The document provides an overview of the Enlightenment period in Europe from the 17th to 19th centuries. It discusses key themes and time periods of the Enlightenment, including the Early Enlightenment from 1685-1730, the High Enlightenment from 1730-1780, and the Late Enlightenment from 1780-1815. It also summarizes major philosophical positions that emerged during the Enlightenment, such as rationalism, empiricism, skepticism, and how they influenced views of knowledge. Additionally, it outlines political revolutions and theories of the Enlightenment as well as perspectives on religion.
The document provides an overview of the Age of Enlightenment, including its key stages, roots in England, main concepts, and results. The Age of Enlightenment was a period from the 17th to early 19th centuries that witnessed progress in science, politics, and philosophical discourse. It emphasized reason, the scientific method, and the idea that society would progress over time. Some results included increased political freedom, the scientific revolution, and greater religious tolerance. The document also profiles several influential Enlightenment thinkers such as John Locke, Denis Diderot, Benjamin Franklin, and Voltaire.
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in 18th century Europe that promoted reason, science, and individualism over tradition. Key figures like Locke, Montesquieu, and Voltaire advocated using reason and science to critically examine religion, government, and society. Enlightenment thinkers believed that people could improve society using rational thought. Their ideas influenced governments and revolutions in both America and France.
The Enlightenment was an 18th century intellectual movement that promoted rational thinking and scientific inquiry over religious dogma and tradition. Enlightenment thinkers applied scientific principles to philosophy and politics and advocated the use of reason to reform society. Key figures like Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau influenced revolutions in America and France and shaped modern concepts of government, rights, and education. Enlightenment principles also inspired reforms by monarchs across Europe seeking to modernize their nations according to rational principles.
This document provides an overview of the Age of Enlightenment. It discusses key thinkers like Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau who questioned traditional institutions and promoted rational thinking. It describes the scientific advances and philosophical views of the time, including deism, rational religion, and using reason rather than scripture to understand the world. The document also examines the characteristics of Enlightenment thought such as rationalism, secularism, freedom of thought, and optimism about social progress.
This document provides an overview of the Enlightenment period in the 18th century and some of its key thinkers and ideas. It summarizes that the Enlightenment was an age of optimism in humanity's ability to use reason to reform society and advance knowledge. Major figures discussed include Voltaire, Rousseau, and Adam Smith. Voltaire and other philosophes advocated using reason to critique tradition and institutions in order to promote freedom, rights, and social progress. Rousseau emphasized concepts like the social contract and general will. Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations analyzed free market economics. Enlightened despots also sought to implement Enlightenment ideals through legal and economic reforms.
The document discusses the key ideas and figures of the Enlightenment period in Europe. It began as an expansion of ideas from the Scientific Revolution and Renaissance, emphasizing reason and secularism over tradition and superstition. Major Enlightenment thinkers like Kant and Voltaire advocated using reason to understand the world and promote tolerance. They helped establish the "Republic of Letters" through salons and publications like Diderot's Encyclopedia, which aimed to compile all knowledge.
The Enlightenment was an 18th century intellectual movement that promoted reason, science, and intellectual interchange over intolerance and religious abuses. Originating in late 17th century Europe, particularly France, it spread to other major cities and influenced philosophy, politics, and society. Enlightenment thinkers like Locke, Spinoza, and Newton applied rationality to understand nature and criticized the abuse of power, with their ideas later influencing revolutions and constitutions around the world.
The document provides an overview of the Age of Enlightenment, including its key stages, roots in England, main concepts, and results. The Age of Enlightenment was a period from the 17th to early 19th centuries that witnessed progress in science, politics, and philosophical discourse. It emphasized reason, the scientific method, and the idea that society would progress over time. Some results included increased political freedom, the scientific revolution, and greater religious tolerance. The document also profiles several influential Enlightenment thinkers such as John Locke, Denis Diderot, Benjamin Franklin, and Voltaire.
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in 18th century Europe that promoted reason, science, and individualism over tradition. Key figures like Locke, Montesquieu, and Voltaire advocated using reason and science to critically examine religion, government, and society. Enlightenment thinkers believed that people could improve society using rational thought. Their ideas influenced governments and revolutions in both America and France.
The Enlightenment was an 18th century intellectual movement that promoted rational thinking and scientific inquiry over religious dogma and tradition. Enlightenment thinkers applied scientific principles to philosophy and politics and advocated the use of reason to reform society. Key figures like Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau influenced revolutions in America and France and shaped modern concepts of government, rights, and education. Enlightenment principles also inspired reforms by monarchs across Europe seeking to modernize their nations according to rational principles.
This document provides an overview of the Age of Enlightenment. It discusses key thinkers like Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau who questioned traditional institutions and promoted rational thinking. It describes the scientific advances and philosophical views of the time, including deism, rational religion, and using reason rather than scripture to understand the world. The document also examines the characteristics of Enlightenment thought such as rationalism, secularism, freedom of thought, and optimism about social progress.
This document provides an overview of the Enlightenment period in the 18th century and some of its key thinkers and ideas. It summarizes that the Enlightenment was an age of optimism in humanity's ability to use reason to reform society and advance knowledge. Major figures discussed include Voltaire, Rousseau, and Adam Smith. Voltaire and other philosophes advocated using reason to critique tradition and institutions in order to promote freedom, rights, and social progress. Rousseau emphasized concepts like the social contract and general will. Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations analyzed free market economics. Enlightened despots also sought to implement Enlightenment ideals through legal and economic reforms.
The document discusses the key ideas and figures of the Enlightenment period in Europe. It began as an expansion of ideas from the Scientific Revolution and Renaissance, emphasizing reason and secularism over tradition and superstition. Major Enlightenment thinkers like Kant and Voltaire advocated using reason to understand the world and promote tolerance. They helped establish the "Republic of Letters" through salons and publications like Diderot's Encyclopedia, which aimed to compile all knowledge.
The Enlightenment was an 18th century intellectual movement that promoted reason, science, and intellectual interchange over intolerance and religious abuses. Originating in late 17th century Europe, particularly France, it spread to other major cities and influenced philosophy, politics, and society. Enlightenment thinkers like Locke, Spinoza, and Newton applied rationality to understand nature and criticized the abuse of power, with their ideas later influencing revolutions and constitutions around the world.
Eighteenth Century France
What was the Enlightenment?
Ideas that originated during the Enlightenment
WHAT EVENTS WERE CATALYSTS FOR THE ENLIGHTENMENT?
OTHER CAUSES OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT
The Scientific Revolution (16th and 17th century)
Bacon’s Scientific Method
Isaac Newton
18th century Enlightenment – The Age of Reason
THE INFLUENCE OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT
This document summarizes key figures and ideas from the Enlightenment period. It profiles scientists like Galileo, Kepler, Descartes, and Newton, who made important discoveries about astronomy, physics, and mathematics that changed views of humanity's place in the universe. Philosophers such as Locke, Rousseau, and Voltaire advocated new social contract theories and expanding individual freedoms and rights. The document also outlines several enlightened despots, including Frederick the Great, Maria Theresa, and Catherine the Great, who instituted reforms in Prussia, Austria, and Russia to modernize governments and societies.
