Virus
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Viruses can replicate through two cycles: the lytic cycle or the lysogenic cycle. The lytic cycle involves 5 phases - adsorption, penetration, replication, assembling, and release of new virus particles that go on to infect other cells. The lysogenic cycle involves the virus inserting its genetic material into the host cell DNA without immediately destroying the cell. The genetic material is then replicated alongside future cell divisions.
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Replication of virus
Viruses rely on host cells to replicate as they cannot do so independently. There are six basic stages of viral replication: 1) attachment to host cell receptors, 2) penetration of the host cell, 3) uncoating of the viral capsid, 4) replication of viral genetic material and proteins, 5) assembly of new viral particles, and 6) release of new virus particles through lysis or budding. The replication process differs between DNA and RNA viruses as well as between viruses with positive-sense and negative-sense genomes, but generally involves the virus taking over host cell machinery to produce more viruses and spread infection.
Lytic&lysogenic cycle
The document summarizes the lytic and lysogenic cycles of viral replication. The lytic cycle involves a virus infecting a host cell, using the cell's machinery to replicate viral components, assembling new virus particles, and then causing the host cell to lyse, releasing new virus particles to infect other cells. The lysogenic cycle involves a temperate virus inserting its DNA into the host genome without killing the cell. The viral DNA is replicated along with the host DNA and remains dormant until inducing factors cause it to enter the lytic cycle. Lysogeny allows for transmission of genetic material between bacteria through specialized transduction.
bacterial transduction
Transduction is the transfer of genetic material between bacteria through bacteriophages. It was discovered in 1952 by Joshua Lederberg and Norton Zinder during their experiments with Salmonella bacteria. There are two types of transduction: generalized transduction, which occurs when a lytic phage picks up bacterial DNA during virus assembly and transfers it to another bacteria; and specialized transduction, which involves the transfer of bacterial DNA adjacent to the phage genome when a temperate phage enters the lysogenic cycle. Transduction contributes to bacterial evolution and genetic diversity by allowing for the lateral transfer of genes between distantly related species.
Bacteriophage and replication
The document summarizes information about bacteriophages T4 and lambda. It discusses that bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria and both T4 and lambda contain dsDNA. T4 is large at 90nm by 200nm with an icosahedral head and long helical tail. Lambda is smaller at 55nm with a non-contractile tail. Both phages can undergo lytic or lysogenic cycles. The lysogenic cycle involves the viral DNA integrating into the host chromosome as a prophage.
REPLICATION OF VIRUS
Virus replication follows several key stages:
1) Attachment of the virus to receptors on the host cell surface.
2) Penetration of the virus into the host cell.
3) Release of the viral genome from the capsid through uncoating.
4) Synthesis of viral proteins and genome through transcription and translation of the viral genes.
5) Assembly of new viral progeny.
6) Release of progeny viruses from the host cell through lysis or budding, spreading the infection.
virus taxonomy and classification
This document discusses virus taxonomy and classification. It begins by explaining that taxonomy is the science of grouping and naming living organisms, and that viruses are classified based on their genome, replication strategy, and structure. It then discusses the history of virus classification committees and outlines the current hierarchical classification system used, with seven orders, over 100 families, and over 3,000 species of viruses defined. The document concludes by discussing various aspects of virus nomenclature and further classification below the species level.
Cultivation of Viruses
Viruses can be cultivated within suitable host cells like bacteria to allow for viral replication. Bacteriophages are commonly grown by adding them to a culture of bacteria in a growth medium. The bacteriophages will multiply within the bacteria, destroying cells and releasing new viral particles. Viruses are also cultivated in tissue culture systems using cell lines grown in suspension. The virus infects the host cells, forcing them to produce new virus copies until the cells are lysed. Viral titers can be determined using plaque assays, where viral plaques are counted, or animal inoculation studies.
Cauliflower mosaic virus ppt
INTRODUCTION:
The first plant virus shown to have a DNA genome and the first shown to replicate by reverse transcription.
