Building Construction I (BLD 60303) Experiencing, Documenting and Analysing the Construction Process Carmen Chan Shen Wen 0326485 Charlotte Chin Ya-Le 0326940 Chevally Lo Zhao Shyen 0326497 Calvin Chen Qinh Yao 0326658 Chan Jia Chin 0326560

1. I : Experiencing Construction
Experiencing, Documenting and Analysing the Construction Process
Carmen Chan Shen Wen 0326485
Charlotte Chin Ya-Le 0326940
Chevally Lo Zhao Shyen 0326497
Calvin Chen Qinh Yao 0326658
Chan Jia Chin 0326560
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION I (BLD 60303)

2. 00 Introduction
01 Preliminary Works
02 Foundation
03 Structures
04 Stairs
05 Walls

3. 01Preliminary Works
● Introduction
● Site Layout
● Signboards
● Site Safety
● Scaffolding (Site 3)
● Types of Machineries
● External Work
- Setting Out
- Site Clearance
- Excavation (Site 3)

4. Introduc�on to Site 2
Site 1 is located at No. 2, (PT
73996), Jalan Bestari 2/KU7, Taman
Perindustrian Kapar Bestari, Sungai
Kapar Indah, 42200 Kapar, Mukim
Kapar, Klang, Selangor, Malaysia.
Designed in an industrial area,it is a
project that consist of 1 storey factory
building and a 3-storey office block.
The main construction company is
led by Multiguna Construction & Dev
Sdn Bhd. The client of this project is
Tetuan Rhone MA Malaysia Sdn Bhd.
Site 2 is located at Lot 97321, Jalan Paya Barat, Kapar, Daerah Klang Bandar DIraja,
Selangor Darul Ehsan. This project is built for one storey terrace houses, all residential
buildings. The main construction company for this project is Armada Bayu Sdn.Bhd.
This project consists of
- 23 Unit 1 storey Terrace Houses (18”x 90”)
- 14 Unit 1 storey Terrace Houses (18”x 75”)
- 6 Unit 1 storey Semi-detached Houses (40”x 75”)
SITE
1
SITE
2
Introduc�on to Site 2
CHARLOTTE CHIN YA-LE 0326940

5. SITE
3
Site 2 is located at Jalan Frekuensi U16, Fasa G6, Elmina, Seksyen U16, 40160 Shah Alam, Selangor
Darul Ehsan. This project consists of 84 units of semi-detached houses under the developer of Sime
Darby Elmina Development Sdn Bhd.
The location addresses are as below:
No. 1,2,3,5,s7,11,13 & 15 Jalan Frekuensi U16/133,
No, 2,4,6,8,10,12,14 &16 Jalan Frekuensi U16/134
No 1, 3,5,7,9 & 11 Jalan Frekuensi U16/135A
No 1, 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12 Jalan Frekuensi U16/135B,
No 2,4,6,8,10 & 12 Jalan Frekuensi U16/135C,
No, 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24 Jalan Frekuensi U16/136,
No 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15 & 16 Jalan Frekuensi U16/137
And 1 unit electrical substation at No.2, Jalan Frekuensi U16/135,
CHARLOTTE CHIN YA-LE 0326940

6. • Storage
- Amount and types of materials to be stored, alloca-
tion of storage areas / working areas around these
storage area, to reduce double handling
• Accommodation
- No. and type of site staff, with min.
welfare requirements of the Con-
struction (Design and Management)
Regulations.
-Provide safe shelter to stay through-
out the duration of the construction
progress
• Hoardings
- Surrounded around the site to set boundary and a
guideline.
- Height of Hoarding: 6 ft
• Sanitation/ Toilet
- General Contractor shall, at their
own cost and expense; provide and
maintain a clean and sanitary condi-
tion, adequate and approved sani-
tary facilities for the usage of the
workers on the site.
• Fire Assembly Point
- Situated near the entrance of the
construction site whereby the area
is an open space free from any
construction and can be directed
out of the site in case of emergency.
• Prepared by contractor
• Sites are very complex - coordination of large quantities of materials & high-value products (people, plant, etc.)
• To reduce travel times, congestion, waiting times
• Construction Organisation Sign-
board
- Placed at the entrance of the
construction site
- Every ongoing construction site
must display this signboard
- for the reference of the public and
also
provide information of the person
• Entrance
- The entrance would be left open during working
hours but remain closed when construction is stopped.
-This is to ensure no intruders try to enter the site with-
out permission.
- the site entrance should be wide enough for the
passage of two vehicles at the same time
• Site Office
- The place where meetings are
held and discussion on the
project can be made
-technical drawings are stored
here
-visitors to enter first
-situated near first aid facilities
2.0 Site Layout
CHARLOTTE CHIN YA-LE 0326940