The document discusses the philosophical period known as the Enlightenment in the 18th century. During this time, science and technology advanced rapidly. Philosophers like John Locke and Thomas Hobbes applied scientific reasoning to studying government and society, believing that the use of reason could free people from ignorance and allow both individuals and society to progress. Their ideas challenging the notion that kings held all political power and presented new theories for how government and society should be organized, radically changing views of authority.
The Renaissance period saw a revival of classical Greco-Roman ideas in Europe between the 14th and 17th centuries. This cultural and intellectual movement was spurred by increased trade and wealth in Italian city-states, which exposed people to new ideas. Major developments included the printing press spreading knowledge, Copernicus and Galileo challenging the Church's geocentric view of the universe, and the Protestant Reformation questioning Church authority. The subsequent Enlightenment applied reason to philosophy, government, and society, promoting ideas of individual rights and challenging absolute monarchies. Thinkers like Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau influenced revolutions in America and France seeking more democratic forms of government.
The Protestant Reformation was an attempt in the 16th century to reform the Catholic Church in Europe. Reformers like Martin Luther wanted to restore faith in the church and questioned the corruption and power of Catholic Church leaders. Luther posted his 95 Theses criticizing the church in 1517, sparking the Protestant Reformation where Europeans broke away from the Catholic Church and formed new Christian denominations like Lutheran and Calvinist churches.
The Enlightenment was an 18th century intellectual movement that promoted reason and individualism over tradition. Philosophes like Voltaire and Diderot spread ideas of progress, liberty, and secular thought through works like the Encyclopédie. They challenged the existing social and political order and advocated for natural rights, religious tolerance, and separation of church and state. Their works helped spread Enlightenment ideals of skepticism, science, and humanism throughout Europe.
The Protestant Reformation began in 1517 when Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses criticizing Catholic Church practices like selling indulgences. This sparked religious and political changes across Europe. Luther and other reformers like John Calvin and Ulrich Zwingli questioned Catholic doctrine and authority. Their teachings spread, dividing Western Christianity and leading many regions to adopt Protestantism over Catholicism by 1600. The Reformation had widespread impacts, including weakening the Pope's power, strengthening secular rulers, and influencing ideas like democracy. Protestantism remains one of the major branches of Christianity today.
The Political philosophy of Thomas HobbesNoel Jopson
Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher who argued that people were naturally self-interested and could not be trusted to govern themselves. In his most famous work, Leviathan, he proposed that the absolute monarchy was the best form of government because it concentrated all power in the hands of a sovereign, like a king, who could enforce order and security. Hobbes believed that without a powerful central authority, humanity would revert to a "state of nature" characterized by insecurity, conflict, and a "war of all against all."
The document summarizes key aspects of the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment period in Europe. It outlines causes of the Scientific Revolution such as trade, universities, and the Renaissance. It then lists important scientists from the era like Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton. It discusses new attitudes around skepticism and rationalism that developed. It also summarizes major philosophers from this period and their ideas, including Descartes, Spinoza, Locke, Hobbes, and others. Finally, it discusses some of the lasting legacies of the Enlightenment like the development of civil society and an emphasis on individual rights and democracy.
Imperialism and colonialism involved the conquest and rule of other lands and peoples. From 1870 onward, European powers aggressively expanded their colonial empires, driven by economic, political, and ideological motives. They sought raw materials, markets, and national prestige. By the late 19th century, most of Africa and Asia was under European control as a result of the "scramble for Africa" and colonial expansion in Asia. The consequences of imperialism were mixed, providing some benefits but also economic exploitation and loss of culture for colonized peoples. Colonial expansion also increased tensions between European powers.
The document provides an overview of the Renaissance and Reformation periods. It discusses how the Renaissance began in Italy and promoted humanism, with figures like Petrarch, Boccaccio, and Medici helping to spread these ideals. The Protestant Reformation was led by Martin Luther and sought to reform the Catholic Church, which had been weakened by issues like the Black Plague and corruption. Luther protested the selling of indulgences and nailed his 95 theses, defying the Pope and Emperor's orders to recant, leading to the formation of Protestantism.
Imperialism refers to the policy of extending a nation's authority over foreign territories or people. It has historically been used to justify acquiring lands and asserting political and economic dominance. There are varying degrees of imperialism from direct colonial rule to weaker forms like neo-colonialism. Motives for imperialism include economic gains, prestige, security, and surplus population adjustment. While it provided some benefits like development, imperialism is ultimately seen as inherently exploitative, undemocratic, and a violation of human rights. Decolonization movements have succeeded in dismantling some traditional forms of imperialism and colonial rule.
George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was a German philosopher born in 1770 who developed a complex philosophical system. He was a professor of philosophy at several universities. Some of his major works included Phenomenology of Mind, Phenomenology of Logic, and Philosophy of Right. Hegel believed that philosophy was a unique discipline dealing with unique objects and methods. He developed a dialectic logic that viewed thought as dynamic, self-transcending, and fundamentally dialectic. For Hegel, reality is constituted by our thoughts, even if our thoughts involve contradictions, as contradictions can be reconciled into a higher unity through dialectic reasoning. Hegel viewed reason as governing both our thinking and the world, with the rational being the real
The Reformation began in the 1500s led by reformers such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and King Henry VIII who challenged the authority and teachings of the Catholic Church. Luther posted his 95 Theses criticizing the Church in 1517 which sparked the Protestant Reformation. The printing press helped spread Protestant ideas. The Counter Reformation was launched by the Catholic Church including through the Jesuits and the Council of Trent to combat heresy and reform the Church. This led to a divided Europe and era of religious wars between Protestant and Catholic states.
1. The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that changed people's views on the world, challenging the power of the Church and forming the foundations of modern science.
2. Enlightenment thinkers like Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau influenced the American Founding Fathers and shaped the Declaration of Independence and Constitution.
3. Core Enlightenment ideas like natural rights, social contract theory, and separation of powers can be seen in the founding documents and principles of the United States.
The events of the PROTESTANT REFORMATION from its start in 1517 until the end of the THIRTY YEARS' WAR in 1648, examining its causes and its impact on the world.
The Scientific Revolution of the 1500s and 1600s changed how Europeans viewed the world by encouraging conclusions based on experimentation rather than tradition. Copernicus published a theory that the Earth revolved around the sun, contradicting Ptolemy's geocentric model, while Galileo and Kepler provided evidence supporting Copernicus through observations with early telescopes and mathematical calculations. Newton later built on this work by formulating laws of motion and gravity and proving the existence and properties of light through experimentation and the new scientific method. These advances established modern science.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) was an English philosopher who is considered one of the founders of modern political philosophy. He studied at Oxford University and traveled throughout Europe, experiencing different forms of government. Hobbes believed humans were inherently selfish and without rules or authority would live in a "war of all against all." He argued the best form of government was an absolute monarchy that imposed order through a strong central authority figure like a king. His most famous work was Leviathan, published during the English Civil War, where he made the case that people could not be trusted to govern themselves and needed an absolute ruler to maintain peace and security.
