VRLA batteries, also known as sealed lead-acid batteries, have the same lead-acid battery chemistry as flooded lead-acid batteries but with the electrolyte immobilized in either an absorbent glass mat (AGM battery) or silica gel (gel battery). This makes them maintenance-free and suitable for many portable applications. However, the immobilized electrolyte also impedes chemical reactions, resulting in lower peak power capabilities than flooded lead-acid batteries. There are several types of VRLA batteries that differ in electrolyte type and construction but share the key characteristic of being sealed and maintenance-free.
solar battery Charger using adapter or solar panelSwedel D'souza
For Circuit diagram ,kindly use this site,though we made few modification please refer to slide as well
also download proteus 8 for simulation of circuit
http://electrical-engineering-world1.blogspot.in/2015/02/how-to-make-6v-solar-battery-charger.html
refer this site for project
http://swedeljennifer.simplesite.com/
Now a days world is shifting towards electrified mobility to reduce the pollutant emissions caused by nonrenewable fossil fueled vehicles and to provide the alternative to pricey fuel for transportation. But for electric vehicles, traveling range and charging process are the two major issues affecting it’s adoption over conventional vehicles.
With the introduction of Wire charging technology, no more waiting at charging stations for hours, now get your vehicle charged by just parking it on parking spot or by parking at your garage or even while driving you can charge your electric vehicle. As of now, we are very much familiar with wireless transmission of data, audio and video signals so why can’t we transfer power over the Air.
solar battery Charger using adapter or solar panelSwedel D'souza
For Circuit diagram ,kindly use this site,though we made few modification please refer to slide as well
also download proteus 8 for simulation of circuit
http://electrical-engineering-world1.blogspot.in/2015/02/how-to-make-6v-solar-battery-charger.html
refer this site for project
http://swedeljennifer.simplesite.com/
Now a days world is shifting towards electrified mobility to reduce the pollutant emissions caused by nonrenewable fossil fueled vehicles and to provide the alternative to pricey fuel for transportation. But for electric vehicles, traveling range and charging process are the two major issues affecting it’s adoption over conventional vehicles.
With the introduction of Wire charging technology, no more waiting at charging stations for hours, now get your vehicle charged by just parking it on parking spot or by parking at your garage or even while driving you can charge your electric vehicle. As of now, we are very much familiar with wireless transmission of data, audio and video signals so why can’t we transfer power over the Air.
BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (BMS) IN ELECTRIC VEHICLESBhagavathyP
Introduction
Why we need BMS?
General function of BMS
Block diagram of BMS
BMS architecture
Battery pack – Voltage, Current, Temperature and Isolation sensing
HV contactor control
BMS communications interface
Estimation of energy and power and SOC
Methods to find SOC
Cell Balancing
Relationship between SOC and DOD
Charging and Discharging Control of Li Ion Battery for Electric Vehicle Appli...ijtsrd
This paper presents the detailed simulation and analysis of a battery charging and discharging control for electric vehicle EV application using proportional and integral control. A lithium Ion battery model in MATLAB is considered for this study. The purpose of study is to perform a detailed analysis of the charging and discharging operation and observe the behavior of the key parameters of the battery. To realize these two voltages sources have been used, i.e., one is the battery itself and the other is the DC voltage source. The two different voltage source is feeding to a common load. The DC voltage source feeds the load when the battery is in charging mode. When the battery supply is available then it is discharging to feed the load and its control is designed to generate the reference pulses for DC DC converter. The two scenarios have been simulated and results are recorded which shows the effective operation of charging and discharging of a battery source. Ashutosh Sharma | Lavkesh Patidar "Charging and Discharging Control of Li-Ion Battery for Electric Vehicle Applications" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-6 , October 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd51935.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electronics-and-communication-engineering/51935/charging-and-discharging-control-of-liion-battery-for-electric-vehicle-applications/ashutosh-sharma
An opto-electric nuclear battery is a device that converts nuclear energy into light, which it then uses to generate electrical energy. A beta-emitter such as technetium-99 or strontium-90 is suspended in a gas or liquid containing luminescent gas molecules of the excimer type, constituting a "dust plasma." This permits a nearly lossless emission of beta electrons from the emitting dust particles
This ppt explained on LED based street lights with auto intensity control using solar power from photovoltaic cells and Photovoltaic panels are used for charging batteries by converting the sunlight into electricity
Wireless charging using electromagnetic induction, and resonance magnetic coupling. Effects and limitations, cheallenges faced and meathods to overcome. Success Case study. References included.
