wider
range of face treatments, also offers excellent
strength as a load bearing member and it is cheaper
compared to burnt clay bricks. But it does not have
good fire resistance compare to burnt clay bricks.
As saw in the picture, the brick used for the
walls that are facing outside are sand lime brick.
So it provides good smooth face and gave
convenient for after-treatment such as painting on
the wall, or doing any beatification on the wall.
However the only problem is that sand lime brick
is not fire resistance and thus it is easier to decay
and need more repairing work constantly compared
to burnt red brick.
As shown in the picture, the
brick used for the walls
between the houses are burnt
red bricks. Although it does
not give good appealing,
smooth surface, but it is great
resistance towards heat and
fire.
It also have stronger
compression force and
structurally more stable and
strong compared to sand lime
brick.
So burnt clay brick is a good
materials for building
structural that support walls
along with the columns and
structural slaps.
Running bond,
Commonly used for
cavity and veneer walls,
is composed of
overlapping stretchers.
2

23. 3. Lay the Header Course. Be
sure to understand how the
bricks must be stacked. When
stacking, every now and then
hold a level against the joints to
see that the bricks line up
vertically. For common bond
(shown here), a header course
needs two 3/4 bricks and two 1/4
bricks, known as closures, at
each corner. Excess mortar was
scraped away as you go. Every
so often, the joints were checked
to see if they need to be struck.
4. Build a Lead. Continue building the
corner or the end of the wall, which is
called a lead. A stack seven or eight
bricks high was made. As going, a level
was used to check that if the corner was
plumbed and the courses level. A story
pole was used to check joint thickness.
Sliding of the bricks to adjust their
position is prohibited, unless the bricks
were laid within the past two minutes.
5. String a Line Between Leads.
Leads were built at the other end of
the wall in the same way and it was
check with the story pole and level.
The leads were laid in-between
bricks for the bottom course of both
wythes, using the pencil lines as
guides. Hook mason’s blocks and
stretch a mason’s line from one lead
to the other at the center of a joint.
The line should be taut and about 1⁄8
inch from the bricks.
6. Fill in Between the Leads. For each
course, move the line blocks up one joint
and use the line as a guide for the height and
for the outer edge of the wall. Don’t let
bricks touch the line. The last brick in the
middle of a course, called the closure brick,
is buttered at both ends. Butter it generously
and slip it in straight down. Avoid sliding it.
You may need to use a striking tool to force
more mortar into one joint.
7. Strike the Joints. Every 20 minutes or
so, depending on weather conditions, test
the joints by pressing with your thumb. If a
thumbprint holds its shape, it’s time to
strike. With a brick jointer, smooth all
horizontal joints, then smooth the verticals
so water will drain properly. If a bit of
mortar oozes out from the jointing tool,
leave it or it will smear
8. Brush and Clean. Excess mortar
was brushed off once it has started to
harden and appears crumbly. If the
mortar smears, stop and wait a few
minutes longer. Any smears may be
able to wipe away with a damp
sponge, but be careful not to get the
joints very wet or will weaken them.
Alternatively, wait a day and then
clean with a mild muriatic acid
solution.
5.2.4 Construction Technique of building masonry wall
Before starting to lay the bricks, all the materials needed must be prepared and
make a story pole so can quickly measure bricks for the correct height. Lay a
number of bricks with 3⁄8-inch spaces between them, on edge on a flat surface.
Then lay a length of 1-by-2 or 1-by-4 next to the bricks and marks were drew
indicating the centers of each mortar joint. Alternatively, purchase a ready-made
story pole. A standard model has marks every 8 inches to indicate three courses
of common brick plus the mortar joints.
1. Lay a Dry Run.
Chalk lines were snapped on the
footing indicating the outline of the
wall. Bricks were placed on the footing
in a dry run, with 3⁄8-inch dowels
between them to represent the joints.
Make sure to understand how the bricks
will be laid out at the corner. The brick
might need to be cut into half or two.
With a pencil, the footing for the
centers of each joint was marked.2. Lay the First Bricks.
The dry-laid bricks were removed.
Starting at a corner or at the end of a
wall, a line of mortar was thrown for
the first three bricks. The first brick
was set and placed. One end of the
other bricks were buttered and set.
The bricks were pushed into place
and see that the centers of the joints
are at the pencil marks. A level was
used to check that if the bricks
formed an even surface in both
directions. Excess mortar was
scraped away. Repeat for the second
layer and lay bricks for the start of an
adjoining wall if started at a corner.
2

24. 5.3 Ceiling
5.3.1 Introduction
The ceiling surface is an important functional component of a room.
It helps to control the diffusion of light and sound about the room and
may play a role in preventing the passage of sound vertically between
the rooms above and below, and horizontally between rooms on
either side of a partition. It is often designed to resist the passage of
fire and must it be appropriately noncombustible. Frequently, it is
called upon to assist in the distribution of conditioned air, artificial
light, and electrical energy.
In many buildings, it must accommodate sprinkler heads for fire
suppression and loudspeakers for intercommunication systems. And
its color, texture, pattern, and shape are prominent in the overall
visual impression of the room.
A ceiling can be a simple, level plane, a series of sloping planes that
give a sense of the roof above, a luminous surface, a richly coffered
ornamental ceiling, or even a frescoed plaster vault such as
Michelangelo’s famous ceiling in the Sistine Chapel in Rome; the
possibilities are endless.
5.3.2 Types of Ceiling
Exposed structural and mechanical components
In many buildings, it makes sense to omit finished ceiling surfaces
altogether and simply expose the structural and mechanical components
of the floor or roof above. In industrial and agricultural buildings, where
appearance is not of prime importance, this approach offers the
advantages of economy and ease of access for maintenance. Many types
of floor and roof structures are inherently attractive if left exposed, such
as heavy timber beams and decking, concrete waffle slabs and steel
trusses. Other types of structures such as concrete flat plates and precast
concrete planks, have little visual interest but their undersurfaces can be
painted and left exposed as finished ceilings in apartment buildings and
hotels, which have little need for mechanical services at the ceiling. This
saves money and reduces the overall height. In some buildings the
mechanical and structural elements at the ceiling, if carefully designed,
installed and painted can create a powerful aesthetic of their own.
Exposing structural and mechanical components rather than covering
them with a finished ceiling does not always save money. Mechanical and
structural work is not normally done in a precise, attractive fashion
because it is not usually expected to be visual and it is less expensive for
workers to take only as much care in installation as is required for
satisfactory functional performance. To achieve perfectly straight, neatly
sealed ductwork that is free of dents, steel decks without rust and weld
spatter, square, well organized runs of electrical conduit and plumbing,
the drawings and specifications for the project must tell exactly the results
that are expected and a higher labor cost must be anticipated.
1. Suspended linear metal ceilings
A suspended linear metal ceiling is made of long elements that are formed
from sheet aluminum attached to a special type of concealed grid.
2. Suspended fire resistance rated ceilings
Suspended ceilings that are part of a fire resistance rated floor ceiling or
roof ceiling assembly made be made of gypsum board, plaster or lay in
panel and grid systems that are especially designed to have the necessary
resistance to the passage of fire.
Penetrations in such membrane ceilings must be detailed so as to maintain
the required degree of fire resistance throughout the ceiling.
1. Tightly attached ceilings
Ceilings of any material may be attached tightly to wood joists, wood
rafters, steel joists or concrete slabs. Special finishing arrangements must
be worked out for any beams and girders that protrude through the plain
of the ceiling and for ducts, conduits, pipes and sprinkler heads that fall
below the ceiling.
2. Suspended ceilings
Suspended ceilings speaks to a ceiling which is suspended on wires some
distance below the floor or roof structure that hangs level and flat despite
varying sizes of girders, beams, joists, slabs above and even under a roof
structure that slopes down toward roof drains. Ducts, pipes and conduit
can run freely in the plenum space between the ceiling and the structure
above. Lighting fixtures, sprinkler heads, loudspeakers and fire detection
devices may be recessed into the ceiling. Such a ceiling can also, at
additional cost, serve as membrane fire protection for the floor or roof
structure above, eliminating the need for fussy individual fireproofing of
steel joists or imparting a higher fire resistance rating to wood or precast
concrete structures. 2