7. 3.1 Introduc�on
Sign boards are used for communica�ng a message through graphics or wordings on display to the public. This is
to standardise all signages and only transfer a specific message to avoid confusion. In construc�on sites, it
func�ons the same, with more safety sign boards. There are two different types of signages which are
construc�on sign boards and safety sign boards.
• use of symbols and graphical images is a simple safety system used to convey safety messages
at a glance
• defined as ‘informa�on or instruc�on about health and safety at work on a signboard, a colour,
an illuminated sign or acous�c signal, a verbal communica�on or hand signal.’
• displayed everywhere in the site
• Reduce risk to health and safety
Project Title
Project Inventory
Project location
Developer Firm
(plus contact number and
loaction of office)
Architect’s Firm
(plus contact number and
loaction of office)
Structural Engineering Firm
(plus contact number and
loaction of office)
Contractors and sub contractors
(plus contact number and
loaction of office)
Mechanical and Electrical
Engineering Firm
(plus contact number and
loaction of office)
Site also should include on first aid access to ensure efficient and sufficient first aid can be given
to injured person.
Things to include:
1. Emergency Contact Number (Fire Department, Police Station, Hospitals nearest to the
construction site)
2. First Aid Example Pictures or Diagrams (Step by Step)
3.2 First Aid Signages and Fire Safety
3.3 Safety Sign Boards
3.4 Construction Organization Board
Construction Organization Board is always located at the entrance or outside boundary of the construc-
tion site. It is clearly visible to the public because of its height to indicate there is an ongoing construc-
tion at the site. The purpose of a construction organization board is to provide information on the
people responsible for the construction at the site for safety purposes.
Safety signages at the entrance Construction Organization Board in the front of
the site
CHARLOTTE CHIN YA-LE 0326940
3.0 Signboards

8. Wear a safety helmet on a construction site.
Keep the harness of the helmet clean and make sure that it fits well.
Do not drill any holes on the helmet or use it for pounding
HEAD PROTECTION
SAFETY VEST
EYE AND FACE
PROTECTION
Safety glasses or face shields are worn any time work operations
can cause foreign objects to get in the eye. For example, during welding,
cutting, grinding, nailing (or when working with concrete and/or harmful
chemicals or when exposed to flying particles). Wear when exposed to
any electrical hazards, including working on energized electrical systems.
Eye and face protectors – select based on anticipated hazards.
FOOT PROTECTION
Construction workers should wear work shoes or boots with slip-re-
sistant and puncture-resistant soles.
Safety-toed footwear is worn to prevent crushed toes when working
around heavy equipment or falling objects
Wear on safety vest at all times in construction site
Must be high visbility to make it easier for workers to see and locate one
another
Class 2 (ANSI approved) reflective safety vests are used by workers in
higher traffic areas
Class 3 (ANSI approved) traffic safety vests must use the same colors
for daytime work.
4.1 Introduction
The building construction site is a hazardous place where one can get hurt easily if safety measures are not taken seriously. To prevent work accidents
and health problems, the employers and employees are all responsible to ensure the safety of the working environment. Employer is to bear all the
responsibility at the working site and employees have to also follow the employer’s safety measures. For example, following the Personal Protective
Equipment (P.P.E) that is necessary for every construction site.
4.2 Personal Protective Equipment (P.P.E)
Personal Protective Equipment (P.P.E) refers to safety equipment like safety helmet, clothing and also gadgets.
It’s important that workers use PPE that is properly fitted. Each piece should stay on securely without causing discomfort or limited
mobility; clothing and other items should not be loose, as this creates dangers for tripping, getting caught in moving parts
CHARLOTTE CHIN YA-LE 0326940
4.0 Site Safety