Solar powered led street light with auto intensity controlkanhaiya lal
This Project is all about Solar powered LED street light with auto intensity control.
Key Description :-
1. Solar Power
2. Solar Panel
3. LED
4. Batteries
5. 8051 IC
6. Regulator
7. MOSFET
8. Voltage Controller
9. Pro's and Con's
10. Features and Daily life usage
I've worked a lot on this PPt. It wont let you down so feel free to download it and rate my work so I can upload better Material regarding to this in near future.
Thank you!
A hybrid electric vehicle uses an electric motor/generator along with an internal combustion engine—offering high fuel economy; low tailpipe emissions; and the power, range, and convenience of a conventional vehicle.
Abstract:-This paper deals with open loop study of fixed capacitor thyristor controlled reactor (FC-TCR) system simulation using Matlab/Simulink for various loading. The modelling of the FC-TCR is verified using the Matlab/Simulink. First power flow results are obtained and power profile have been studied for an uncompensated then results are compared with the results obtained after compensating using the FC-TCR.Its observed that current drawn by FC-TCR is varied by changing firing angle. In compensation without FC-TCR, load increases and power factor become less and in compensation with FC-TCR, load increases and power factor become near to the unity.Hence by providing compensation Voltage, power profile of system will be improved and system losses are reduced.
State of Charge Vs Depth of Discharge
Battery Indicator
Safety Label
Lead Acid Battery Standard Performance
The difference between Conventional Batteries, Hybrid Batteries and MF Batteries
Lagging cells in lead acid batteries
Cycling
Lead-Acid Cell and Battery Troubles and Their Remedies
Water Loss in VRLA
Premature Capacity Loss in VRLA
References
Battery Testing 101 by Megger and TranscatTranscat
In this informative webinar, Andrew Sagl of Megger presents an overview of the various battery testing technologies available as well as how to properly maintain VRLA and VLA batteries.
BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (BMS) IN ELECTRIC VEHICLESBhagavathyP
Introduction
Why we need BMS?
General function of BMS
Block diagram of BMS
BMS architecture
Battery pack – Voltage, Current, Temperature and Isolation sensing
HV contactor control
BMS communications interface
Estimation of energy and power and SOC
Methods to find SOC
Cell Balancing
Relationship between SOC and DOD
Charging and Discharging Control of Li Ion Battery for Electric Vehicle Appli...ijtsrd
This paper presents the detailed simulation and analysis of a battery charging and discharging control for electric vehicle EV application using proportional and integral control. A lithium Ion battery model in MATLAB is considered for this study. The purpose of study is to perform a detailed analysis of the charging and discharging operation and observe the behavior of the key parameters of the battery. To realize these two voltages sources have been used, i.e., one is the battery itself and the other is the DC voltage source. The two different voltage source is feeding to a common load. The DC voltage source feeds the load when the battery is in charging mode. When the battery supply is available then it is discharging to feed the load and its control is designed to generate the reference pulses for DC DC converter. The two scenarios have been simulated and results are recorded which shows the effective operation of charging and discharging of a battery source. Ashutosh Sharma | Lavkesh Patidar "Charging and Discharging Control of Li-Ion Battery for Electric Vehicle Applications" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-6 , October 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd51935.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electronics-and-communication-engineering/51935/charging-and-discharging-control-of-liion-battery-for-electric-vehicle-applications/ashutosh-sharma
An opto-electric nuclear battery is a device that converts nuclear energy into light, which it then uses to generate electrical energy. A beta-emitter such as technetium-99 or strontium-90 is suspended in a gas or liquid containing luminescent gas molecules of the excimer type, constituting a "dust plasma." This permits a nearly lossless emission of beta electrons from the emitting dust particles
This ppt explained on LED based street lights with auto intensity control using solar power from photovoltaic cells and Photovoltaic panels are used for charging batteries by converting the sunlight into electricity
Wireless charging using electromagnetic induction, and resonance magnetic coupling. Effects and limitations, cheallenges faced and meathods to overcome. Success Case study. References included.