25. 5.3.3 Jointless Ceiling
These forms of suspended ceilings provide a continuous and
jointless surface with the internal appearance of a
conventional ceiling. They may be selected to fulfil fire
resistance requirements or to provide a robust form of
suspended ceiling.
The 2 common ways of construction are a plasterboard or
expended metal lathing soffit with hand applied plaster finish
or a sprayed applied rendering with a cement base
5.3.4 Skim Coating
Skim coating is a texturing technique used to make a wall
smooth. Drywalls use this technique to hide an imperfect
taping job, to give the wall a plaster-like appearance and in
situations when only the smoothest surface will do. Skim
coating is the only way to achieve a level 5 drywall finish,
which a number of trade associations, including the Painting
and Decorating Contractors of America, recommend for areas
of bright or critical lighting.
Advantages of Jointless Ceiling
1. Durable
2. Sound brooding
3. Easy to use just add water
4. Good surface preparation and primer for
painting
5. Excellent adhesions to porous substrates
6.Sand easily to a smooth finish
2

26. 5.3.5 Installation
How Ceiling Is Constructed
Step 1:
Setting the Perimeter
Step 2:
Setting the Perimeter
Step 3:
Setting the Perimeter
Step 5:
Installing the
Runners
Step 4:
Setting the Perimeter
Step 6:
Installing the
Runners
Step 7:
Installing the
Runners
Step 8:
Installing the Runners
Step 9:
Installing the Runners
Step 10:
Installing the Runners
Step 11:
Installing the
Runners
Step 12:
Adding Fixtures
2

27. Installation
How Ceiling Is Constructed
Step 13:
Adding Fixtures
Step 14:
Ductwork and
Diffusers
Step 15:
Ductwork and
Diffusers
Step 16:
Ductwork and
Diffusers
Step 17:
Finishing Up
Step 18:
Finishing Up
Step 19:
Finishing Up
Step 20:
Finishing Up
2

28. 5.4 Staircase Overall Analysis
Staircase is a construction design which basically
connects a large or certain distance by dividing it into
smaller vertical distance called steps. Stairs provide
means for moving from one level and another therefore
important links in the overall circulation scheme of a
building. Whether punctuating a two-story volume or
rising through a narrow shaft, a atairway takes up a
significant amount of space. The landings of a stairway
should be logically integrated with the structural system
to avoid overly complicated framing condition.Safety
and ease of travel are, in the end, the most important
considerations in the design and placement of stairs.
There are different types of stairs, for instance; straight -
run stair, quarter - turn stair, half - turn stair, winding
stair, circular stair and spiral stair. In addition, to
constrcut a staircase, a proper construction of its
stairway width, landings, handrails, tread,risers, and
nosings which are the requirement of constructing a
staircase
Quarter – Turn Stair
Several different constrcution professionals may contribute to the design and
layout of a stairway. An architect design the stairway to comply with building
codes, fit the particular space of the building, and have an aesthetically
pleasing design. Often a carpenter is called upon to lay out and build the
stairway. The carpenter is responsible for working out construction details
that are not specifically covered on the prints.
In some instances, a cabinetmaker or millworker takes field measurements at
the job site. From these measurements, the stairway is designed, laid out, and
temporarily assembled in a shop. The stairway is then disssembled and sent to
the job sute where it is reassembled and installed by carpenters.
5.4 Staircase
5.4.1 Introduction
2

29. 5.4.2 Staircase Terminology
The terminology used in stairway building describes the stairways and
components, as well as design factors and methods of construction. Some
sommon terms used in stairway design and constrcution are lading, flight,
step, line of travel, riser,tread, nosing, stringer, unit rise, total rise, and
total run.
A landing is a horizontal platform seperating two flights of stairs. A flight
us an unbroken and continuous series of steps from one floor to another or
from one floor to a landing. A step is a unit consisting of tread and one
riser. A landing must be as wide as the stairway being straved and at least
36’’ in length. Distance between landing should not exceed 12’-0’’
vertically.
A riser is the vertical board between treads. In certain stairways, such as
open stairways, there are no risers.
A tread is the horizontal walking surface of a step. The width of a tread is
measured from the face of the riser to the outside edge of the nosing,
The nosing is the portion of tread that projects beyond the riser face.
A stringer is the structural support of a stairway that is fabricated to
receive the risers and treads. It carries the main load of the stairway can be
either open or closed.
The unit rise is the height of each riser and is calculated by diving the
total rise by the number of riser in a stairway. Unit riser is measured
vertically from the top tread to the top of adjecent tread.
The unit run is the width of each tread. The unit run is calculated by
dividing the total run by the number of treads in a stairway. Measured
horizonatlly from the face of the adjecent riser. The total riser is the
vertical distance(height) of a stairway from finished floor below to the
finished floor above.
Stairwell
Header
Cut out
Stringer
Unit Run
Unit Rise
Unit Run
Unit Rise plus finish floor
thickness minus tread
thickness
Finish Floor Line
Stringer
Cleat
Tread
Nosin
g
Riser
Trea
d
2

30. Timber Stair
5.4.3 Material types
A wood stair is constructed of the
following elements:
Carriages or rough stringer are the
preincipal inclinaed
Beams supporting the trades and
risers of flight stairs.
Tread are the footways that span the
distance between
The supporting carriages.
Carriages may be attached to their
supporting beam, header, or wall
framing with metal hangers or a
ledger.
Kick plate anchors and absorbs the
thurts
Figure 4 : Timber stair
Steel Stair
Steeal beam support
Steel channel stringer
Concrete filled steel tread
Building codes require the
handrail to extend beyond
the top and the bottom and
return to the wall.
Steel tube or channel support
Figure 4.1 Details of Steel Stairs
Steel pan landing with concrte fill
Steel channel support from
landing may be hung with
threaded rads
from the floor obstructure above,
or linear directly on masonry.
Figure 4.2: Closed – Riser with Full Stringer
Figure 4.3: Handrail of Steel Stair
2