The document discusses the key ideas and figures of the Enlightenment period in Europe. It began in the 1600s as educated Europeans started using reason and logic rather than tradition to understand the world. Thinkers known as philosophes gathered in informal salons to discuss new ideas. Major Enlightenment thinkers included Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu, Francois-Marie Arouet (Voltaire), and influential women like Olympe de Gouges and Abigail Adams who advocated for women's rights. These philosophers questioned authority and traditions in fields like religion, government, and society and advocated for rational and scientific thought.
The Protestant Reformation began in 15th century Europe as a reaction against corrupt practices in the Catholic Church. Martin Luther protested the sale of indulgences in 1517 with his 95 Theses. This sparked the Reformation and divided Western Christianity between Protestant and Catholic denominations. Luther's theology emphasized salvation by faith alone rather than works. His refusal to recant at the Diet of Worms in 1521 had wide religious, political, and intellectual impacts that transformed Europe.
The Protestant Reformation began in 1517 when Martin Luther publicly protested corrupt practices in the Catholic Church by nailing his 95 Theses to a church door in Germany. This sparked divisions in the Catholic Church and the emergence of Protestantism. Key figures like Luther and John Calvin rejected the authority of the Pope and certain Catholic doctrines, believing salvation came from faith alone rather than good works. The Reformation led to the permanent split of Western Christianity into Catholic and Protestant denominations and spread Protestant ideas across Europe through the 16th century, resulting in religious conflicts and wars.
Eighteenth Century France
What was the Enlightenment?
Ideas that originated during the Enlightenment
WHAT EVENTS WERE CATALYSTS FOR THE ENLIGHTENMENT?
OTHER CAUSES OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT
The Scientific Revolution (16th and 17th century)
Bacon’s Scientific Method
Isaac Newton
18th century Enlightenment – The Age of Reason
THE INFLUENCE OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT
This document summarizes key figures and ideas from the Enlightenment period. It profiles scientists like Galileo, Kepler, Descartes, and Newton, who made important discoveries about astronomy, physics, and mathematics that changed views of humanity's place in the universe. Philosophers such as Locke, Rousseau, and Voltaire advocated new social contract theories and expanding individual freedoms and rights. The document also outlines several enlightened despots, including Frederick the Great, Maria Theresa, and Catherine the Great, who instituted reforms in Prussia, Austria, and Russia to modernize governments and societies.
The document discusses the philosophical period known as the Enlightenment in the 18th century. During this time, science and technology advanced rapidly. Philosophers like John Locke and Thomas Hobbes applied scientific reasoning to studying government and society, believing that the use of reason could free people from ignorance and allow both individuals and society to progress. Their ideas challenging the notion that kings held all political power and presented new theories for how government and society should be organized, radically changing views of authority.
The Renaissance period saw a revival of classical Greco-Roman ideas in Europe between the 14th and 17th centuries. This cultural and intellectual movement was spurred by increased trade and wealth in Italian city-states, which exposed people to new ideas. Major developments included the printing press spreading knowledge, Copernicus and Galileo challenging the Church's geocentric view of the universe, and the Protestant Reformation questioning Church authority. The subsequent Enlightenment applied reason to philosophy, government, and society, promoting ideas of individual rights and challenging absolute monarchies. Thinkers like Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau influenced revolutions in America and France seeking more democratic forms of government.
The Protestant Reformation was an attempt in the 16th century to reform the Catholic Church in Europe. Reformers like Martin Luther wanted to restore faith in the church and questioned the corruption and power of Catholic Church leaders. Luther posted his 95 Theses criticizing the church in 1517, sparking the Protestant Reformation where Europeans broke away from the Catholic Church and formed new Christian denominations like Lutheran and Calvinist churches.
The Enlightenment was an 18th century intellectual movement that promoted reason and individualism over tradition. Philosophes like Voltaire and Diderot spread ideas of progress, liberty, and secular thought through works like the Encyclopédie. They challenged the existing social and political order and advocated for natural rights, religious tolerance, and separation of church and state. Their works helped spread Enlightenment ideals of skepticism, science, and humanism throughout Europe.
The Protestant Reformation began in 1517 when Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses criticizing Catholic Church practices like selling indulgences. This sparked religious and political changes across Europe. Luther and other reformers like John Calvin and Ulrich Zwingli questioned Catholic doctrine and authority. Their teachings spread, dividing Western Christianity and leading many regions to adopt Protestantism over Catholicism by 1600. The Reformation had widespread impacts, including weakening the Pope's power, strengthening secular rulers, and influencing ideas like democracy. Protestantism remains one of the major branches of Christianity today.
The Political philosophy of Thomas HobbesNoel Jopson
Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher who argued that people were naturally self-interested and could not be trusted to govern themselves. In his most famous work, Leviathan, he proposed that the absolute monarchy was the best form of government because it concentrated all power in the hands of a sovereign, like a king, who could enforce order and security. Hobbes believed that without a powerful central authority, humanity would revert to a "state of nature" characterized by insecurity, conflict, and a "war of all against all."
The document summarizes key aspects of the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment period in Europe. It outlines causes of the Scientific Revolution such as trade, universities, and the Renaissance. It then lists important scientists from the era like Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton. It discusses new attitudes around skepticism and rationalism that developed. It also summarizes major philosophers from this period and their ideas, including Descartes, Spinoza, Locke, Hobbes, and others. Finally, it discusses some of the lasting legacies of the Enlightenment like the development of civil society and an emphasis on individual rights and democracy.
Imperialism and colonialism involved the conquest and rule of other lands and peoples. From 1870 onward, European powers aggressively expanded their colonial empires, driven by economic, political, and ideological motives. They sought raw materials, markets, and national prestige. By the late 19th century, most of Africa and Asia was under European control as a result of the "scramble for Africa" and colonial expansion in Asia. The consequences of imperialism were mixed, providing some benefits but also economic exploitation and loss of culture for colonized peoples. Colonial expansion also increased tensions between European powers.
The document provides an overview of the Renaissance and Reformation periods. It discusses how the Renaissance began in Italy and promoted humanism, with figures like Petrarch, Boccaccio, and Medici helping to spread these ideals. The Protestant Reformation was led by Martin Luther and sought to reform the Catholic Church, which had been weakened by issues like the Black Plague and corruption. Luther protested the selling of indulgences and nailed his 95 theses, defying the Pope and Emperor's orders to recant, leading to the formation of Protestantism.
Imperialism refers to the policy of extending a nation's authority over foreign territories or people. It has historically been used to justify acquiring lands and asserting political and economic dominance. There are varying degrees of imperialism from direct colonial rule to weaker forms like neo-colonialism. Motives for imperialism include economic gains, prestige, security, and surplus population adjustment. While it provided some benefits like development, imperialism is ultimately seen as inherently exploitative, undemocratic, and a violation of human rights. Decolonization movements have succeeded in dismantling some traditional forms of imperialism and colonial rule.