Worldwide but only causes significantly losses locally.
It is transmitted by aphids .
Type member of the Caulimovirus genus, contains 11 species and 6 possible members.
significantly impact on plant virology and plant molecular biology.
The virus is an important source of gene regulatory elements, used exclusively in the genetic manipulation of plants.
STRUCTURE:Icosachedral with a diameter of 52Â nm built from 420 capsid protein subunits.
It contains a circular double-stranded DNA molecule of about 8.0 kB .
Dna is interrupted by sitespecific discontinuties resulting from its replication by reverse transcription.
After entering the host, the single stranded nicks in the viral DNA are repaired, forming a supercoiled molecule that binds to histones.
DNA is transcriped into a full length .
Replication
Risk Factors:The Cauliflower mosaic virus promoter (CaMV 35S) is used in most transgenic crops to activate foreign genes which have been artificially inserted into the host plant. It is inserted into transgenic plants in a form which is different from that found when it is present in its natural Brassica plant hosts. This enables it to operate in a wide range of host-organism environments which would otherwise not be possible.
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Replication of virus
Viruses rely on host cells to replicate as they cannot do so independently. There are six basic stages of viral replication: 1) attachment to host cell receptors, 2) penetration of the host cell, 3) uncoating of the viral capsid, 4) replication of viral genetic material and proteins, 5) assembly of new viral particles, and 6) release of new virus particles through lysis or budding. The replication process differs between DNA and RNA viruses as well as between viruses with positive-sense and negative-sense genomes, but generally involves the virus taking over host cell machinery to produce more viruses and spread infection.
Lytic&lysogenic cycle
The document summarizes the lytic and lysogenic cycles of viral replication. The lytic cycle involves a virus infecting a host cell, using the cell's machinery to replicate viral components, assembling new virus particles, and then causing the host cell to lyse, releasing new virus particles to infect other cells. The lysogenic cycle involves a temperate virus inserting its DNA into the host genome without killing the cell. The viral DNA is replicated along with the host DNA and remains dormant until inducing factors cause it to enter the lytic cycle. Lysogeny allows for transmission of genetic material between bacteria through specialized transduction.
bacterial transduction
Transduction is the transfer of genetic material between bacteria through bacteriophages. It was discovered in 1952 by Joshua Lederberg and Norton Zinder during their experiments with Salmonella bacteria. There are two types of transduction: generalized transduction, which occurs when a lytic phage picks up bacterial DNA during virus assembly and transfers it to another bacteria; and specialized transduction, which involves the transfer of bacterial DNA adjacent to the phage genome when a temperate phage enters the lysogenic cycle. Transduction contributes to bacterial evolution and genetic diversity by allowing for the lateral transfer of genes between distantly related species.
Bacteriophage and replication
The document summarizes information about bacteriophages T4 and lambda. It discusses that bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria and both T4 and lambda contain dsDNA. T4 is large at 90nm by 200nm with an icosahedral head and long helical tail. Lambda is smaller at 55nm with a non-contractile tail. Both phages can undergo lytic or lysogenic cycles. The lysogenic cycle involves the viral DNA integrating into the host chromosome as a prophage.
REPLICATION OF VIRUS
Virus replication follows several key stages:
1) Attachment of the virus to receptors on the host cell surface.
2) Penetration of the virus into the host cell.
3) Release of the viral genome from the capsid through uncoating.
4) Synthesis of viral proteins and genome through transcription and translation of the viral genes.
5) Assembly of new viral progeny.
6) Release of progeny viruses from the host cell through lysis or budding, spreading the infection.
virus taxonomy and classification
This document discusses virus taxonomy and classification. It begins by explaining that taxonomy is the science of grouping and naming living organisms, and that viruses are classified based on their genome, replication strategy, and structure. It then discusses the history of virus classification committees and outlines the current hierarchical classification system used, with seven orders, over 100 families, and over 3,000 species of viruses defined. The document concludes by discussing various aspects of virus nomenclature and further classification below the species level.