31. Concrete Stair
A concrete stair is designed as an
inclined, one-way reinforced slab
with steps formed on its upper
surface. If the stair is constructed
after the floor beam wall
supports, it acts as a simple beam.
If tt is cast with the beam slab
support . Its designed as a
continuous beam. Concrete strair
requires careful analysis of
load,span,and support conditiond.
1-1/2’’(38) minimum concrete
wall
4’’(100) minimum mansonry
walls
Stair slab thickness; rule of
thumb: span/26
Span is equal to the horizontal
distance between the slab support.
Figure 5 Concrete Stair Constuction
1-1/2’’(38) maxmum
nosing
½’’(13) maximum radius
¾’’(19) Radius typical
Figure 5.1 Concrete Stairs Details
Figure 5.2 Open Riser / Partial Open Riser Stair
Figure 5.3 Double storey Townhouse, Kota Puteri, Rawang
Open Riser Timber Stair
An open stairway that is
exposed on one or both sides.
Partial -Open Riser Concrete
Stair
A partial open stairway is a
stairway that has full wall on
one side and shortern wall on
the other side.
2

32. 5.4.4 Installation
Step 1
Calculating the Rise,Run and Dimensions of stairs
The maximum riser height for residential stairway is 7
¾’’,
measured vertically between the leading edges of adjacent
trades.
Between the largest and smallest riser heights within a
given flight
of stairs should not more than 3/8’’. The minimum tread
depth for
the residential stairway is 10’’.
Measured horizontally from the front
of the nosings of adjacent treads.
Measure from the height of one floor to another. Divide
the height
with 7 ‘’ to get the number of steps.
Measure the horizontal distance if the staircase will span
and measure
the width of staircase from the left and right.
Step 2
Determine the Foundation’s Dimention
Step 3
Constructing the Form
Using framing lumber to build the form.
Removing the side of the form according to the
tread and riser calculation.
Step 4
Preparing Concrete and Pouring Mortar
Producing well mixed mortar with a portable cement
mixer. Star at the bottom and pour at a time. Make
sure the mortar are spread evently.
Using a spade to remove the tapped air bubbles.
Step 5
Drying Process
Spraying the stairs wih curing compound and
cover it with burlap. Then remove the lumber.
3

33. 5.4.5 Stair plan
Quarter – Turn Stair
A quarter – turn or L – shaped stair makes a right
handed- angled turn in the path of travel.
The two flights connected by an intervening landing
may be equal or unequal, depending on the desired
proporion of the
stairway opening. Also called L stair.
Quarterspace landing
A square landing connecting
two flights of a stair. Also,
quarterpace landing.
Landing
A platform between flights
of stairs or the floor at the
foot or head of a flight of
stairs
Walking Line
A line 18 in(457mm) in from
the centerline of handrail,
along which the run of a
winder is the same as a flier.
Also called line of travel.
Figure 3: Quarter- Turn stair
Figure 3.2 Plan
Figure 3.1: Quarter – Turn Details
3

34. 5.4.6 Installation II
Tread and Nosings
1. Applying
construction adhesive
Lay three beads of
adhesive on the tread.
Don’t put any on the
space that will be
covered by the nosing.
2. Positioning the tread
assembly.
Press the glued tread
assembly into place on the
tread, with the tongue of the
full plank facing out. Wipe
off any glue that squeezes
onto the top of the plank with
a damp rag.
3. Covering the riser
Measure the height and width of
the riser space. Cut a plank to fit,
cutting off the tongue in the
process. Apply adhesive to the
back of the cut plank. Angle the
plank into place, fitting the cut
side under the tread overhang of
the step above. Press the riser into
place.
5.4.7 Skirting
4. Completing
the stairs
Cut a tread edge
piece and fit it
onto the exposed
tread edge.
5. Filling the screw
holes.
Prepare the putty
according to the
manufacturer’s
directions. A scrap
of plank makes a
smooth mixing
surface. With a
plastic putty knife,
smoothly fill the
screw holes in each
nosing. Then
carefully remove the
tape. After about 20
minutes, even out
the putty with a
cloth dampened with
water or acetone.
Putty is usually
impossible to
remove once it’s dry,
so work carefully
and clean up right
away.
The first step when installing the mitered skirt is to
determine the size of the skirt necessary for the
application. The fundamental measurements include the
length and the width.
You must make sure to select a piece of material that is
long enough to cover the total run of the staircase. The
width should be at least 9-1/2-inches wide
Lay the skirt along the top of the stringer parallel with
the stringer resting on the points.
Measure the width of the skirt on the plumb.
Measure up from the floor at the bottom of the stringer.
Take this distance, less 1-inch, and scribe a line level
with the floor at this point
3

35. 5.4.8 Finishes
1. Spreading tile adhesive on
stairs.
Start tiling the stairs from top.
Consequently, if the concrete
floor is too dry, you should
sprinkle a couple drips of
water, as to make sure the tile
adhesive with the floor.
2. After spreading the tile
adhesive on the floor by
using straight side, comb it
with the notched side.
Spreading adhesive on a
larger surface than the
footprint of tiles. Spread
adhesive 2’’ over the
footprint of the ceramic
tiles.
3. Spreading the bed of
adhesive on the stairs.
Essential elements; the
surface must be leveled and
the adhesive layer must be on
the whole surface
4. Installing the tile stair
nosing.
5. Tap them gently by using a
rubber hammer. By this way,
you lock the tiles into
position make them level.
6. Installing the tile nosing,
make sure ceramic tiles on the
tread of the next stair.
Installing the stair raisers,
using a L – square, as to make
sure they are plumb.
Double storey Townhouse, Kota Puteri, Rawang
3

36. 5.4.9 Standard Requirements
Tread and rise
Proper stairway design and construction ensure a
safe stairway. Some general safety practices for
stairway design and construction include the
flowing;
All the risers and treads should be equal in a
flight.
All stairs providing access to and within
buildings should be designed to be accessible by
most persons with reduced mobility.
A minimum of these risers per flight is
recommended to prevent tripping and may be
required by the building code.
Uniform riser and tread dimensions are required.
Open riser are not permitted.
11’’(280) min
4’’(100) min; 7’’(180)max
.
Landings
At least as wide as the
stairway they serve and have
minimum length equal to the
stair width, measured in the
direction of travel.
Landing serving straight-run
stairs need not be longer than
48’’(1200)
Stairway Width
Consult building code for details.
44’’(1120)minimum width; 36’’(915)
minmum for stairways serving an occupant
load of 49 or less.
Handrails
Project a minimum of 4-1/2’’(115) into the required width; stringers
and trim projects a maximum of 1-1/2’’(38).
Required on both sides. 34’’ to 38’’(865 to 965) hright above the
leading edge of stair treads or nosings.
It should extend at least 12’’(305) horizontallybeyond the top riser of
stair glight and extend the slope of the stair run for a horizontal
distance of at least one tread depth beyond the last riser of nosing of
the flight.
Figure 7 Stairs
3