9. 5.0 Scaffolding
• A temporary structure to support construction workers and materials.
• Used to support concrete formwork or more popularly for supporting workmen during the construc-
tion (brickwork, plastering, painting, renewal or repainting of structures)
• Comes under safety regulations on construction sites and standards for its layout and use
• There are several scaffoldings used in construction:
o Single scaffolding
o Double scaffolding
o Cantilever scaffolding
o Suspended scaffolding
o Trestle scaffolding
Single Scaffolding (Brick Layer’s Scaffolding)
Most widely used
Used in brick works
Standard is around 1.2m away from the wall
Double Scaffolding (Mason’s Scaffolding)
Used in masonry works
Stronger than single scaffolding.
Independent (not connected to the wall)
Cantilever Scaffolding (Needle Scaffolding)
Elevated from the ground.
Used when:
Ground is too weak
Ground need to be free for traffic
Upper part of the wall is not done
Trestle Scaffolding
Can be moved with wheels or ladders
Generally used in interiors
Used for repairs, painting,
PROPRIETARY SYSTEMS
Proprietary systems are another
type of independent scaffold. It
rely on the same principles as
independent scaffold but use
standard lengths for ledgers,
transoms and standards, all of
which are capable of being
clipped together and dismantled
easily and quickly.
The standards often come with
spigot ends, which allow the next
standard to be located over the
locating spigot very quickly. The
jointing systems vary depending
on the manufacturer.
Proprietary systems rely on
ledgers and transoms having a
locating lug or bracket fixed to
each end; these ends can be
quickly dropped into the clips,
sockets or cups, which are fixed
at regular intervals on the stan-
dards.
Components, such as ledgers and
transoms, are designed so that
they can be interchangeable.
TYPES OF SCAFFOLDINGNO
1.
2.
3.
4.
Hop-uo
bbrackets
for two/
three
boards
Connecting brackets
every 500mm
Scaffold boards span
between 1.2-1.5m
Toe board clip holds
toe board securely
in positioned
System scaffolds
are very rigid and
may not require
bracing at low
heights across the
width
Transom
Jack
300 mm
mini-
mum
CHARLOTTE CHIN YA-LE 0326940

10. CAPTIVE PLANKS
STOP ENDS
QUADRAILS
LEDGERS
TOP WORKING
PLATFORM
GUARDRAIL
MIDRAIL
TRANSOM
SOLEBOARD
STANDARD
LEDGER
FACE BRACE LONGITUDINAL
PARALEL BRACE
TRANSVERSE
TRANSOM
Right angle coupler (R/A), 90 degree coupler or
double coupler: The most commonly used load-bear-
ing coupler. Used to connect tubes at right angles.
Swivel coupler: Coupler used to connect two tubes
together at any angle. Made of cast, forged or
pressed steel.
Cuplock scaffold node or connection point
Scaffolding on siteProprietary scaffolding system
Details Proprietary system
Bracing
Transom
CHARLOTTE CHIN YA-LE 0326940

11. 6.0 Types of Machineries
Excava�on Machineries
Excavators
-also called diggers
- use for digging trenches and cleaning the
site
- driving piles, in conjunc�on with pile
drivers
- heavy duty
Portable cement mixer
- Easily mobility
- To mix cement, aggregate and
also water to achieve the correct
consistency in a larger amount
- Promotes efficiency in working
progress without much
manpower needed for mixing
Truck
- Transpor�ng large amount of raw
materials like aggregates or
cement
- High mobility, good speed and
adoptability
Back Hoe Loader
- The backhoe also called a rear
actor or back actor
- Used to excavate trenches and
also dig holes in the ground, plus
clean up construc�on areas
Wheel Loader
- Loading heavy construc�on
materials that could not be done
with manpower
-
CHARLOTTE CHIN YA-LE 0326940