Cultivation of Viruses
Viruses can be cultivated within suitable host cells like bacteria to allow for viral replication. Bacteriophages are commonly grown by adding them to a culture of bacteria in a growth medium. The bacteriophages will multiply within the bacteria, destroying cells and releasing new viral particles. Viruses are also cultivated in tissue culture systems using cell lines grown in suspension. The virus infects the host cells, forcing them to produce new virus copies until the cells are lysed. Viral titers can be determined using plaque assays, where viral plaques are counted, or animal inoculation studies.
Cauliflower mosaic virus ppt
INTRODUCTION:
The first plant virus shown to have a DNA genome and the first shown to replicate by reverse transcription.
Worldwide but only causes significantly losses locally.
It is transmitted by aphids .
Type member of the Caulimovirus genus, contains 11 species and 6 possible members.
significantly impact on plant virology and plant molecular biology.
The virus is an important source of gene regulatory elements, used exclusively in the genetic manipulation of plants.
STRUCTURE:Icosachedral with a diameter of 52Â nm built from 420 capsid protein subunits.
It contains a circular double-stranded DNA molecule of about 8.0 kB .
Dna is interrupted by sitespecific discontinuties resulting from its replication by reverse transcription.
After entering the host, the single stranded nicks in the viral DNA are repaired, forming a supercoiled molecule that binds to histones.
DNA is transcriped into a full length .
Replication
Risk Factors:The Cauliflower mosaic virus promoter (CaMV 35S) is used in most transgenic crops to activate foreign genes which have been artificially inserted into the host plant. It is inserted into transgenic plants in a form which is different from that found when it is present in its natural Brassica plant hosts. This enables it to operate in a wide range of host-organism environments which would otherwise not be possible.
Lamda phage
Lambda phage is a bacteriophage that infects E. coli bacteria. It has two life cycles: a lytic cycle and a lysogenic cycle. In the lytic cycle, the phage genome is transferred into the bacterial cell where it replicates and causes the bacterial cell to burst, releasing new phage particles. In the lysogenic cycle, the phage genome integrates into the bacterial chromosome and replicates with the host DNA without killing the cell. The phage can switch between these two cycles depending on environmental conditions inside the infected bacterial cell.
DNA Replication In Prokaryotes
The document summarizes DNA replication in prokaryotes. It describes how DNA replication begins at the origin of replication and proceeds bidirectionally. DNA helicases unwind and separate the DNA strands, while DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the leading strand continuously and the lagging strand discontinuously in Okazaki fragments. DNA polymerase proofreads the newly synthesized strands as replication occurs. DNA ligase and DNA polymerase I then join the Okazaki fragments.
Viriods and prions
Viriods are small circular RNA molecules without a protein coat that infect plants and animals. They replicate by hijacking the host's machinery and can cause diseases like potato spindle tuber disease in plants and Hepatitis D in humans. Prions are infectious protein particles that cause neurodegenerative diseases by changing the folding of normal host proteins. Examples include scrapie in sheep and mad cow disease in cattle. They are transmitted through ingestion and cause diseases by triggering apoptosis in the brain.
Isolation of mutants
Replica plating technique.
Resistance selection method.
Substrate utilization method.