37. 5.5 Railings
5.5.1 Types
Guard rail used on site
Guard Rail
Guard railings are also known as safety railing or barrier installed
along horizontal surfaces such as balconies, decks or porch.
Stair Rail
Safety railings are located on open sides of a stairway. These
stair rails provide a safe grasping surface which reduces fall
injuries and act as a safety barrier in open areas that may
otherwise one to fall off one side of the stairs.
Advantages/Disadvantages of Horizontal Railings over Vertical Balusters
Advantages:
• Cheaper: -Horizontal blusters cost less than vertical ones
-Lesser materials required
-Fewer connections, reduce fasteners and hardware needed
• Easier to install : -Less labour intensive
• Versatile : -Allow for any material to be used
-Flexibility in design
-Vertical railings incompatible with materials such as cable of fiberglass
• Higher Privacy : -Horizontal railings interrupt vision
Disadvantages:
• Safety issues : -Climbing hazard for horizontal railings
-Ladder-like structure presents climbing opportunity for children
• High maintenance (for outdoor and indoor guardrails)
-Longer lengths for material for horizontal rails
-Replacement of entire length should rail be damaged or worn out
-Vertical rails cheaper to replace since they are shorter
-More effort/time to replace horizontal railings
• Shorter durability (for outdoor railings)
-Horizontal railings more prone to damage by water and sun
-Water doesn’t run off as quickly
-Deteriorates faster
-Rails may wrap, crack, rot, corrode, ruse faster than vertical rails
Stair rail and guard rail
with horizontal
balusters
Stair rail with vertical balusters
3

38. 5.5.2 Construction Technique
Stair rails construction methods
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
Step 6
Once the framework for the staircase is set and once the concrete bricks are
laid to form the concrete railings alongside the staircase .
L-shaped steel bars are placed at the corners at the end of each stair rail
to ensure a perpendicular edge once the edge is plastered.
Cement is then used to cover the top bricks to ensure a smooth sloping
surface for the railing to be placed on.
In this case there is a slight indentation at the top of the “concrete rail” to
provide a better grip for the home owner .
An L-shaped PVC is used as a framework to define where the concrete
should be casted.
Concrete railing is plastered. Timber handrail is secured to the top of the
cemented concrete blocks with some form of adhesive.
Railing construction on site
Standard Method (Timber/Metal)
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Determine height of starting newels handrail attached to post
balustrades after a pre-determined length.
Install landing newel on riser.
Vertical intersections should be marked to attach the railings on
posts and balustrades.
Bottom railing drilled to fix balusters.
Outdoor Guard Rails
1.Materials are obtained pre-fabricated from factory
2.Balusters and posts are welded together
3.Top handrail is most often of the same material with the posts and
balusters
which is either steel or iron
4.Usually finished with multiples coats paint to increase weather
resistance and tolerance
5.These guard rails are usually used for outdoor balconies or for air
conditioning casements
3

39. 5.5.3 Safety Issues
Guard Rails
•Guard rails are necessary to protect open sides of stairways
•Guard rails should be at least 36” (915mm)
•Guard rails may have the same heights as stair handrails
•Guard rails should be able to withstand a concentrated load applied
to the top hand rails
Regardless of horizontal or vertical balustrade arrangement
Stair Rails
•34” to 38” height above the leading edge of the stair treads or
nosing
•Handrails should be continuous without any obstructions
•Handrails should be free of sharp or abrasive elements and have a
circular-like-cross-section
To ensure adequate grasp ability
•1-1/2’’ (38mm) minimum clearance between hand rail and wall
Stair rail
Illustrate the depression in each handrail that would enhance graspability and
how a handrail with inadequate graspability is not desired
A stair rail/s can be
installed on the wall at
the same height as the
existing banister
If stair rails cannot be
attached to the wall with
wall brackets then
vertical stair rail supports
can be used Newel rails can
be fitted to
newel posts
3

40. 5.6 Floor System Overall Analysis
5.6.1 Introduction
Floor system which is consider as a type of
horizontal planes are important as it supports
people, furnishings, and movable equipment.
Floor systems must transfer their loads
horizontally across space to either beams and
columns or to loadbearing walls.
Floor system are made up of a series of linear
beams and joist overlaid with a plane of
sheathing or decking, or consist of a nearly
homogenous slab of reinforced concrete.
5.6.2 Floor Types
Concrete
• Precast concrete planks may be supported by
beams or loadbearing walls.
Advantages: Durability, Stiffness, damp
resistance
Disadvantages: Defects hard to rectify
Rely on the ground beneath them for
their support
Uses a composite of concrete and
structural steel to support the design
load
Formed from a minimum of 150mm
thick reinforced concrete
Act as a monolithic unit with foundation
Resting on a bed of 150mm minimum
thick hard core
100mm slab thickness
Does not carry superstructure loads Entire slab area support the
superstructure loads
Superstructure
Slab
Isolation joint
Independent
Foundation
Ground-supported Slab Structurally-reinforced
Slab
5.6.3 Types of Concrete Ground Slab
Wood
• Wood beams support structural planking or decking.
• Beams may be supported by girders, posts, or
loadbearing walls.
• Underside of floor structure may be left exposed; an
applied ceiling is optional.
• Subflooring, underlayment, and applied ceiling
finishes have relatively short spans.
Advantages: cost less, faster construction
Disadvantages: cost more
Steel
• Steel beams support steel decking
or precast concrete planks.
• Beam framing is typically an integral part of
a steel skeleton frame system.
• Steel decking have relatively short spans.
Advantages: Fire resistance, Aesthetics
Disadvantages: steel beams carry their own
weight only.
3

41. 5.6.4 Concrete Slab Overall Analysis
Concrete slabs are similar to beams in the way they span horizontally between
supports and may be simply supported, continuously supported or cantilevered.
Slabs are constructed of reinforced concrete poured into formwork on-site or
into trenches excavated into the ground. Concrete slabs are usually 150 to 300
mm deep. Slabs transmit the applied floor or roof loads to their supports. Slabs
may be divided into ground slab and floor slab.
Ground-
supported Slab
Structurally-
reinforced Slab One-Way
System
Two Way
System
One-way
Ribbed Slab
One-Way
Slab
Two-
way
Flat
Plate
Two-
way
Flat
Slab
Two-
way
Waffle
Slab
Two-
way
Waffle
Slab &
Beam
Concrete Ground Slab Reinforced Concrete
Floor System
Slab
3