Solar powered led street light with auto intensity controlkanhaiya lal
This Project is all about Solar powered LED street light with auto intensity control.
Key Description :-
1. Solar Power
2. Solar Panel
3. LED
4. Batteries
5. 8051 IC
6. Regulator
7. MOSFET
8. Voltage Controller
9. Pro's and Con's
10. Features and Daily life usage
I've worked a lot on this PPt. It wont let you down so feel free to download it and rate my work so I can upload better Material regarding to this in near future.
Thank you!
A hybrid electric vehicle uses an electric motor/generator along with an internal combustion engine—offering high fuel economy; low tailpipe emissions; and the power, range, and convenience of a conventional vehicle.
Abstract:-This paper deals with open loop study of fixed capacitor thyristor controlled reactor (FC-TCR) system simulation using Matlab/Simulink for various loading. The modelling of the FC-TCR is verified using the Matlab/Simulink. First power flow results are obtained and power profile have been studied for an uncompensated then results are compared with the results obtained after compensating using the FC-TCR.Its observed that current drawn by FC-TCR is varied by changing firing angle. In compensation without FC-TCR, load increases and power factor become less and in compensation with FC-TCR, load increases and power factor become near to the unity.Hence by providing compensation Voltage, power profile of system will be improved and system losses are reduced.
State of Charge Vs Depth of Discharge
Battery Indicator
Safety Label
Lead Acid Battery Standard Performance
The difference between Conventional Batteries, Hybrid Batteries and MF Batteries
Lagging cells in lead acid batteries
Cycling
Lead-Acid Cell and Battery Troubles and Their Remedies
Water Loss in VRLA
Premature Capacity Loss in VRLA
References
Battery Testing 101 by Megger and TranscatTranscat
In this informative webinar, Andrew Sagl of Megger presents an overview of the various battery testing technologies available as well as how to properly maintain VRLA and VLA batteries.
This document answers the frequently asked questions on VRLA (Valve Regulated Lead Acid) batteries. It will give a good overview about VRLA batteries and their advantages/disadvantages compared to the more popular FLA (Flooded Lead Acid) batteries.
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
NO1 Uk best vashikaran specialist in delhi vashikaran baba near me online vas...Amil Baba Dawood bangali
Contact with Dawood Bhai Just call on +92322-6382012 and we'll help you. We'll solve all your problems within 12 to 24 hours and with 101% guarantee and with astrology systematic. If you want to take any personal or professional advice then also you can call us on +92322-6382012 , ONLINE LOVE PROBLEM & Other all types of Daily Life Problem's.Then CALL or WHATSAPP us on +92322-6382012 and Get all these problems solutions here by Amil Baba DAWOOD BANGALI
#vashikaranspecialist #astrologer #palmistry #amliyaat #taweez #manpasandshadi #horoscope #spiritual #lovelife #lovespell #marriagespell#aamilbabainpakistan #amilbabainkarachi #powerfullblackmagicspell #kalajadumantarspecialist #realamilbaba #AmilbabainPakistan #astrologerincanada #astrologerindubai #lovespellsmaster #kalajaduspecialist #lovespellsthatwork #aamilbabainlahore#blackmagicformarriage #aamilbaba #kalajadu #kalailam #taweez #wazifaexpert #jadumantar #vashikaranspecialist #astrologer #palmistry #amliyaat #taweez #manpasandshadi #horoscope #spiritual #lovelife #lovespell #marriagespell#aamilbabainpakistan #amilbabainkarachi #powerfullblackmagicspell #kalajadumantarspecialist #realamilbaba #AmilbabainPakistan #astrologerincanada #astrologerindubai #lovespellsmaster #kalajaduspecialist #lovespellsthatwork #aamilbabainlahore #blackmagicforlove #blackmagicformarriage #aamilbaba #kalajadu #kalailam #taweez #wazifaexpert #jadumantar #vashikaranspecialist #astrologer #palmistry #amliyaat #taweez #manpasandshadi #horoscope #spiritual #lovelife #lovespell #marriagespell#aamilbabainpakistan #amilbabainkarachi #powerfullblackmagicspell #kalajadumantarspecialist #realamilbaba #AmilbabainPakistan #astrologerincanada #astrologerindubai #lovespellsmaster #kalajaduspecialist #lovespellsthatwork #aamilbabainlahore #Amilbabainuk #amilbabainspain #amilbabaindubai #Amilbabainnorway #amilbabainkrachi #amilbabainlahore #amilbabaingujranwalan #amilbabainislamabad
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
Democratizing Fuzzing at Scale by Abhishek Aryaabh.arya
Presented at NUS: Fuzzing and Software Security Summer School 2024
This keynote talks about the democratization of fuzzing at scale, highlighting the collaboration between open source communities, academia, and industry to advance the field of fuzzing. It delves into the history of fuzzing, the development of scalable fuzzing platforms, and the empowerment of community-driven research. The talk will further discuss recent advancements leveraging AI/ML and offer insights into the future evolution of the fuzzing landscape.