George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was a German philosopher born in 1770 who developed a complex philosophical system. He was a professor of philosophy at several universities. Some of his major works included Phenomenology of Mind, Phenomenology of Logic, and Philosophy of Right. Hegel believed that philosophy was a unique discipline dealing with unique objects and methods. He developed a dialectic logic that viewed thought as dynamic, self-transcending, and fundamentally dialectic. For Hegel, reality is constituted by our thoughts, even if our thoughts involve contradictions, as contradictions can be reconciled into a higher unity through dialectic reasoning. Hegel viewed reason as governing both our thinking and the world, with the rational being the real
The Reformation began in the 1500s led by reformers such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and King Henry VIII who challenged the authority and teachings of the Catholic Church. Luther posted his 95 Theses criticizing the Church in 1517 which sparked the Protestant Reformation. The printing press helped spread Protestant ideas. The Counter Reformation was launched by the Catholic Church including through the Jesuits and the Council of Trent to combat heresy and reform the Church. This led to a divided Europe and era of religious wars between Protestant and Catholic states.
1. The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that changed people's views on the world, challenging the power of the Church and forming the foundations of modern science.
2. Enlightenment thinkers like Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau influenced the American Founding Fathers and shaped the Declaration of Independence and Constitution.
3. Core Enlightenment ideas like natural rights, social contract theory, and separation of powers can be seen in the founding documents and principles of the United States.
The events of the PROTESTANT REFORMATION from its start in 1517 until the end of the THIRTY YEARS' WAR in 1648, examining its causes and its impact on the world.
The Scientific Revolution of the 1500s and 1600s changed how Europeans viewed the world by encouraging conclusions based on experimentation rather than tradition. Copernicus published a theory that the Earth revolved around the sun, contradicting Ptolemy's geocentric model, while Galileo and Kepler provided evidence supporting Copernicus through observations with early telescopes and mathematical calculations. Newton later built on this work by formulating laws of motion and gravity and proving the existence and properties of light through experimentation and the new scientific method. These advances established modern science.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) was an English philosopher who is considered one of the founders of modern political philosophy. He studied at Oxford University and traveled throughout Europe, experiencing different forms of government. Hobbes believed humans were inherently selfish and without rules or authority would live in a "war of all against all." He argued the best form of government was an absolute monarchy that imposed order through a strong central authority figure like a king. His most famous work was Leviathan, published during the English Civil War, where he made the case that people could not be trusted to govern themselves and needed an absolute ruler to maintain peace and security.
The document discusses the key ideas and figures of the Enlightenment period in Europe. It began in the 1600s as educated Europeans started using reason and logic rather than tradition to understand the world. Thinkers known as philosophes gathered in informal salons to discuss new ideas. Major Enlightenment thinkers included Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu, Francois-Marie Arouet (Voltaire), and influential women like Olympe de Gouges and Abigail Adams who advocated for women's rights. These philosophers questioned authority and traditions in fields like religion, government, and society and advocated for rational and scientific thought.
The Protestant Reformation began in 15th century Europe as a reaction against corrupt practices in the Catholic Church. Martin Luther protested the sale of indulgences in 1517 with his 95 Theses. This sparked the Reformation and divided Western Christianity between Protestant and Catholic denominations. Luther's theology emphasized salvation by faith alone rather than works. His refusal to recant at the Diet of Worms in 1521 had wide religious, political, and intellectual impacts that transformed Europe.
The Protestant Reformation began in 1517 when Martin Luther publicly protested corrupt practices in the Catholic Church by nailing his 95 Theses to a church door in Germany. This sparked divisions in the Catholic Church and the emergence of Protestantism. Key figures like Luther and John Calvin rejected the authority of the Pope and certain Catholic doctrines, believing salvation came from faith alone rather than good works. The Reformation led to the permanent split of Western Christianity into Catholic and Protestant denominations and spread Protestant ideas across Europe through the 16th century, resulting in religious conflicts and wars.
The Enlightenment was a period in the 18th century when thinkers applied reason and science to politics, society, and the economy. They challenged absolute monarch rule and argued that people have natural rights like liberty. Thinkers like Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Adam Smith developed new ideas about government, economics, and society that influenced revolutions and the growth of democracy. Their works spread new ways of thinking and challenged traditional authorities and institutions.
The document provides information about expectations and routines for a World History class taught by Ms. Rivard. It outlines daily procedures such as having a do-now question on the board, taking out needed materials, putting away others, signing out to leave class, and where to find supplies. It also details expectations for assignments, turning in work, classroom organization, and personal folders.
World war i_-_the_total_war_experience-cp 2014Lauren Rivard
World War I involved total war between the Allied and Central Powers that impacted civilian life. The war began in 1914 due to long-term tensions and a short-term assassination. It was initially fought between trenches along the Western Front in France and Belgium. By 1915, both sides had dug extensive trench networks and endured stalemate and heavy casualties with little territorial change. The war also involved fighting along the Eastern Front between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia. All countries industrialized their economies and societies to support the war effort through measures like rationing and propaganda.
According to spiritual teachers, enlightenment involves ego disappearing and merging with vast consciousness, leaving only bliss. However, the document argues this is misleading, as people cannot permanently live in an enlightened "mysterious state" and instead experience a cycle of entering and exiting this state. True enlightenment is about knowing who you are, rather than the misleading descriptions provided by some teachers.
The document provides an overview of the Enlightenment, including that it was an intellectual movement where thinkers used reason and science rather than religion to understand the world. It took place from the late 17th century through the 18th century, starting in Britain and spreading to France and the Americas. Before the Enlightenment, most of Europe was ruled by absolute monarchs and religious authorities, while the Enlightenment encouraged changes in government, society, and economic structures and influenced revolutions through the ideas of influential philosophers.
Weapons of wwi sales pitch (wiki version)Lauren Rivard
The document provides background on how the Schlieffen Plan led Germany to be defeated at the Battle of the Marne, forcing a stalemate on the Western Front between Germany and France. It then explains how students will take on roles investing in different "wonder weapons" of World War I that could potentially break the stalemate. Students must research their assigned weapon, then present a 2-minute pitch to investors arguing why their weapon is best and should receive funding. They should address how their weapon could give Britain an advantage to end the stalemate and win the war.
The Balkans region was known as a powder keg due to high nationalist tensions between its countries including Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania and Greece. Serbia's goal was to unite all Slavic people, worrying Austria-Hungary who ruled over many Slavs. When Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, tensions rose further. By 1914, tensions increased as Serbia gained territory and power in the region, worrying Austria-Hungary. That June, Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian-Hungarian throne, was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist group, prompting Austria to issue Serbia an ultimatum backed by Germany, leading to World War I.
The Schlieffen Plan was Germany's strategy for fighting a war on one front by quickly defeating France before Russia could fully mobilize. The plan involved invading Belgium to outflank French defenses on the shared border, but this violation of Belgian neutrality drew Britain into the war on the side of the Allies against Germany and Austria-Hungary.
The document provides background on the Protestant Reformation that began in the 16th century. It discusses several factors that weakened the authority of the Catholic Church and paved the way for Martin Luther to post his 95 Theses criticizing the sale of indulgences in 1517. This sparked the wider Reformation movement in Germany and other parts of Europe. King Henry VIII later broke England away from the Catholic Church to allow for his divorce and establish himself as the head of the Church of England. The Reformation had political as well as religious impacts across Europe.
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that emphasized reason, science, and individualism rather than tradition. During this era, scientists like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Newton, and Boyle made discoveries that challenged traditional beliefs and established the scientific method. Philosophers such as Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and others promoted ideals of liberty, constitutional government, freedom of religion, and separation of powers. Their works helped spread ideals of the Enlightenment and encouraged using reason to improve society and advance human knowledge.