42. 5.6.5 Slab used on site – Ground Slab (Structurally-reinforced slab)
Process of construction
1. Prepare the ground
2. Fix the formwork
3. Install service pipe
4. Install reinforcement bar
5. Place and compact concrete
6. Cure the concrete slab
Section of Solid Floor on level site
Bedding of internal floor tiles
1. Provide a level surface with sufficient strength to support the
impose loads of people and furniture.
2. Exclude the passage of water and water vapour to the interior of
the building.
3. Provide resistance to unacceptable heat loss through the floor.
4. Provide the correct type of surface to receive the chosen finish.
Damp-proof course (dpc) or damp-proof membrane
(dpm) is to
provide an impermeable barrier to the passage of
moisture.
1. Resist moisture penetration from below (rising
damp).
2. Resist moisture penetration from above.
3. Resist moisture penetration from horizontal entry.
4

43. 5.6.6 Reinforce Concrete Floor System
Reinforced Concrete Floor System is divided into one way system and two way system.
One-way System Two-way System
One way slab is supported on two opposite side only thus
structural action is only at one direction. Total load is carried in
the direction perpendicular to the supporting beam. If a slab is
supported on all the four sides but the ratio of longer span (l) to
shorten span (b) is greater than 2, then the slab will be
considered as one way slab.
Two way slabs are the slabs that are supported on four sides
and the ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is less than 2.
In two way slabs, load will be carried in both the directions. So,
main reinforcement is provided in both directions for two way
slabs.
One Way Slab Two Way Flat Plate
One Way Ribbed Slab Two Way Flat Slab with Drop Panels
Two-way Joist Slab (Waffle)
One way slab is supported by beams in only 2 sides. Two way slab is supported by beams in all four sides.
The ratio of longer span panel (L) to shorter span panel (B) is
equal or greater than 2. Thus, L/B >= 2
The ratio of longer span panel (L) to shorter span panel (B) is
less than 2. Thus, L/B < 2.
Main reinforcement is provided in only one direction for one
way slabs.
Main reinforcement is provided in both the direction for two way
slabs.
4

44. Two way flat plate
A flat plate is a one or two-way system usually supported directly
on columns or loadbearing walls. It is one of the most common
forms of construction of floors in buildings. The principal feature
of the flat plate floor is a uniform or near-uniform thickness with
a flat soffit which requires only simple formwork and is easy to
construct. The floor allows great flexibility for locating
horizontal services above a suspended ceiling or in a bulkhead.
Tensile Reinforcement 6” to 12” (150 to 305)
typical slab depth rule
of thumb for slab
depth: span/36
Column capital may be used in
place of or in conjunction with
a drop panel for increased shear
resistance.
Suitable for relatively heavy loads
and spans from
20' to 40' (6 to 12 m)
Slab used on site- Floor Slab (Two Way Flat Plate)
Floor Slab construction steps & technique
Step 1: The substructure and ground floor such as foundations,
stumps, and ground floor beam) and columns in between
ground floor and first floor have been cast.
Step 2: Props are erected to promote lodgers, which support the
formworks of beams.
Step 3: Beams are supported by lodgers.
Step 4: Plywood make up the formwork for beams.
Step 5: Props erected for slab frameworks.
Step 6: Beams are supported by lodgers.
Step 7: Plywood decking.
Step 8: Reinforcement cages for beams are placed.
Step 9: Concreting
Step 10: Concrete hardened, frameworks are dismantled and
concrete achieve sufficient strength.
Vacuum dewatering
Use to shorten the time delay
between tamping the concrete and
power floating the surface. This
strategy is suitable for slabs up to
300mm thick and should be applied
about 3 minutes for every 25mm
depth of concrete which allow power
floating to take place within 20 to 30
minutes of tamping operation. The
applied vacuum forces out the surplus
water by compressing the slab and
causes a reduction in slab depth of
approximately 2% therefore packing
strips should be placed on the side
forms before tamping to allow for
sufficient surcharge of concrete.
4

45. Reinforced concrete is a combination of traditional cement concrete
with reinforcements (Steel bar). This combination is made to utilize the
compressive strength of concrete and tensile strength of steel
simultaneously.
In reinforced concrete, the components works together to resist many
types of loading. Concrete resists compression and steel reinforcement
resists tension forces.
The floor whose topping consists of cement concrete is called cement
concrete floor or conglomerate floor. These floors consist of 2.5 cm to
5cm thick concrete layer laid over 10 cm thick base concrete and 10 cm
thick clean sand over ground whose compaction and consolidation is
done.
Advantages of concrete floors:
1. They are hard & durable
2. Provide a smooth & non-
absorbent surface
3. Fire resistant
4. Provide more sanitary surface as
they can be cleaned & washed
easily.
5. Economical as they require
negligible maintenance cost
6. Can be finished with a pleasing
appearance.
Disadvantages of concrete floors:
1. Tensile strength to compressive
strength ratio
2. Shrinkage
3. High form coast
4. Larger column section
5. Uncertainty of final strength
Materials Used on Site
Advantages of quartzite tile
1.Easy maintenance
• floor should be swept regularly if you have a
spill or stain.
2. Design flexibility
• comes in varying sizes
• choices colour choices available
• most versatile and designer friendly
• can be installed in nearly any application
• can be installed over most subfloors with the
proper underlayment.
3. Cost effective
• one of the most cost effective surfaces on the
market
• does not require refinishing, resurfacing, re-
glazing, or re-coating.
• ceramic tile and natural stone can increase
the value of your home, helping you recoup
the initial cost invested in the product.
4. Good for allergy and asthma sufferers
• Easy to clean and allergen free.
Cement concrete floor
Quartzite is a very hard metamorphic rock that originated as sandstone.
Through a process of high heating and pressurization, sandstone is
transformed into Quartzite which is an extremely hard and durable
natural stone. Quartzite tiles often have a wondrous sparkling texture
as individual quartz pieces recrystallize in high heat. Its incredible
strength makes it ideal for flooring applications. Quartzite tiles are
easy to maintain and are an environmentally conscious flooring option.
5.6.7 Materials on site
4

46. 6.0 ROOF
Roof is the covering on the uppermost part of a building or shelter which provides protection from animals and weather, notably rain or snow, but also heat, wind and sunlight. The
word also denotes the framing or structure which supports that covering.
6.1 Roof Types:
For the roof types, for the top floor is
composed of pitched steel roof trusses
and reinforced concrete flat roof act as
a shelter for the car park.
6.1.1 Reinforced Concrete Flat Roof
i) Roof platform which is horizontal or inclined up to 10degrees (to prevent ponding)
Ii ) Surrounded by fascia/parapet wall
Method of construction:
Step 1: Reinforced concrete roof is constructed from reinforced concrete with
reinforcement in both directions.
Step 2: Main reinforcement spans in direction of main roof span.
Step 3: After that, it's the distribution of reinforcement spans across the main
reinforcement.
Step 4: The Main bar is bent at ends to provide key to obtain maximum connection
between reinforcement bar and concrete.
Step 5: Loading width of wall/column is 100mm. Flat roof slab thickness is 150mm
minimum.
Flat Roof Finishes:
i)Flat roof is finished after the required gradient <10 degrees is obtain through c&s
screening.
ii)Used aggregate which is low heat-conductor instead of sand.
Components and function:
i) Waterproof membrane with a protective covering - prevent water reaching the roof
structure and the room below.
ii) Thermal insulation – ensures thermal comfort is maintained inside the building and
often provides support for the waterproofing membrane (warm roof).
iii) Roof deck - provides a base for the waterproof membrane or the insulation.
iv) Vapor control layer - helps reduce the risk of condensation.
v) Ceiling - plasterboard.
vi) Outlets and gutters.
6.1.2 Pitched roof: Modified Queen Post
A modified queen post truss can be used in bay barns or something that requires an
even longer span than what a queen post truss can handle. These trusses have added
members that provide compression and tension support over the longer span of the truss.
Materials: Steel
Function:
i) Provide an adequate barrier to the penetration of the elements.
ii) Maintain the internal environment by providing an adequate resistance to heat loss.
Roof is in a very exposed situation and must therefore be designed and constructed in
such a manner as to:
i) Safely resist all imposed loadings such as snow and wind.
ii) Be capable of accommodating thermal and moisture movements.
iii) Be durable so as to give a satisfactory performance and reduce maintenance to a
minimum.
Waterproofing layer
Insulation
Vapour Control Layer
Concrete & Screed Deck
Ceiling
4