12. Setting Out of Site 1
diagonal checks
site boundary
corner post
90 degree angle
obtained using site
square, theodolite
or builders square
50 x 50 corner post
driven firmly into
the ground
cord making outline of the building
outline marked on the ground with dry line or
similar powder
Temporary benchmark:
This is a fixed point on site to
which all levels are related ad
should be established at an early
stage in the contract.
On site it can be any permenant
feature such as drain cover or
firmly driven post
Setting Out Trenches (Site 3)
1. establish the excavation size,shape, and direction
2. outline the building will have been set out and using the outline possibly the depth of the
proposed trenches.
site boundary
manholewalls
Foundation and
trench
Setting Out Trenches on Site 3 site plan
7.0 Setting Out
• This stage is undertaken once the site has been cleared
• Contractor’s job
• First task : to establish a baseline, from which the whole building can be set out. Position
of this line must be clear so that it can be re-established any time
How to set the baseline?
• On-site measuring - a steep tape should be used
• Marked and checked main lines can be set out
• Making a check - look out for right angles and correct lengths
• After making checks, set up profile boards.
• Set up foundation trench positions - trench, foundation, walls
CHARLOTTE CHIN YA-LE 0326940

13. Setting Out Trenches conti. (Site 3)
Profile boards
traveller walls
foundation and trenches
Typical reinforced concrte trenching or manhole
of Site 3
Setting Out for Reduced Level Excavation (Site 3)
The overall outline of the reduced level area can be set out using a theodolite, ranging rods, tape
and pegs working from a baseline,
This is to control the depth of excavation,
Sight rails are set up at a convenient height annd at positions which will enable a traveller to be
used.
Typical Details:-
2. Controlling excavation depth
1. Setting up sigh rails
staff reading gives height
of collimation of level
temporary bench
mark or site datum
post
sight line
sight rail fixed here
sight rail post
free standing
traveller
profile boards
corner post
outline of excavation area marked
with dry sand or similar material
sight rails fixed at desired level
sight rails fixed at desired level
edge of excavation area
Setting Out Trenches on Site 3 site plan (per house lot)

14. 9.0 Earthworks and Excava�on
Excavation Purpose
• Cut and fill excavation
• Trench excavation
• Basement excavation
• Bridge excavation
• Road excavation
• Dredging
Types of Excavation (Materials)
• Topsoil excavation
• Earth excavation
• Rock excavation
• Muck excavation
• Unclassified excavation
Excavation Requirements
All materials removed from an excavation shall be used in the formation of the
embankment, shoulders and at such other places as directed, unless it is declared
unsuitable and ordered to be sent to tip by the Engineer. No excavated material shall be
wasted without written permission from the Engineer
Reduced Level Excava�on (Cut and Fill)
1. Scarp off all surface vegetation and soil
containing organic water
2. Excavate and remove excess material to
the required design level
3. Test roll the exposed surface with at least
four passes of a heavy-duty roller wench less than
10 tonnes to reveal any soft areas
4. Excavate soft areas and replace with com-
pacted selected fill if soft areas appear excessive,
consult with the superintending officer prior to
excavating
5. Ensure the surface is as specified
6. If extra fill is required to base the surface
level, only selected fill should be used. The fill
material shall be free from organic or deleterious
matters or rock particles. Exceeding 150mm
maximum dimension and the standard specified.
Material to be used within 300mm of the formation
level shall have a maximum particle size of 50mm
7. All filling should be placed in uniform hori-
zontal layers not exceeding 300mm loose thick-
ness, and each layer compacted to at least the
size of the maximum dry density achieved in the
standard compaction test (British Standard) and to
be verified by field test testing before placing the
next layer, the top layer should be proof rolled
All slopes, lines and grades shall be true, correct, and accurate and according to those on
the drawings or otherwise directed and approved by the Engineer. The 'earthworks
formation level' in cuts shall be accurate to the authorised profile grade
Cut and fill is the name for the earthworks process that requires moving earth from one
place to another to make the ground more level.
Cut and fill is required where a site is sloped either front to back, back to front or side to
side.
Excavation is the process of moving earth, rock or other materials with tools, equipment or
explosives. It includes earthwork, trenching, wall shafts, tunneling and underground.
cut
cut
fill
original ground level
proposed formation level
CHARLOTTE CHIN YA-LE 0326940

15. 02Foundation
● Foundations
● Friction Piles in Site 1
● Materiality of Piles
- Preformed Concrete Piles
- Mangrove Piles
● Pile Drivers
- Diesel Hammer
- Drop Hammer
● Pile Cap
● Process of Piling to Pile Cap