Quality defects in TMT Bars, Possible causes and Potential Solutions.PrashantGoswami42
Maintaining high-quality standards in the production of TMT bars is crucial for ensuring structural integrity in construction. Addressing common defects through careful monitoring, standardized processes, and advanced technology can significantly improve the quality of TMT bars. Continuous training and adherence to quality control measures will also play a pivotal role in minimizing these defects.
Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
Automobile Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
The proposed project is developed to manage the automobile in the automobile dealer company. The main module in this project is login, automobile management, customer management, sales, complaints and reports. The first module is the login. The automobile showroom owner should login to the project for usage. The username and password are verified and if it is correct, next form opens. If the username and password are not correct, it shows the error message.
When a customer search for a automobile, if the automobile is available, they will be taken to a page that shows the details of the automobile including automobile name, automobile ID, quantity, price etc. “Automobile Management System” is useful for maintaining automobiles, customers effectively and hence helps for establishing good relation between customer and automobile organization. It contains various customized modules for effectively maintaining automobiles and stock information accurately and safely.
When the automobile is sold to the customer, stock will be reduced automatically. When a new purchase is made, stock will be increased automatically. While selecting automobiles for sale, the proposed software will automatically check for total number of available stock of that particular item, if the total stock of that particular item is less than 5, software will notify the user to purchase the particular item.
Also when the user tries to sale items which are not in stock, the system will prompt the user that the stock is not enough. Customers of this system can search for a automobile; can purchase a automobile easily by selecting fast. On the other hand the stock of automobiles can be maintained perfectly by the automobile shop manager overcoming the drawbacks of existing system.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
COLLEGE BUS MANAGEMENT SYSTEM PROJECT REPORT.pdfKamal Acharya
The College Bus Management system is completely developed by Visual Basic .NET Version. The application is connect with most secured database language MS SQL Server. The application is develop by using best combination of front-end and back-end languages. The application is totally design like flat user interface. This flat user interface is more attractive user interface in 2017. The application is gives more important to the system functionality. The application is to manage the student’s details, driver’s details, bus details, bus route details, bus fees details and more. The application has only one unit for admin. The admin can manage the entire application. The admin can login into the application by using username and password of the admin. The application is develop for big and small colleges. It is more user friendly for non-computer person. Even they can easily learn how to manage the application within hours. The application is more secure by the admin. The system will give an effective output for the VB.Net and SQL Server given as input to the system. The compiled java program given as input to the system, after scanning the program will generate different reports. The application generates the report for users. The admin can view and download the report of the data. The application deliver the excel format reports. Because, excel formatted reports is very easy to understand the income and expense of the college bus. This application is mainly develop for windows operating system users. In 2017, 73% of people enterprises are using windows operating system. So the application will easily install for all the windows operating system users. The application-developed size is very low. The application consumes very low space in disk. Therefore, the user can allocate very minimum local disk space for this application.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
Vaccine management system project report documentation..pdfKamal Acharya
The Division of Vaccine and Immunization is facing increasing difficulty monitoring vaccines and other commodities distribution once they have been distributed from the national stores. With the introduction of new vaccines, more challenges have been anticipated with this additions posing serious threat to the already over strained vaccine supply chain system in Kenya.