47. 6.1.2.1 Steel Roof Trusses
Method of construction:
Step 1: Lift trusses into position, ensuring the webs of the trusses face the hip end wall.
Step 2: Stand the first station truncated truss in its set-out position and, fix two #12-14x20mm hex head tek screws
through the fixing bracket at each heel connection into the side of the top plates.
Step 3: Temporarily brace the truss plumb and straight.
Step 4: Repeat Steps 3 and 4 when installing the second, third and fourth station truncated trusses and temporarily brace.
Step 5: Continue positioning trusses as per the procedures in, Section 3.9 Common Roof Block Construction.
Step 6: Install the crown end rafter by lining up the fixing bracket with the outside of the top plate at the centre of the hip
end wall. Screw through the fixing bracket with two #12-14x20mm hex head tek screws.
Keeping the crown end rafter square to the hip end wall, screw it to the top chord of each truncated truss with one #12-
14x20mm at each intersection. Ensure the top chords of all truncated trusses are straight and plumb.
Step 7: Prior to fixing all jack rafters it is recommended to construct the external corner of the roof. To form the roof
structure at the eave line, and to assist in the fitting of the fascia use the Steel Frame Solutions hip corner. The hip corner
fixes to the top plates at external corners with two #12-14x20mm hex head tek screws and to the top of the first truncated
truss as per a standard jack rafter.
Step 8: Mark out the positions of the jack rafters on the hip end wall, ensure the design spacing is maintained. Fix the jack
rafters to the hip end wall by lining up the fixing bracket with the outside of the top plate.Screw through the fixing bracket
with two #12-14x20mm hex head tek screws. Keeping the jack rafter square to the hip end wall, screw it to the top chord
of each truncated truss with one #12-14x20mm at each intersection. Ensure the top chords of all truncated trusses are
straight and plumb.
Continue to install all jack rafters until the hip end is complete.
Step 9: For sheet roofing fix a Topspan 40 roof batten each side of the line formed from the intersection of the jack rafters
and the chords of the truncated trusses to finish the hip roof line.
Use two #12-14x20mm hex head tek screws at each intersection.
For tile roofing use the hip rafter section and fix it directly to the intersection of the jack rafters and the chords of the
truncated trusses. Use two #12-14x20mm hex head tek screws at each intersection.
Steel truss system is lightweight, quick and easy to use and ensures straight roof lines for the life of the
building. They are triangulated plane frames which carry purlins to which the roof coverings can be fixed.
Steel is stronger than timber and will not spread fire over its surface and for these reasons it is often
preferred to timber for medium and long span roofs. The rafters are restrained from spreading by being
connected securely at their feet by a tie member. Struts and ties are provided within the basic triangle to
give adequate bracing. Angle sections are usually employed for steel truss members since they are economic
and accept both tensile and compressive stresses. The members of a steel roof truss are connected together
with bolts or by welding to shaped plates called gussets. Steel trusses are usually placed at 3„000 to 4„500
centre which gives an economic purlin size.
Full Height Truss
Apex Truss
3rd Truncated
Truss
2nd Truncated Truss
1st Truncated
Truss
Hip Corner
Crown and Jack Rafter
Jack Rafters
Simple bend these rafters
to slit desired position and
fix
Fix using hex head tek screws where hip
corner sits on frame support structure.
These creeper rafters will be pre-
notched and supplied loose for on-site
fitting.
The body(CENTRE) of the
hip corner will be built and
fixed together by steel frame
solutions
Fix using hex head tek screw
to top chord hip corner
intersection
Hip corner construction
4

48. 6.2 Fascia
The fascia board is the long, straight board that runs along the lower
edge of the roof. The fascia is fixed directly to the roof trusses and
usually does all the work of supporting the bottom row of tiles and
carrying all the guttering. This is no mean feat, especially when it is
raining hard. In a downpour the roof of a 3-bed semi could be
washing several gallons of water per second into its gutters.
6.2.1 Fascia Capping:
Fascia cap is applied onto the fascia board for aesthetic and protection usage.
6.4 Roof Covers
Clay Roof Tile from Thailand
6.4.1 Installation:
Single Lap Tiling
6.3 Ridge Capping
A ridge cap vent is often used to help ventilate the home, which can lead to improved energy
efficiency and greater levels of comfort for occupants. To add a ridge cap vent, a hole must be
cut along the entire length of the ridge to create air flow. A plastic or metal vent is nailed over
the ridge to cover this hole, and is then covered with shingles or a separate ridge gap to create
the desired appearance.
Ridge cap vents are baffled to allow hot air to escape without letting water enter the home.
They feature an inverted “U" shape that fits over the ridge while sitting slightly above the
surface of the roof. Because water can't travel uphill, moisture is not able to penetrate the
home through these vents. This baffled structure also helps to keep out dirt and leaves, and
minimizes the impact of wind gusts. Some ridge cap vents may use a mesh screen to keep
bugs and other pests from entering the home.
Single Lap Tiling is used for the installation of roof covers.
The single lap of one tile over another provides the
weather tightness as opposed to the two layers of tiles used
in double lap tiling. The single lap tiles produced in clay
and concrete have a tongue and groove joint along their
side edges and in some patterns on all four edges which
forms a series of interlocking joints and therefore these
tiles are called single lap interlocking tiles. Generally there
will be an overall reduction in the weight of the roof
covering when compared with double lap tiling but the
batten size is larger than that used for plain tiles and as a
minimum every tile in alternate courses should be twice
nailed, although a good specification will require every tile
to be twice nailed. The gauge or batten spacing for single
lap tiling is found by subtracting the end lap from the
length of the tile.
6.5 Roof underlays
Roof Underlays
Sometimes called sarking or roofing felt provides
the barrier to the entry of snow, wind and rain
blown between the tiles or slates. It also prevents
the entry of water from capillary action.
Bitumen fibre based felts - supplied in rolls 1m
wide and up to 25m long. Breather or vapour
permeable underlay - typically produced from
HDPE fibre or extruded polypropylene fibre,
bonded by heat and pressure.
Materials permeable to water vapour are preferred
as these do not need to be perforated to ventilate
the roof space. Underlay of this is installed taut
across the rafters with counter battens support to
the tile battens. Where counter battens are not
used, underlay should sag slightly between rafters
to allow rain penetration to flow under tile
battens.
Gauge
Plain tile slip or dentils bedded
in troughs of profiled tiles
Half round ridge tile
Interlocking single
lap tiles each nailed
or clipped to battens
gauge
Ridge detail
Rafters
underlay
ridge
50 x 24
Timber
Batten
Typical Details
4