16. Mild steel rock shoe
BS EN 10137-1 End plate (Grade 43A)
Main steel reinforcement
Anchorage bar
MS Collar
MS Joint plate
Stirrupt
Shoe reinforcement
20mm diameter close end
MS tube x 100mm long
16mm diameter MS bar
x 75mm long
Concrete
Lifting hook
Pile cushion
Helmet
Hammer cushion
Striker plate
Pile protection
during piling
Foundations
Foundation is the substructure of a building (normally below ground) that supports and
bear the load of the building by safely transferring the load to the ground.
Friction Piling
Friction piles are piles which relies on friction and cohesion of the ground soil.
The pile does not reach the bedrock.
Friction piling is used in the site because:
1. The soil is too soft (Marine Clay)
2. The site is too large for other foundations
3. End-bearing piling is too uneconomical
(48m to bedrock, site piles reach 36m)
Preformed Concrete PIles
The main piles used are preformed reinfored concrete piles measuring 300mm x 300mm
Strip
Shallow Foundations
Raft Pad Cantilever
Deep Foundations
Pile
End-Bearing Piles Friction Piles
Mangrove PIles
Straight mangrove trunks are used as a pile on smaller minor areas such as drainage in order to save
costs.
Stirrup
Concrete
Main reinforcement
Load
Bedrock
Friction force of soil
Pile
Picture 2.1 Preformed concrete piles on site
Picture 2.2
Mangrove piles ready to use on site
Chan Jia Chin
0326560
Characteristics
- Cheap
- Easy to pile
- Light
- Easily attacked by creeper
(needs to be treated with preservatives)
- Long lasting if piled under the water table
(can last for at least 10 years)

17. Pile Drivers
Pile drivers are used to drive the piles into the ground.
Diesel Hammer
The driving action is started by raising the ram which fuel is injected into the
cylinder. When the ram is dropped onto the anvil creating an explosion,
the anvil going downwards to pound the pile while the ram moves upwards
repeating the cycle.
Pulley drop hammer (for mangrove piles)
The hammer is raised using the mechanical hoist before being released to pound
the pile down into the ground.
PIle Caps
Pile caps are a thick concrete mat used to join a group of piles to create a stable foundation.
Size of pile caps differ in the site according to the weight needed to support.
Hoist
Rope
Pulley
Hammer
Guides
Pile
300mm x 300mm
RC piles
300mm x 300mm
RC piles
Stump reinfocement
Tripping mechanism
Lifting rope
Anvil
Ram
Control line
Fuel pump
Chan Jia Chin
0326560
Top left:
Completed pile cap
Right:
Drawings and specifications
given by architect
Rebar cage

18. Process of Piling to Pile Caps
1. Piling
The pile is raised carefully using a crane connected to the lifting hook to avoid
damage to the pile. When aligned, the piling process starts.
2. Joining piles
An extension pile is added by welding before piling continues.
3. Excavate
A 2m hole is dug around the piles
for the installation of pile caps.
4. Pile cropping
A technique called hydrodemolition is used to
crop the pile without damaging the rebar by
blasting very high pressured water.
1. Welding
2. Bitumen is applied
after welding
around the welded
parts to waterproof it.
Chan Jia Chin
0326560

19. 5. Pile cap formworks
Water is pumped out and timber formworks are placed
6. Rebar
A rebar cage is lowered into the formworks as reinforcement
7. Removal of formworks
Formworks are removed after the concrete sets
7. Pouring of concrete
The concrete is poured from one end to ensure uniformity.
The vbrator is used to eliminate air pockets in the concrete.
Exposed pile
reinforcement
Wood formworks
Rebar cage
Concrete
Vibrator
Concrete hose
Chan Jia Chin
0326560

20. 03Structures
● Beam on Site 2
- Materials of Beam
- Reinforced Concrete Beam
- Types of Beam
- Beam Formwork
- Ground Floor Beam (Construction Process)
● Column on Site 2
- Materials of Column
- Reinforced Concrete Column
- Column Formwork
- Column Formwork (Bracing)
- Column (Construction Process)
● Beam on Site 2
- First Floor Beam (Construction Process)
● Beam & Column on Site 2
- Section of Structure Detail
- Typical Column Detail
- Beam Section
● Ground Slab on Site 3
- Process for Installation of Ground Slab & Tile Finishings
● Suspended Slab on Site 3
- Process for Installation of Suspended Slab
- Process for Timber Finishings and Ceiling