Vaccine management system project report documentation..pdf
Vrla battery
1. 1
VRLA BATTERY Manager QA
EXIDE PAKISTAN LTD.
A valve-regulated lead-acid battery (VRLA battery) sometimes called sealed lead-acid (SLA), gel cell,
or maintenance free battery. Due to their construction, the gel and absorbent glass mat (AGM) types of VRLA
can be mounted in any orientation, and do not require constant maintenance.
The term "maintenance free" is a misnomer as VRLA batteries still require
cleaning and regular functional testing. They are widely used in large
portable electrical devices, off-grid power systems and similar roles, where
large amounts of storage are needed at a lower cost than other low-
maintenance technologies like lithium-ion.
There are three primary types of VRLA batteries, sealed VR wet cell, AGM
and gel. Gel cells add silica dust to the electrolyte, forming a thick putty-like gel. These are sometimes referred to
as "silicone batteries". AGM (absorbent glass mat) batteries feature fiberglass mesh between the battery plates
which serves to contain the electrolyte. Both designs offer advantages and disadvantages compared to
conventional batteries and sealed VR wet cells, as well as each other.
Basic principle
Lead-acid cells consist of two plates of lead, which serve as electrodes, suspended in an electrolyte consisting of
diluted sulfuric acid. VRLA cells have the same chemistry. "Wet cell" type VRLA's contain acid in liquid form. In
AGM and gel type VRLA's, the electrolyte is immobilized. In AGM this is accomplished with a fiberglass mat; in gel
batteries or "gel cells", the electrolyte is in the form of a paste-like gel created by adding silica and other gelling
agents to the electrolyte.[3]
When a cell discharges, the lead and diluted acid undergo a chemical
reaction that produces lead sulfate and water (see lead–acid battery for
details of the chemical reaction). When a cell is subsequently charged, the
lead sulfate and water are turned back into lead and acid. In all lead-acid
battery designs, charging current must be adjusted to match the ability of the
battery to absorb the energy. If the charging current is too
great, electrolysis will occur, decomposing water into hydrogen and oxygen,
in addition to the intended conversion of lead sulfate and water into lead
dioxide, lead, and sulfuric acid (the reverse of the discharge process). If
these gases are allowed to escape, as in a conventional flooded cell, the battery will need to have water (or
electrolyte) added from time to time. In contrast, VRLA batteries retain generated gases within the battery as long
as the pressure remains within safe levels. Under normal operating conditions the gases can then recombine within
2. 2
the battery itself, sometimes with the help of a catalyst, and no additional electrolyte is needed. However, if the
pressure exceeds safety limits, safety valves open to allow the excess gases to escape, and in doing so regulate
the pressure back to safe levels (hence "valve-regulated" in "VRLA").
In flooded lead-acid batteries, the liquid electrolyte is a hazard during shipping and makes them unsuitable for
many portable applications. Furthermore, the need to maintain water levels in non-sealed batteries makes them
unsuitable for maintenance-free applications. The immobilized electrolyte in VRLA batteries (AGM and gel types)
addresses these problems. Conversely, VRLA cells can't be replenished with water, and any hydrogen lost can't
easily be replaced. To some extent, this can be compensated for by over-provisioning the quantity of electrolyte,
at the cost of increased weight. But the main disadvantage of the VRLA design is that the immobilizing agent also
impedes the chemical reactions that generate current. For this reason, VRLAs have lower peak power ratings than
conventional designs. This makes them less useful for roles like car engine starting batteries where usage patterns
are brief high-current pulses (during starting) followed by long slow recharging cycles. VRLA's are mostly found in
roles where the charge/recharge cycles are slower, such as power storage applications.