49. 6.6 Pitched Roof : Insulation Above Rafters
A cavity closer is also required to function as a cavity barrier to prevent fire spread, it
should provide at least 30 minutes fire resistance.
A breather membrane is an alternative to conventional bituminous felt as an under-tiling
layer. It has the benefit of restricting liquid water penetration whilst allowing water vapour
transfer from within the roof space. This permits air circulation without perforating the
under-tiling layer.
6.7 Roof Ventilation
Roof ventilation provision of eaves ventilation alone should allow adequate air
circulation in most situations. However, in some climatic conditions and where the air
movement is not directly at right angles to the building, moist air can be trapped in the
roof apex. Therefore, supplementary ridge ventilation is recommended.
4

50. 7.0 Door Overall
7.1 Introduction
Doors and doorways provide access from the outside into the
interior of a building as well as passage between interior spaces.
Exterior doors should provide weathertight seals when closed
and maintain the approximate thermal insulation value of the
exterior walls they penetrate. Interior doors should offer the
desired degree of visual and acoustical privacy.
7.2 Type of Door
Most common used of timber door:
Boarded Door Flush Door Panelled
Door
Panelled Door
• Comprising a timber frame, a solid panel and a glass panel.
• Objectives of used:
 To obtain skeleton framework in which the tendency to
shrinkage is reduced.
To provide a pleasant appearance.
• The basic framework consist of:
Stile at each side of the door (at least 10 cm wide)
Horizontal top rail
Bottom rail (15 cm wide)
Intermediate rails
A lock rail for housing the door lock (15 cm wide)
“Mullions” or “muntin” (vertical member)
Flush Door
Flush doors are usually perfectly flat on both sides.
Solid planks are rarely used for flush door. Flush
doors are made up with solid or hollow cores, with
two or more piles of veneer glued to the cores.
• Have flat front and back surfaces made of materials such as:
Plywood
Hardboard
Laminated plastics
• Provides a clean surface and extensively used these days.
• The commonly used forms of construction for flush doors:
Solid core
Skeleton core
Cellular core
Types of flush door Flush door used on
site
Boarded Door
Different forms of boarded door:
• Ledged and Battened Door
• Battered, Ledged and Braced Door
• Framed, Battened, Ledged and
Braced Door
Ledged and Battened Door
• Simplest form of boarded door construction
• The ledges (bottom, middle and top) are horizontal timber
rails which hold together the boards
• Only used for such purpose as temporary buildings or sheds
• The door is hung on a pair of steel “T” hinges, which are
screwed to the top and bottom ledges.
Panelled door
Ledged and battened door 4

51. 7.3 Sub-framing
The sub-frame is installed at the early stage of construction.
The installation of the main frame will only commence after
the completion of other internal trades.
Sub-frame is usually fabricated with a smaller width (about
10mm) than the main frame to allow adjustment for any
misalignment.
There are two methods of installing the sub-frame:
1. Before wall erection
2. After wall erection
Installing the sub-frame after wall erection is preferred as no
studding of door sub-frame is needed.
The advantages of sub-frame system are:
1. Prevent damages to the main frame and save cost and time
from undesirable abortive works
2. No staining of door frame by cement mortar and paint.
3. The main frame is less likely to be subjected to warpage or
shrinkage due to differential movement, tension or change in
moisture content and temperature during plastering or grouting
work.
Sub-frame installed at the site
Installing Door Sub-frame
1. Confirm door location
against the approved house
drawing. Verify that the
dimensions of the opening are
specified in the drawing.
2. Align the door frame of
sub-frame against the setting
outlines, 1m datum line and
level pegs.
3. Secure the frame
temporarily using timber
wedges. Adjust the position of
the wedges to obtain the
required vertical and
horizontal alignment.
4. After verifying the alignment of
the frame, fasten the frame in
position using approved wall plugs
or galvanised straps. (timber bracing
can be used to support and maintain
the squareness of the frame)
5. Group the gap between the
wall and door frame. (timber
strip should be used to provide
s firm backing during grouting
to enhance the compactness of
the grout.)
Remarks: (a) Do not remove any props/bracing and wedges until
grouting and plastering are fully cured. (b) Door frame traditional system
should be protected to minimize physical damages. 4

52. 7.4 Main Frame
Installing Door Main Frame
1. Verify the dimension of the sub-
framing. (Carry out site
measurement to confirm the
required dimensions of the door
frame before proceeding to actual
fabrication of the frame.)
2. Where possible, the completed set of
main frame, architrave and door panel
should be delivered directly to the unit
where the door is to be installed.
(Check to ensure that the frame, panel
and architrave are of the correct type,
size and quality. Provision of openings
for the installation of ironmongery
such as hinges and lockset should be
pre-cut in the factory to minimize site
cutting.)
3. Assemble the pre-cut main frame
using finishes nails or screws if the frame
is not pre-assembled in the factory. (It is
recommended that the main frame be
assembled in the factory for better
quality assurance.)
4. Apply approved bonding
agent evenly over the sub-frame
and main frame. (It is
recommended that silicon be
applied on the bottom edges of
the frame for better water
resistance.)
5. Installed the main frame onto the
sub-frame. (Timber wedges could be
used to temporarily secure the main
frame. Check that the main frame is
properly aligned horizontally and
vertically. If necessary, door panel
template could be used to check the
squareness and size of opening.
6. Secure the main frame onto the
sub-frame using wave nails. (Wave
nails are preferred as they provide
better securing of the main frame
onto the sub-frame.)
5

53. 7.5 Door Panel and Ironmongery
Installing door panel and ironmongery
1. Select the correct door panel
as per approved house drawing.
(Check the dimensions of the door
panel against the opening. Check
visually for any surface damage
before installation.)
2. Install the door panel. (Recess or
opening for the installation of hinges
should be pre-cut in the factory prior
to delivery to project site.) (Ensure
proper alignment and verify the under-
cut dimensions before fastening the
hinges.)
3. Install the lockset. (Check and ensure the correct type of lockset
is used.) (After fixing the ironmongeries, a simple functional test
should be conducted by closing and opening the door. The
ironmonger should operate smoothly.)
Type of Ironmongery
1. Door handle, latch and lock
In most cases, door handle, latch
and lock work as a set operate in
conjunction with one another. The
type of latch and lock used for a
door depends mainly on the degree
of security required. Internal door
normally required only a latch
fitted with suitable handle.
2. Cylindrical lock
This is the mostly used for internal door. It is relatively
cheaper and easy to install.
Cylindrical lock used on site
3. Latch
This is the normally used for added security for external doors.
4. Hinges
The mostly commonly used hinges for external doors are butt
hinges. For large doors such as width of door more than 1.2m,
pivoted hinges are quite commonly used.
5