21. -Abeamisahorizontalstructuralelementthatiscapableofwithstandingtransverseloadsprimarilybyresistingbending.Theytransferallloadsincludingitsselfweighttotheother
structuralelementsbelow.Nevertheless,acolumnisacompressionmember.
-Bothendsofthebeam
arefixedrigidlyintothesu-
pport.Reinforcementbars
areprovided
ReinforcedConcrete(RC)
-Cement
-CoarseAggregate
-FineAggregate
-SteelBar
-Water
-Shuttering-Shuttering
CHENQINHYAO(CALVIN)0326658
1)GroundFloorBeam
2)FirstFloorBeam

22. CHENQINHYAO(CALVIN)0326658
-Beamsoftliftmustrequirestrengthenedplywoodorthickenedtimber
-Sidesofthebeamare18mmplywoodor25mmboards,withcleatsat500mm-600mmcentres.Deepbeamswhichareover600mmshouldrequirewalkersandties.

23. CHENQINHYAO(CALVIN)0326658
-Erectthepropsandsupport,
setupthesoftliftofthebeam
onground
-Formworkisconstructed
-Steelreinforcementbaris
placedintheformwork
-Formworkontheothersideofthe
beamerected
-Concreteispouredintotheformwork
andthentobecured

24. -Columnisasupportingpillarandastructuralelementwhichtransfertheloadofthestructureanditsliveloadthroughtothefoundationandintothehardstrata.
-Columnmaybesubjectedtoapurecompressiveload.
-RCCcolumnsarewidelyusednowadays.
FloorPlan
ReinforcedConcreteColumn(RCC)
-Cement
-CoarseAggregate
-FineAggregate
-SteelBar
-Water
-Shuttering-Shuttering
-Astructuralmemberdesignedtocarrycompressiveloads,composedofconcrete
withanembeddedsteelframetoprovidereinforcement.
-Transferloadsfromslabandbeamdirectlytosubsequentlysoil.
CHENQINHYAO(CALVIN)0326658
ColumnStructure
Reinforcements

25. CHENQINHYAO(CALVIN)0326658
-Concreteformworkisthetemporarystructurebuilttosupportandconfineconcreteuntilithardens.
-Formworkreferstoverticalformsusedtoformwallsandcolumns
-Fourpanelarejoinedbyclamps
-Helpedtightentobuildformwork
-Columnformworkbracingperformstwofunctions
-Itmustmaintaintheaccuracyofthecolumnformpositionandplumbsothatitiswithin
tolerance
-Withstandresultsofforcesactingoneitherthecolumnformworkorthebracing.Theforces
maybewindorimpact.Impactforcescanoccurfromthecollisionofconcretebucketsorcranes
hoistingmaterials
ColumnForm
Proptightened
agaisntcolumn
clamp
Bracingappliedtosupporttheformworkofcolumns

26. CHENQINHYAO(CALVIN)0326658

27. CHENQINHYAO(CALVIN)0326658
-Erectthepropsandsupport,
setupthesoftliftofthebeam
-Formworkisconstructed
-Steelreinforcementbaris
placedintheformwork
-Formworkontheothersideofthe
beamerected
-Concreteispouredintotheformwork
andthentobecured

28. CHENQINHYAO(CALVIN)0326658
TYPICALSECTIONOFSTRUCTUREDETAIL
BEAMSECTION
TYPICALCOLUMNDETAIL

32. 04Stairs
● Staircase
● Staircase on Site 3
- Straight Stairs
- In-Situ Concrete Staircase
● Terminology of Staircases
● Staircase 1
- Open Riser Mono Stringer
- Location of Staircase
- Dimensions
● Staircase 2
- Mezzanine Floor Staircase
- Location of Staircase
- Dimensions
● Construction Method
● Staircase Finishes
- Concrete Mono Stringer
- Timber Treads