Renaissance and reformation quick reviewWalter Price
1) The Renaissance began in Italy in the 15th century and saw a rebirth of classical ideas of ancient Greece and Rome in areas like art, politics, science, and education.
2) Two of the most famous Italian Renaissance artists were Leonardo da Vinci, who was a painter, inventor, and scientist, and Michelangelo, known for realistic sculptures and paintings including the Sistine Chapel.
3) The Protestant Reformation began as a protest against corruption in the Catholic Church and led to new Christian denominations like Lutheranism and Anglicanism. Martin Luther and Henry VIII helped establish these new branches of Christianity.
The Enlightenment was a period in the 18th century where philosophers used reason to understand human problems and nature. They believed reason could solve problems and improve lives. Enlightenment ideals fueled the American and French Revolutions by promoting ideas like natural rights, consent of the governed, and limited government. Major Enlightenment philosophers included Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and later Adam Smith and Mary Wollstonecraft. Some monarchs also adopted Enlightenment ideals by becoming more tolerant and just rulers.
The Enlightenment was a period in the late 1600s to 1790 characterized by the use of reason and scientific inquiry. Key figures like John Locke and Isaac Newton influenced Enlightenment thinking by applying rational principles to politics, economics, justice, religion, and the arts. Philosophes were influential thinkers who believed in applying reason and rational criticism to all aspects of life, including religion, politics, and society. They sought to improve the world using knowledge, reason, liberty, progress, and by challenging traditional views like absolute monarchy, the divine right of kings, and the unchecked power of the church.
The document provides an overview of the Enlightenment period in Europe and its impact. It discusses how the Scientific Revolution challenged traditional views and led thinkers to apply reason to social issues. Major Enlightenment philosophers such as Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau debated the roles of government and natural rights. Their ideas influenced revolutions in America and France. The U.S. Constitution incorporated principles of separation of powers, checks and balances, and inalienable rights that stem from Enlightenment thinking.
Christian Humanism emerged during the Reformation as a movement that emphasized studying early Christian writings and the Bible to reform the Catholic Church and improve society. A leading figure, Desiderius Erasmus, criticized the Church's corruption and hypocrisy in his influential work "In Praise of Folly" and called for reform from within. Martin Luther also sought reform but eventually broke from the Church over doctrines like salvation by faith alone, sparking the wider Protestant Reformation across Europe in various forms such as Lutheranism, Calvinism, and the Church of England established under King Henry VIII.
The Philosophes (Enlightenment Thinkers)Tom Richey
During the Age of Enlightenment, the "philosophes" (French for philosopher) championed enlightened values of empiricism, freedom, science, reason, progress, and religious toleration. The Philosophes hailed from several European nations, such as France (Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu, Rousseau), Prussia (Kant), Scotland (Smith), and the United States (Jefferson, Franklin, Paine).
This PowerPoint presentation was designed to accompany a lecture on the Enlightenment for courses in Western Civilization, World History, and European History.
For more instructional materials, check out my website: http://www.tomrichey.net
The Protestant Reformation began in 1517 when Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses to a church door in Germany, criticizing the Catholic Church's practices around indulgences. Luther's ideas of salvation through faith alone and the Bible as the sole religious authority spread rapidly through newly invented printing presses. At the Diet of Worms in 1521, Luther refused to renounce his writings and went into hiding. John Calvin further developed Protestant theology in France and Geneva. Meanwhile, King Henry VIII of England broke with Rome when the pope denied his annulment, establishing the Church of England. The Reformation ultimately divided Western Christianity into numerous denominations.
The document provides an overview of the Age of Enlightenment, including:
1) It was an 18th century intellectual movement that promoted reason and reform of society, originating around 1650-1700 sparked by philosophers like Spinoza, Locke, Newton, and Voltaire.
2) It spread across Europe and was centered in France, influencing figures like Franklin and Jefferson and playing a role in the American Revolution.
3) The term "Enlightenment" came to be used in the mid-18th century in English, referring to French philosophy, while the German term was "Aufklärung." There were variations between countries and responses from governments ranged from hostile to supportive.
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The Age of Enlightenment began in the 15th century as a philosophical movement that challenged traditional authority and embraced reason, science, and individualism. Philosophers like Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau developed ideas about natural rights and limitations on government power that influenced democratic revolutions in America and France. Their principles of prioritizing reason over religion and tradition helped launch the scientific revolution and political modernization in Western societies.
The Enlightenment Age and Thinkers.pptxNathanMoyo1
The document discusses the Age of Enlightenment, which took place from the 17th to early 19th centuries. It was a period that witnessed progress in science, politics, and philosophical discourse. Key aspects included replacing tradition with reason, exploration, tolerance, and scientific endeavor. The Enlightenment promoted reason, the scientific method, and the idea that society and human understanding would continue to progress. It influenced movements for political freedom, religious tolerance, and the scientific revolution. The document also outlines the main Enlightenment thinkers such as Locke, Rousseau, Voltaire, and their contributions.
- Medieval philosophy was theocentric and focused on salvation and the afterlife rather than scientific investigation, as Western philosophers turned to Christian doctrines during the decline of Greco-Roman civilization. Prominent medieval philosophers included St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Bonaventure, and St. Anselm.
- The Renaissance period saw a shift from medieval reliance on authority to an emphasis on individual freedom and experience through the revival of classical Greek and Roman studies. This led to more secular and humanist views.
- The Enlightenment was characterized by a new faith in human reason and progress through science and philosophy. Thinkers questioned received ideas and authority while advocating for individualism
This document provides an overview of modern philosophy. It discusses key philosophers and movements from this era, including rationalism, empiricism, idealism, and existentialism. Some of the philosophers mentioned are Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, Kant, Hegel, Marx, and Nietzsche. The document also examines characteristics of modern philosophy, such as its focus on consciousness, epistemology, and the concept of historical progress.
The Birth and Growth of the Social SciencesEdmundo Dantes
The document provides an overview of the historical development of the social sciences from ancient Greece to the modern era. It discusses key figures and events that influenced the birth and growth of sociology, anthropology, political science, and related disciplines. Some of the major developments mentioned include the scientific revolution, enlightenment period, secularization of learning, rise of universities, dissolution of feudal systems, and colonial origins of social sciences.
This document discusses the transition from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment era in Europe. It provides background on medieval philosophy and the "Dark Ages" between the 5th-14th centuries. Key figures from the medieval era like Plato, Clement of Alexandria, and St. Gregory of Nyssa are mentioned. The document then defines the Enlightenment era from 1690-1789, noting it emphasized reason and individualism over tradition. Rationalism and key rationalist philosophers René Descartes and Baruch Spinoza are summarized. For Descartes, it discusses his method of doubt and arguments for dualism. For Spinoza, it outlines his rejection of religious propositions and view that God is equivalent to nature.
The document discusses the Age of Enlightenment, which emerged in Europe between 1715-1789. It was a period dominated by rationality and reason that aimed to move societies from ignorance to maturity. The Enlightenment began in France and spread ideas across Europe and North America. It challenged religious authority and established scientific authority. Some results included the spread of ideals of liberty, challenging superstition, and establishing common values and dialogue. However, the French Revolution showed how Enlightenment ideals could lead to chaos when taken to an extreme.