54. 7.6 Architraves
Installing architraves
Check and ensure the right type of architrave is used. (Check
for any blemishes or cracks on the architraves. Remove any
unwanted material or stains around the architrave area.)
Step 1
Step 2
Step3
Apply bonding agent to the under-side of the architrave
according to manufacturer’s recommendation. (Ensure that the
gap between the wall finishes and frame is concealed before
slotting the architrave on the mainframe.
Install the architrave. (Ensure the mitre-joints are flat and
square. Nails used to secure the architrave should be fastened
at inconspicuous location. The nail holes should be patched
up with matching wood filler. The patched areas should then
be sanded down after the curing of the wood filler. 5

55. 8.0 Windows
8.2 Materials used on site
Materials used for window frame is Aluminium, While the type of glass in use is Float Glass.
Advantages
1. Slim Profile
2. Durable
3. Narrow sight lines
4. Low Maintenance
Light yet strong. The narrowness of the frame places the focus on the glass and
subsequently, the view it offers. Sealed, mechanically joined corners stay square and
true over years of use. Compared with vinyl, fiberglass and wood frames, aluminum
conducts heat and cold the least well. To reduce heat flow, Thermally Improved
Aluminum windows are equipped with thermal breaks to separate the interior and
exterior surfaces and improve energy efficiency.
Finish - untreated aluminium is prone to surface oxidation. Matt is applied to prevent
oxidation.
Thermal insulation - poor insulation and high conductivity. But they can be
considerably enhanced by a thermal infilling of closed cell foam.
Condensation - a high strength 2-part polyurethane resin thermal break between
internal and external profiles inhibits cold bridging. This reduces the opportunity for
condensation to form on the surface. The indicative U-values given on the preceding
page are based on a thermal break of 4mm. If this is increased to 16mm, the values can
be reduced by up to 0.2 W/m2 K.
8.2.2 Float Glass
Float glass gets its name from the modern process used to create large, thin,
flat panels from molten glass. The molten glass is passed onto a pool of molten
tin. This process produces a very smooth piece of glass with a highly
consistent thickness. Float glass is manufactured using a melt process whereby
recycled glass, silica sand, lime, potash and soda are melted in a furnace and
floated onto a bed of molten tin. The molten mass solidifies slowly while
flowing over the bed of molten tin, after which it is annealed to remove
stresses induced during the cooling process. Annealing also allows the glass to
reach a more stable state resulting in a higher density and higher refractive
index.
Advantages
1. High degree of light transmission
2. Ability to be produced in a range of colour
3. Ability to be produced in a range of opacities
4. Good chemical inertness
5. Attacked by hydrofluoric (HF) acid
Building industry
Float glass is used for smaller windows in domestic housing. Larger windows are
made from toughened glasses. Glass is used for windows for aesthetic and
functional reasons, allowing the occupants to see out and at the same time
allowing light in.
8.1 Introduction
Window is an opening in the wall of a building that allows
ventilation and sound to enter. Modern windows are
usually glazed or covered in some other transparent or
translucent material. Windows are held in place by frames.
Aluminium Window Frame
5

56. 8.3 Types of windows used
Consist of three types of windows which are
used in the site, Fixed Window, Side Hung
Casement Window and Adjustable Louvers
Window.
8.3.1 Adjustable louvres windows with security bar
- Comprises horizontal glass panes, which are either fixed at an angle, or adjustable to control
the amount of light and ventilation through the window.
- Designed mainly for admitting light and allowing for natural ventilation.
- 100% Ventilation
8.3.2 Fixed Windows
- Has a fixed glazed sash
- Designed mainly for providing view, admitting light and for aesthetics purposes
- Usually used in conjunction with other types
- 0% Ventilation
8.3.3 Side Hung Casement Windows:
- Sash opens on hinges, pivots or friction stays
- Allows airflow through almost the entire area of the window opening
- Designed mainly for providing view, admitting light, allowing for natural
ventilation and for aesthetics purposes
- 100% Ventilation
Coupe Horizontale
Horizontal cross section
5

57. 8.4 INSTALLATION OF WINDOWS
8.4.1 Sub-frame
This system has a sub-frame that is cast in or
anchored onto the wall structure. The main
window frame is subsequently mounted onto
the sub-frame at a later stage when all other
trades have completed their works.
8.5 Glazing
Some of the windows used single glazing system while the other are double
glazing system depending on the location, light penetration and related
factors.
Glazing is the act of fixing glass into a frame or surround in domestic work
this is usually achieved by locating the glass in a rebate and securing it with
putty or beading and should be carried out in accordance with the
recommendations contained in BS 6262: Glazing for buildings.
Metal Surrounds - metal casement putty if metal surround is to be painted
if surround is not to be painted a non-setting compound should be used.
8.5.1 Double Glazing
Double glazing can be used to reduce the rate of heat loss through windows and glazed doors or it can be
employed to reduce the sound transmission through windows. In the context of thermal insulation this is
achieved by having a small air or argon gas filled space within the range of 6 to 20mm between the two
layers of glass. The sealed double glazing unit will also prevent internal misting by condensation. If metal
frames are used these should have a thermal break incorporated in their design. All opening sashes in a
double glazing system should be fitted with adequate weather seals to reduce the rate of heat loss through
the opening clearance gap.
In the context of sound insulation three factors affect the performance of double glazing. Firstly good
installation to ensure airtightness, secondly the weight of glass used and thirdly the size of air space
between the layers of glass. The heavier the glass used the better the sound insulation and the air space
needs to be within the range of 50 to 300mm. Absorbent lining to the reveals within the air space will also
improve the sound insulation properties of the system.
Effects of Glazing
8.5.2 Type of Glazing System used: Structural Gasket
Structural Gasket: Usually performed of synthetic rubber to secure glass pane in a window frame.
Glass pane must be supported on at least two side by the gasket.
Advantages
• Generally has better weather tightness performance
• Can be used for precast or cast in-situ wall systems which do not
require plastering
• Allows greater flexibility in the sequencing of works of other
trades; the sub-frame is installed first so that wet trades around
the window can be completed before subsequent installation of the
main frame and
• The outer frames are installed after all wet trades around the
windows are completed and hence, are subject to lower risk of
physical damages
1&2: Position of sub-frame
4. Sealing of anchor/bolt heads and joints between
external wall and sub-frame
5. Protection of sub-frame 6. Preparation for installation of main frame
7. Installation of main frame
3.Fixing of Sub-frame
5