39. 05Walls
● Load Bearing & Non-Load Bearing Walls on Site 3
- Location of these walls on Site
● Exterior and Interior Walls on Site 3
- Location of these walls on Site
● Masonry Wall
● Running Bond
● Type of Mortar Used
● Type of Bricks/Blocks used on Site
- Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Blocks Wall
- Cement Sand Brick Wall
-
● Construction of the Walls
- Laying of Bricks
- Finishes
● Reinforced Concrete Lintel
- Construction of Lintel

40. Internal and External Walls
Internal and External Walls - Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Block Wall
Reinforced Cement Sand Brick Wall
External walls are walls that create an external closure around a building whereas
internal walls function to separate spaces into individual rooms and act as parti-
tions, they can either be load-bearing or non-load bearing.
In this site, this type is brick wall is built as the fencing wall. It is quick in construction. It is
durable against weather conditions, therefore it is more suitable to be built at the outermost
part of the home in the outdoors.
Good acoustic
performance
Strong thermal
insulation
Good fire
resistance
Good structural
capability
This type of current trendy wall is suitable to be constructed as the internal and external walls
of the buildings because of its materiality charateristic allows the comfort, safety and easy
installation of systems.
Good weather
resistance
Resistance againt
breeding of pesticides
Fencing wall
Load-bearing structural wall
CARMEN CHAN SHEN WEN
0326485

41. 400mm
215mm
100mm
Special characteristics : Lightweight and porous texture
ii) Allows it to be routed and create chases for electrical conduits
and plumbing system.
The blocks are manufactured using seven ingredi-
ents:
1. Finely ground sand
2. Quartz sand
3. Lime
4.Cement
5. Water as a binding agent
6. Recycled fly ash
7. Aluminium as an expanding agent
It is also made lightweight and has high thermal mass due to the chemical reactions involved during manufactur-
ing.
i) Easy to be cut easily and accurately
Cement Sand Bricks
Physical properties
Density :
9 to 22 kilograms per cubic foot
Compression strength:
136kg to 408kg per square inch (psi)
Allowable sheer stress:
8 to 22 psi
Thermal resistance:
0.8 to 1.25 per inch of thickness
Sound transmission class:
40 for four inch thickness, 45 for 8 inch thickness
The blocks are manufactured using seven
ingredients:
1. Portland cement
2. Portland blass-surface cement
3. Fly ash
4. Hydrated lime
5. Water
6. Aggregates
7. Admixtures (integral water repellents)
101.6mm
203.2mm
CARMEN CHAN SHEN WEN
0326485
Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC) Blocks
Physical properties
1. Compressive Strength :
Average from 3,000 to 4,000 psi
2. Water absorption :
Absorbs 40 and 80 grams per minute per 30
sq. in.
3. Colour and texture :
Neutral colour, will fade over time

42. Laying of Bricks for the Construction of AAC Block Masonry Wall
Set up Line Prepare Thin-Bed
mortar mix
Lay first layer
of mortar
Lay first course
of bricks
Install horizontal and
vertical rebars
Install bracket every
3rd course of blocks
Lay another course
of blocks
Cut chase to install
wiring
Lay another layer of
mortar
Plumb and level
blocks
CARMEN CHAN SHEN WEN
0326485
1 2 3 4 5
678910

43. Plastering and Finishes for AAC Block Masonry Wall
The plastering used for AAC Blocks is stucco-based. It is a material made of
aggregates, binder and water. It is applied wet and hardens to a very dense solid.
The finishing for this wall comes in three coatings.
Scratch Coat
Brown Coat
Finish Coat
CARMEN CHAN SHEN WEN
0326485
The scratch coat is the primary base coat set on the wall. It is applied with a hawk and trowel
and a scratcher, also known as a scarifier, where it creates horizontal lines to make the second
coat (brown coat) stick. Distribute the cement evenly on the surface to about 3/8 of an inch
thick.
1
2
3
Apply the brown coat over the scratch coat. Spread it evenly around the surface
also at 3/8 of an inch thick, ensuring the brown coat is uniform.
Then, apply the finish coat over the brown coat with a hawk and a trowel. The type
of finishing stucco used here is the traditional stucco, where this is troweled smooth-
ly.