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that dominated European society from the 17th to 18th centuries. It emphasized reason, science, logic and freedom of thought over myth, faith and absolute authority. The Thirty Years' War, scientific discoveries, and criticism of mistreatment by monarchies and the church fueled the Enlightenment. Enlightenment thinkers produced books and essays that challenged traditional ideas and spread new philosophies, influencing political and social change across Europe.
This document provides an overview of the origin and development of the main social sciences disciplines: anthropology, sociology, and political science. It discusses how they emerged from philosophy and theology to become empirical sciences based on observation and evidence. Key events and thinkers that contributed to their development include the Scientific Revolution, Enlightenment period, works of thinkers like Comte, Durkheim, Marx, and Boas. Decolonization efforts aimed to make the social sciences less ethnocentric and more reflective of non-Western experiences and knowledge.
Our major goal is to help you achieve your academic goals. We are commited to helping you get top grades in your academic papers.We desire to help you come up with great essays that meet your lecturer's expectations.
217th – 18th Century Enlightenment1Sharamane Jackson O.docxeugeniadean34240
2
17th – 18th Century Enlightenment 1
Sharamane Jackson
Outline
17th – 18th Century Enlightenment
Introduction – In the 17th Century in England the Enlightenment movement began to become an influence all over the world. During the Enlightenment era scientific and intellectual revolutions evolved. The thinkers of this era believed that change and reason were both possible and desirable for the human liberty. Philosophes provided ideas that viewed the social and political. Through the different philosophies and intellectuals of the era, it grows evident that individuals addressed religious and social issues by criticizing the current nature of the state, suggesting more effective methods, and by applauding certain other figures worthy of admiration.
I. Philosophies
A. John Locke
1. Man’s Nature
2. Environment
3. Human Knowledge
B. Baron de Montesquieu
1. Spirit of Laws
2. British Gov.
3. Separation of powers
4. Checks and balances
C. Rousseau
1. Father of Romanticism
2. General Will
3. Rejected science and reason
4. The social contract
II. Religion
A. Theologians
1. Reform faith
2. Religious controversy
3. Warfare
B. Protestant Reformation
1. New Science
2. New Philosophy
3. Protestant Reformers
C. Renaissance Humanists
1. Catholics
2. Thinkers
3. God-Worshippers
III. Social
A. Habermas
1. Common Concern
2. Bourgeois Public Sphere
3. The rise of capitalism
B. Socio-Economic control
1. Hierarchical
2. Monarchy/Nobility
3. Catholic Church
C. Economic System
1. Economic structure change
2. Hegemonies
3. Monarchies weaken
Conclusion – The Enlightenment impacted art, religion, and politics with also identifying the ideas of John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Thomas Hobbes. Enlightenment represents beliefs changing over time but the values remain the same.
Sharamane Jackson
Sharamane Jackson
Proposal-Outline
Professor Loretta Nyhan (03/09/2014)
Proposal-Outline
HUMN 303
A. Enlightment
Explain your course project in a brief, clear paragraph that tells:
(1) Explain what the Enlightenment was; discuss how the ideas of the Enlightenment influenced people to create more democratic governments. Also, identify the ideas of John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Thomas Hobbes.
(2) This topic interests me because it’s about oneself and intellectual capacities in determining what to believe and how to act.
(3) How does this topic link strongly to the Humanities?
This topic links strongly to Humanities because during the Enlightenment the age in which humanism reached its fully developed from.
B. THESIS
1. Through the different philosophies and intellectuals of the era, it grows evident that individuals addressed religious and social issues by criticizing the current nature of the state, suggesting mo.
sociological foundations of education hand_in_philosophyLexter Adao
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The document provides an overview of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment period in Europe. It discusses key figures like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Newton, and Descartes who challenged the Aristotelian view of the universe and established the foundations of the modern scientific method. It also examines Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire, Rousseau, and Kant who applied scientific reasoning to critique established authority and traditions, promoted rational and progressive ideas, and advocated for universal rights and reforms.
The document provides an overview of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment period in Europe. It discusses key figures like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Newton, and Descartes who challenged the Aristotelian view of the universe and established the foundations of the modern scientific method. It also examines Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire, Rousseau, and Kant who applied scientific reasoning to critique traditional institutions and advocated for political and social reform based on ideas of progress, liberty, and inalienable rights.
The document provides an overview of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment period in Europe. It discusses key figures like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Newton, and Descartes who challenged the Aristotelian view of the universe and established the foundations of the modern scientific method. It also examines Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire, Rousseau, and Kant who applied scientific reasoning to critique established authority and traditions, promoted rational and progressive ideas, and advocated for universal rights and reforms.
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2. ▪ -The Enlightenment is the period in the history
of western thought and culture, stretching roughly
from the mid-decades of the seventeenth
century through the eighteenth century,
characterized by dramatic revolutions in science,
philosophy, society and politics.
▪ -Enlightenment thought culminates historically
in the political upheaval of the French
Revolution, in which the traditional hierarchical
political and social orders were violently
destroyed and replaced by a political and social
order informed by the Enlightenment ideals of
freedom and equality for all, founded, ostensibly,
upon principles of human reason.
3. ▪ The Enlightenment produced numerous books,
essays, inventions, scientific discoveries, laws, wars
and revolutions.
▪ The Enlightenment begins with the scientific
revolution of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
▪ The dramatic success of the new science in explaining
the natural world, in accounting for a wide variety of
phenomena by appeal to a relatively small number of
elegant mathematical formulae, promotes philosophy
(in the broad sense of the time, which includes natural
science) from a handmaiden of theology, constrained
by its purposes and methods, to an independent force
with the power and authority to challenge the old and
construct the new, in the realms both of theory and
practice, on the basis of its own principles.
5. ▪ -As a result, the enlightenment may be divided up into three general
time periods and three different themes:
▪ -Time Periods:
1. THE EARLY ENLIGHTENMENT: 1685-1730
2. THE HIGH ENLIGHTENMENT: 1730-1780
3. THE LATE ENLIGHTENMENT AND BEYOND: 1780-1815
▪ -Themes:
1. The True: Science, Epistemology and Metaphysics
2. The Good: Political Theory, Ethical Theory and Religion
3. The Beautiful: Aesthetics
6. 1. THE EARLY ENLIGHTENMENT: 1685-1730
▪ -The Enlightenment’s important 17th-century
precursors included the Englishmen Francis Bacon
and Thomas Hobbes, the Frenchman Renee
Descartes and the key natural philosophers of the
Scientific Revolution, including Galileo, Kepler and
Leibniz.
▪ -There was no single, unified Enlightenment.
Instead, it is possible to speak of the French
Enlightenment, the Scottish Enlightenment and
the English, German, Swiss or American
Enlightenment.
▪ -Individual Enlightenment thinkers often had
very different approaches. Locke differed from
Hume, Rousseau from Voltaire, Thomas
Jefferson from Frederick the Great.
7. ▪ -Their differences and
disagreements, though,
emerged out of the
common Enlightenment
themes of:
1. rational questioning
2. and belief in
progress through
dialogue.