Both flooded and VRLA designs require suitable ventilation around the batteries; both to prevent hydrogen
concentrations from building up (hydrogen gas is highly flammable), and to ensure that the batteries receive
adequate cooling.
Construction
VRLA cells may be made of flat plates similar to a conventional flooded lead–acid battery, or may be made in a
spiral roll form to make cylindrical cells.
VRLA batteries have a pressure relief valve which will activate when the battery starts building pressure of
hydrogen gas, generally a result of being recharged. Valve activation allows some of the gas or electrolyte to
escape, thus decreasing the overall capacity of the battery.
Rectangular cells may have valves set to operate as low as 1 or 2 psi; round
spiral cells, with metal external containers, can have valves set as high as
40 psi.
The cell covers typically have gas diffusers built into them that allow safe
dispersal of any excess hydrogen that may be formed during overcharge.
They are not permanently sealed, but are designated to be "maintenance
free". They can be oriented in any manner, unlike normal lead–acid batteries, which must be kept upright to avoid
acid spills and to keep the plates' orientation vertical. Cells may be operated with the plates horizontal
(pancake style), which may improve cycle life.
At high overcharge currents, electrolysis of water occurs, expelling hydrogen and oxygen gas through the battery's
valves. Care must be taken to prevent short circuits and rapid charging. Constant-voltage charging is the usual,
most efficient and fastest charging method for VRLA batteries, although other methods can be used. VRLA
batteries may be continually "float" charged at around 2.35 volts per cell at 25 °C. Some designs can be fast
3. 3
charged (1 hour) at high rates. Sustained charging at 2.7 V per cell will damage the cells. Constant-current
overcharging at high rates (rates faster than restoring the rated capacity in three hours) will exceed the capacity of
the cell to recombine hydrogen and oxygen.
AGM (Absorbent glass mat)
AGM batteries differ from flooded lead acid batteries in that the electrolyte is held in the glass mats, as opposed to
freely flooding the plates. Very thin glass fibers are woven into a mat to increase surface area enough to hold
sufficient electrolyte on the cells for their lifetime. The fibers that compose the fine glass mat do not absorb nor are
they affected by the acidic electrolyte. These mats are wrung out 2–5% after being soaked in acids, prior to
manufacture completion and sealing.
The plates in an AGM battery may be any shape. Some are flat, others are bent or rolled. AGM batteries, both
deep cycle and starting, are built in a rectangular case to BCI battery code specifications.
AGM batteries present better self-discharging characteristics than conventional batteries in different range of
temperatures.
As with lead-acid batteries to maximize the life of AGM battery is important to follow charging specifications and
a voltage regulated charger is recommended and also there is a correlation between the depth of discharge (DOD)
and the Cycle life of the battery, with differences between 500 and 1300 cycles depending on depth of discharge.
Gel battery
Originally a kind of gel cell was produced in the early 1930s for portable valve (tube) radio LT supply (2, 4 or 6V)
by adding silica to the sulfuric acid.[11] By this time the glass case was being replaced by celluloid and later in
1930s other plastics. Earlier "wet" cells in glass jars used special valves to
allow tilt from vertical to one horizontal direction in 1927 to 1931 or
1932.[12] The gel cells were less likely to leak when the portable set was
handled roughly.
A modern gel battery (also known as a "gel cell") is a VRLA battery with
a gelified electrolyte; the sulfuric acid is mixed with fumed silica, which
makes the resulting mass gel-like and immobile. Unlike a flooded wet-cell
lead-acid battery, these batteries do not need to be kept upright. Gel batteries reduce the electrolyte evaporation,
spillage (and subsequent corrosion problems) common to the wet-cell battery, and boast greater resistance to
shock and vibration. Chemically they are almost the same as wet (non-sealed) batteries except that the antimony in
the lead plates is replaced by calcium, and gas recombination can take place.