44. Construction of Cement Sand Brick Masonry Wall
Spread and furrow mortar bed Lay first course of bricks
Position and align corner brick Strike the joints
Apply mortar to joints and cut off
excess mortar from joints
Install horizontal and vertical rebars
CARMEN CHAN SHEN WEN
0326485
Soak bricks in water to allow
them to cease absorption
i) Brick Layering ii) Finishing
1
2
1. The first coat is applied with a thickness of 9 to 15mm. It is applied on the
spaces formed by the screeds on the wall surface, using a trowel. The surface is
then levelled and left to set for a few days.
2. The second coat, or the finishing coat is much thinner, about 2 to 3mm. It is
applied after the first coat is damped. The finish is finally applied, and smoothen,
given texture with a steel trowel. After the plastering work, it is kept wet for a few
more days for further hardening and increased durability.
The fencing wall is applied with a
sand-textured finishing.
1 2 3
4 5
6 7

45. Masonry Walls (applied for all walls)
Masonry is the building of structure of units, which are often laid and bound by mortar. Besides bricks and con-
crete blocks which are used on site, glass blocks, marble and travertine can even be used for this type of con-
struction.
Type of Bond
Both masonry walls are constructed using this bond. The running bond is the most used bond and is composed
of stretchers offset by 1/2 brick per course. It is easy to execute out the laying of courses. Besides, it provides a
lot of strength to the wall. Since the courses alternate, with centers alternating from course to course, the pres-
sure works down to offer stability.
Use of Mortar
AAC Bricks - Thin Bed Mortar
The use of autoclaved aerated bricks allows the
layer of mortar applied to be thin due to the
number of joints. This reduces the consumption
of material and also the time used for bricklaying.
Thickness : 2-4mm
Mortar is a workable paste used to bind building blocks such as stones, bricks, and concrete
masonry units together, fill and seal the irregular gaps between them, and sometimes add
decorative colors or patterns in masonry walls.
Cement Sand Bricks -
Type S Masonry Mortar -
Ordinary Portland Cement Mortar
It is used for load-bearing walls which requires
high strength. It provides plasticity to distribute
pressures among the wall.
Thickness : 9.5mm
Top plan
Side elevation
Axonometric
CARMEN CHAN SHEN WEN
0326485

46. Reinforced Concrete (RCC) Lintels
Structural horizontal block that spans the space or opening between two vertical
supports. In the construction of these homes, these lintels function as door open-
ings.
During construction
After construction
CARMEN CHAN SHEN WEN
0326485
Concentrated
load
Floor load
Span of
lintel opening
RCC Lintel on Site
Starter bars
Door opening span -
100cm
Construction drawing of lintel on site

47. Construction process of RCC Lintols
150 150
400 400
R.C
Member
Brickwall
Approved wire mesh
Plaster
R5-300 Rebars in R.C Member
CARMEN CHAN SHEN WEN
0326485
Concrete is high in compression strength but has weak tensile strength, hence reinforcement
bars are installed.
1 2 3 4 5
Install rebar to reinforce the
concrete
Install formwork Keep the formwork in place with
reinforcing bars and pour in con-
crete mix
Smoothen the concrete mix evenly
and uniformly and let it set to
harden
Remove formwork

48. i) The external walls are load-bearing as they support the weight of the house. They also function to transfer the
load from the roof to the floor beam and then finally to the foundation.
ii) However, some internal walls are also load bearing. For example, this layer of cement sand brick walls function
to transfer the loads from the upper floor. The AAC block wall just function as an internal partition wall, (as stated
in the non load bearing wall section below.)
Load- bearing wall thick-
ness
200mm thick
Non load- bearing
Thickness
150mm thick
Load bearing & Non-load Bearing Walls
Load bearing walls are structures that not only supports their own weight but
also transfers the loads from the roof, floors and columns to the ground. Where-
as non-load bearing walls only support their own weight and serve as partition
walls.
Load bearing Wall (200mm thick)
Non load bearing Wall (150mm thick)
i) The internal walls are non-load bearing and they only serve to function as internal partition walls. The
loads are transmitted solely onto the floor beams.
ii) The fencing wall is a free-standing non-load bearing structure. It only supports its own weight and not
the weight of other parts of the house.
Non-Load Bearing Wall
Load Bearing Wall
CARMEN CHAN SHEN WEN
0326485