8. Epistemology and Metaphysics in the Enlightenment
▪ -In this era dedicated to human progress, the advancement of the natural
sciences is regarded as the main exemplification of, and fuel for, such
progress.
▪ -The conception of nature, and of how we know it, changes significantly with
the rise of modern science.
▪ -It belongs centrally to the agenda of Enlightenment philosophy to contribute
to the new knowledge of nature, and to provide a metaphysical framework
within which to place and interpret this new knowledge.
▪ -Three principle epistemological positions emerge in the enlgihhtment that
would have a deep impact on western thought:
▪ 1. Rationalism
▪ 2. Empiricism
▪ 3. Skepticism
9. Rationalism
▪ Rationalism, in Western philosophy, the view that regards reason as the chief source and test of
knowledge.
▪ Holding that reality itself has an inherently logical structure, the rationalist asserts that a class of
truths exists that the intellect can grasp directly.
▪ There are, according to the rationalists, certain rational principles—especially in logic and
mathematics, and even in ethics and metaphysics—that are so fundamental that to deny them is to
fall into contradiction.
▪ - Descartes (1596–1650) undertakes to establish the sciences upon a secure metaphysical
foundation. The famous method of doubt Descartes employs for this purpose exemplifies (in part
through exaggerating) an attitude characteristic of the Enlightenment.
▪ -Rationalism holds that at least some human knowledge is gained through a priori (prior to
experience), or rational, insight as distinct from sense experience, which too often provides a
confused and merely tentative approach.
10. ▪ -Two types of knowledge:
▪ 1. a priori
▪ 2. a posteriori
▪ -Rationalists, on the contrary,
urge that some, though not
all, knowledge arises through
direct apprehension by the
intellect. What the
intellectual faculty
apprehends is objects that
transcend sense experience—
universals and their relations.
11. Empiricism
▪ Empiricism, in philosophy, the view that all concepts originate in experience, that all concepts are about or
applicable to things that can be experienced, or that all rationally acceptable beliefs or propositions are justifiable
or knowable only through experience.
▪ This broad definition accords with the derivation of the term empiricism from the ancient Greek word
empeiria, “experience.”
▪ Concepts are said to be “a posteriori” if they can be applied only on the basis of experience, and they are
called “a priori” if they can be applied independently of experience. Beliefs or propositions are said to be
a posteriori if they are knowable only on the basis of experience and a priori if they are knowable
independently of experience (see a posteriori knowledge).
▪ - Thus, according to the second and third definitions of empiricism above, empiricism is the view that all
concepts, or all rationally acceptable beliefs or propositions, are a posteriori rather than a priori.
▪ - It views beliefs, or at least some vital classes of belief as depending ultimately and necessarily on
experience for their justification. An equivalent way of stating this thesis is to say that all human
knowledge is derived from experience.
12. Skepticism
▪ - Skepticism or scepticism (see spelling differences) is generally any questioning
attitude towards unempirical knowledge or opinions/beliefs stated as facts, or doubt
regarding claims that are taken for granted elsewhere.
▪ - Philosophical skepticism is a systematic approach that questions the notion that
absolutely certain knowledge is possible.
▪ -Skeptics may even doubt the reliability of their own senses. Religious skepticism, on
the other hand, is "doubt concerning basic religious principles (such as immortality,
providence, and revelation)". Scientific skepticism is about testing beliefs for reliability, by
subjecting them to systematic investigation using the scientific method, to discover
empirical evidence for them.
13. THE HIGH ENLIGHTENMENT: 1730-1780
▪ -Centered on the dialogues and publications of the
French “philosophes” (Voltaire, Rousseau,
Montesquieu, Buffon and Diderot), the High
Enlightenment might best be summed up by one
historian’s summary of Voltaire’s “Philosophical
Dictionary”: “a chaos of clear ideas.”
▪ - Foremost among these was the notion that
everything in the universe could be rationally
demystified and cataloged.
▪ - It was also a time of religious (and anti-religious)
innovation, as Christians sought to reposition their
faith along rational lines and deists and materialists
argued that the universe seemed to determine its own
course without God’s intervention.
14. The Good: Political Theory, Ethical Theory
and Religion in the Enlightenment
▪ 2.1 Political Theory
▪ -The Enlightenment is most identified with its political accomplishments.
▪ - The era is marked by three political revolutions, which together lay the
basis for modern, republican, constitutional democracies:
1. The English Revolution (1688)
2. the American Revolution (1775–83),
3. the French Revolution (1789–99).
15. ▪ 1. The Glorious Revolution, also called
the Revolution of 1688, was the overthrow of
King James II of England, VII of Scotland
and II of Ireland by a union of English
Parliamentarians with the Dutch stadtholder
William of Orange.
▪ -William's successful invasion of England
with a Dutch fleet and army led to his
ascending of the English throne as William III
of England jointly with his wife Mary II of
England, in conjunction with the
documentation of the Bill of Rights 1689.
16. ▪ 2. The American Revolution (1775-83)
is also known as the American
Revolutionary War and the U.S. War of
Independence. The conflict arose from
growing tensions between residents of
Great Britain’s 13 North American colonies
and the colonial government, which
represented the British crown.
▪ - The ideological movement known as
the American Enlightenment was a
critical precursor to the American
Revolution. Chief among the ideas of
the American Enlightenment were the
concepts of liberalism, republicanism
and fear of corruption.
17. ▪ 3. The French Revolution was a period of far-
reaching social and political upheaval in France
that lasted from 1789 until 1799, and was
partially carried forward by Napoleon during the
later expansion of the French Empire.
▪ - Inspired by liberal and radical ideas, the
Revolution profoundly altered the course of
modern history, triggering the global decline of
absolute monarchies while replacing them with
republics.
▪ - Through the Revolutionary Wars, it
unleashed a wave of global conflicts that
extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East.
Historians widely regard the Revolution as one
of the most important events in human history.
18. ▪ Political Philosophy:
▪ - The success at explaining and understanding the natural world encourages
the Enlightenment project of re-making the social/political world, in accord
with the true models we allegedly find in our reason.
▪ - Enlightenment philosophers find that the existing social and political
orders do not withstand critical scrutiny; they find that existing political and
social authority is shrouded in religious myth and mystery and founded on
obscure traditions.
▪ - The political revolutions of the Enlightenment, especially the French and
the American, were informed and guided to a significant extent by prior
political philosophy in the period.
19. ▪ Though Thomas Hobbes, in his Leviathan (1651), defends the absolute power of the political
sovereign, and is to that extent opposed to the revolutionaries and reformers in England, this work is a
founding work of Enlightenment political theory.
According to the general social contract model, political authority is grounded in an agreement (often
understood as ideal, rather than real) among individuals, each of whom aims in this agreement to
advance his rational self-interest by establishing a common political authority over all.
▪ - Thus, according to the general contract model (though this is more clear in later contract theorists
such as Locke and Rousseau than in Hobbes himself), political authority is grounded not in
conquest, natural or divinely instituted hierarchy, or in obscure myths and traditions, but rather in
the rational consent of the governed.