The modern gel formulation and large scale production was from Otto Jache's and Heinz Schroeder's U.S. Patent
4,414,302 assigned to the German company Accumulator enfabrik Sonnenschein GmbH. With gel electrolyte the
separator was no longer such a critical, hard-to-make component, and cycle life was increased, in some cases
dramatically. Shedding of active material from the plates was reduced.
4. 4
More importantly, gas recombination was used to make batteries that were not "watered" and could be called
maintenance-free. The one-way valves were set at 2 psi, and this was high enough for full recombination to take
place. At the end of charge when oxygen was evolved from overcharge on the positive plate, it traveled through
the shrinkage cracks in the gel directly to the negative plate (made from high surface area pure sponge lead) and
"burned" up as fast as it was made. This oxygen gas and the hydrogen adsorbed on the surface of the sponge
lead metal negative plate combined to make water that was retained in the cell.
This sealed, non-spill feature made it possible to make very small VRLA batteries (1 –12 Amp hr. range) that fit
into the growing portable electronics market. A large market for inexpensive smaller sealed lead acid batteries was
generated quickly. Portable TV, light for news cameras, children's toy riding cars, emergency lighting, and UPS
systems for computer back-up, to name a few, were powered with small sealed VRLA batteries.
Comparison with flooded lead–acid cells
VRLA Gel and AGM batteries offer several advantages compared with VRLA flooded lead acid and
conventional standard lead-acid batteries. The battery can be mounted in any position, since the valves only
operate on over-pressure faults. Since the battery system is designed to be recombinant and eliminate the emission
of gases on overcharge, room ventilation requirements are reduced, and no acid fume is emitted during normal
operation. Flooded cell gas emissions are of little consequence in all but the smallest confined areas, and pose
very little threat to a domestic user, so a wet cell battery designed for longevity gives lower costs per kWh. In a gel
battery, the volume of free electrolyte that could be released on damage to the case or venting is very small. There
is no need (or ability) to check the level of electrolyte or to top up water lost due to electrolysis, reducing inspection
and maintenance requirements. Wet cell batteries can be maintained by a self-watering system or by topping up
every three months. The requirement to add distilled water is normally caused by overcharging. A well-regulated
system should not require top-up more often than every three months.
The underlying fault with all lead acid batteries is the requirement for an excessively long charge time arising from
a two-stage process: bulk charge and float charge. All lead acid batteries, irrespective of type, are quick to charge
to 70% of capacity within 2 or 3 hours, but require another 9 to 10 hours to "float charge" after the initial charge. If
users fail to float charge, battery capacity is dramatically reduced. To ensure maximum life, a lead acid battery
should be kept at full charge when stored (or stored dry), and, when working, kept at depth of discharge of less
than 20%. In addition, its discharge rate should be not more than three hours and its charge rate should be not
more than three hours (C0.333, and it should be float charged properly. With less careful use, a lifetime as few as
500 cycles might be expected, dependent upon the use environment.
Because of calcium added to its plates to reduce water loss, a sealed AGM or gel battery recharges more quickly
than a flooded lead acid battery of either VRLA or conventional design. From a standard car, 4WD or truck
alternator they will recharge quickly from full use in about 2 to 3 hours. A deep cycle wet cell battery can take 8-12
hours to achieve only 70% to 80% of its potential charge. Compared to flooded batteries, VRLA batteries are more
vulnerable to thermal runaway during abusive charging. The electrolyte cannot be tested by hydrometer to
diagnose improper charging that can reduce battery life.
5. 5
AGM automobile batteries are typically about twice the price of flooded-cell batteries in a given BCI size group; gel
batteries as much as five times the price.
AGM & Gel VRLA batteries:
Have shorter recharge time than flooded lead-acid.
Cannot tolerate overcharging: overcharging leads to premature failure.
Have shorter useful life, compared to properly maintained wet-cell battery.
Discharge significantly less hydrogen gas.
AGM batteries are by nature, safer for the environment, and safer to use.
Can be used or positioned in any orientation.
Comparison of VRLA vs Flooded and Lithium ion batteries
Reference:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VRLA_battery
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81106401/Fact+sheet_Lead+acid+vs+lithium+ion.pdf