- In initiating this model, Hobbes takes a naturalistic, scientific approach to the question of how
political society ought to be organized (against the background of a clear-eyed, unsentimental
conception of human nature), and thus decisively influences the Enlightenment process of
secularization and rationalization in political and social philosophy.
20. ▪ - However, John Locke's Second Treatise of
Government (1690) is the classical source of modern
liberal political theory.
▪ - The Second Treatise of Government provides
Locke's positive theory of government — he explicitly
says that he must do this
▪ -“lest men fall into the dangerous belief that all
government in the world is merely the product of
force and violence.”
▪ - Locke's account involves several devices which were
common in seventeenth and eighteenth century political
philosophy — natural rights theory and the social
contract.
21. ▪ 1. Natural rights are those rights which we are supposed to have as human beings
before ever government comes into being.
▪ - We might suppose, that like other animals, we have a natural right to struggle for our
survival. Locke will argue that we have a right to the means to survive.
▪ - When Locke comes to explain how government comes into being, he uses the idea
that people agree that their condition in the state of nature is unsatisfactory, and so
agree to transfer some of their rights to a central government, while retaining others.
▪ 2. This is the theory of the social contract. There are many versions of natural rights
theory and the social contract in seventeenth and eighteenth century European political
philosophy, some conservative and some radical.
▪ - Locke's version belongs on the radical side of the spectrum. These radical natural right
theories influenced the ideologies of the American and French revolutions.
22. ▪ - James Madison (an American statesman, political
theorist, and the fourth President of the United States)
confronts this tension in the context of arguing for the
adoption of the U.S. Constitution (in his Federalist #10).
▪ - Madison argues that popular government (pure
democracy) is subject to the evil of factions; in a pure
democracy, a majority bound together by a private
interest, relative to the whole, has the capacity to impose
its particular will on the whole.
▪ - If, as in Locke's theory, the government's protection of
an individual's freedom is encompassed within the
general end of protecting a person's property, then, as
Madison argues, the proper form of the government
cannot be pure democracy, and the will of the people
must be officially determined in some other way than by
directly polling the people.
▪
23. ▪ Religion and the Enlightenment
▪ - Though the Enlightenment is sometimes
represented as the enemy of religion, it is more
accurate to see it as critically directed against various
(arguably contingent) features of religion, such as
superstition, enthusiasm, fanaticism and
supernaturalism.
▪ - Indeed the effort to discern and advocate for a
religion purified of such features – a “rational” or
“natural” religion – is more typical of the
Enlightenment than opposition to religion as such.
▪ - However, controversy regarding the truth-value or
reasonableness of religious belief in general, Christian
belief in particular, and controversy regarding the
proper place of religion in society, occupies a
particularly central place in the Enlightenment.
24. ▪ 1. Deism. Deism is the form of
religion most associated with the
Enlightenment.
▪ -According to deism, we can
know by the natural light of
reason that the universe is created
and governed by a supreme
intelligence; however, although
this supreme being has a plan for
creation from the beginning, the
being does not interfere with
creation.
25. ▪ 2. Religion of the Heart. Opposition to deism derives sometimes from the perception of it
as coldly rationalistic.
▪ - The God of the deists, arrived at through a priori or empirical argument and referred to as
the Prime Mover or Original Architect, is often perceived as distant and unconcerned with
the daily struggles of human existence, and thus as not answering the human needs from
which religion springs in the first place.
▪ - Some important thinkers of the Enlightenment – notably Shaftesbury and Rousseau –
present religion as founded on natural human sentiments, rather than on the operations of the
intellect.
▪ - This “natural” religion – opposed to the “artificial” religions enforced in the institutions
– is often classed as a form of deism. But it deserves separate mention, because of its
grounding in natural human sentiments, rather than in metaphysical or natural scientific
problems of Cosmology.
26. ▪ 3. Fideism- This tends toward fideism, the view
according to which religious faith maintains its
truth over against philosophical reasoning, which
opposes but cannot defeat it.
▪ - “Fideism” is the name given to that school of
thought—to which Tertullian himself is frequently
said to have subscribed—which answers that faith
is in some sense independent of, if not outright
adversarial toward, reason.
▪ - In contrast to the more rationalistic tradition of
natural theology, with its arguments for the
existence of God, fideism holds—or at any rate
appears to hold (more on this caveat shortly)—that
reason is unnecessary and inappropriate for the
exercise and justification of religious belief.
27. ▪ 4. Atheism- Atheism is more present in the French Enlightenment than elsewhere.
▪ - In the writings of Denis Diderot, atheism is partly supported by an expansive, dynamic
conception of nature.
▪ - According to the viewpoint developed by Diderot, we ought to search for the principles of
natural order within natural processes themselves, not in a supernatural being.
▪ - Even if we don't yet know the internal principles for the ordering and development of
natural forms, the appeal to a transcendent author of such things is reminiscent, to Diderot's
ear, of the appeal to Aristotelian “substantial forms” that was expressly rejected at the
beginning of modern science as explaining nothing.
▪ - The appeal to a transcendent author does not extend our understanding, but merely marks
and fixes the limits of it.
▪ - Atheism (combined with materialism) in the French Enlightenment is perhaps most
identified with the Baron d'Holbach, whose System of Nature (1770) generated a great deal
of controversy at the time for urging the case for atheism explicitly and emphatically.
28. ▪ THE LATE ENLIGHTENMENT AND BEYOND: 1780-1815
▪ -The French Revolution of 1789 was the culmination of the High
Enlightenment vision of throwing out the old authorities to remake society
along rational lines, but it devolved into bloody terror that showed the limits of
its own ideas and led, a decade later, to the rise of Napoleon.
▪ -Still, its goal of egalitarianism attracted the admiration of the early feminist
Mary Wollstonecraft and inspired both the Haitian war of independence and the
radical racial inclusivism of Paraguay’s first post-independence government.
▪ -Enlightened rationality gave way to the wildness of Romanticism, but 19th-
century Liberalism and Classicism—not to mention 20th-century Modernism—
all owe a heavy debt to the thinkers of the Enlightenment.
29. ▪ 3. The Beautiful: Aesthetics
▪ -Modern systematic philosophical aesthetics not only first emerges in the context of the
Enlightenment, but also flowers brilliantly there.
▪ - As Ernst Cassirer notes, the eighteenth century not only thinks of itself as the “century
of philosophy”, but also as “the age of criticism,” where criticism is centrally (though not
only) art and literary criticism.
▪ - The Enlightenment in general re-discovers the value of the senses, not only in cognition,
but in human lives in general, and so, given the intimate connection between beauty and
human sensibility, the Enlightenment is naturally particularly interested in aesthetics.
30. ▪ - Also, the Enlightenment includes a general recovery and affirmation of
the value of pleasure in human lives, against the past of Christian
asceticism, and the flourishing of the arts, of the criticism of the arts and of
the philosophical theorizing about beauty, promotes and is promoted by this
recovery and affirmation.
▪ - It seems to many theorists in the Enlightenment that the faculty of taste,
the faculty by which we discern beauty, reveals to us some part of this order,
a distinctive harmony, unities amidst variety. Thus, in the phenomenon of
aesthetic pleasure, human sensibility discloses to us rational order, thus
binding together two enthusiasms of the Enlightenment.