Ames method
cultivation of virus
Viruses require living host cells to replicate and are cultivated using various methods. They can be grown in laboratory animals, embryonated eggs, or tissue/cell cultures. Animal cultivation allows studying pathogenesis but is expensive and difficult. Eggs are inexpensive and facilitate growth of viruses like influenza in specific areas. Tissue cultures, especially primary cultures and diploid cell lines, support growth of many viruses and are widely used. Isolated viruses are identified using techniques observing cytopathic effects, hemagglutination, interference, or immunofluorescence. Cell cultures are now the primary method for isolating and identifying viruses.
t4 bacteriohage
This document discusses bacteriophage T4, a virus that infects E. coli bacteria. It has a complex protein coat and large double-stranded DNA genome. T4 uses the host cell's machinery to replicate and kills the host cell. T4 plays a role in cholera and diphtheria by carrying toxin genes that allow the bacteria to cause disease. Bacteriophage may be useful for treating antibiotic-resistant bacteria or infections where antibiotics cannot reach. T4 is also used in recombinant DNA technology.
transformation
This document discusses bacterial transformation, which is the process by which bacteria take up naked DNA from their environment. There are three main ways bacteria exchange DNA: conjugation, transduction, and transformation. Transformation occurs when bacteria take up free DNA from their surroundings. Some bacteria have the natural ability to undergo transformation, while others can be artificially induced to become competent through chemical treatments or electroporation. The document outlines the key steps and proteins involved in natural and artificial bacterial transformation.
Animal viruses
Animal viruses are self replicating, intracellular parasites that completely rely on host animal cell for reproduction. They use the host's cellular components to replicate, then leaves the host cell to infect other cells.
Satellite viruses, satellite rna and viroid's
Satellite viruses are sub-viral agents that depend on a helper virus for replication. The first reported satellite virus was Tobacco necrosis satellite virus. Satellite viruses contain nucleic acids enclosed in a protein coat and lack genes for replication. Satellite genomes can be single-stranded RNA, DNA, or circular RNA.
Satellite RNAs are small, linear or circular RNA strands found in certain multicomponent virus particles. They do not encode their own coat protein and depend on a helper virus for replication and encapsidation.
Viroids were discovered in 1971 and are small, circular, naked RNA molecules that replicate independently using host polymerases. Well-studied viroids include potato spindle tuber viroid and av
Prokaryotic expression system
The document discusses prokaryotic expression systems, which are genetic constructs used to produce proteins or RNA inside or outside cells. It focuses on the prokaryotic system, which is most widely used for recombinant protein production in E. coli bacteria. Key aspects covered include the history of prokaryotic expression research, types of gene regulation like operons and regulatory molecules, examples of operons like the lac and trp operons, and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene expression.
Conjugation
Conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells that are in direct contact. Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum discovered conjugation in 1946 through an experiment where they mixed two auxotrophic E. coli strains that could complement each other's mutations. Bernard Davis provided evidence in 1950 that direct cell contact was required by showing that genetic transfer did not occur when the two strains were separated by a filter. During conjugation, a pilus forms to attach the donor and recipient cells and allows single-stranded DNA to pass between them to make both cells viable donors that can now transfer the genetic material.
Transduction
Transduction is a mode of genetic transfer between bacteria mediated by bacteriophages. During viral replication, fragments of bacterial DNA can become packaged within viral particles. These particles may then infect other bacteria and insert the donor DNA into the recipient genome. There are two types of transduction - generalized, where any bacterial DNA fragment can be transferred, and specialized, where only DNA near the site of viral integration is transferred. Cotransduction frequencies can also be used to map the relative locations of bacterial genes, as genes closer together are more likely to be cotransferred within the same viral particle. Transduction is useful for genetic engineering and mapping bacterial chromosomes.
Taq dna polymerase - enzyme used in PCR amplification technology
Taq polymerase is a thermostable DNA polymerase enzyme isolated from the bacterium Thermus aquaticus. It is used for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) because it can withstand the high temperatures needed to denature DNA during PCR cycling. Taq polymerase has optimal activity between 75-80°C and can replicate 1000 base pair DNA strands in under 10 seconds at 72°C. However, it lacks proofreading ability, resulting in a relatively high error rate of around 1 in 9,000 nucleotides.
Bacterial Conjugation
This document discusses genetic variability and horizontal gene transfer in prokaryotes. It describes three main mechanisms of horizontal gene transfer - transduction, transformation, and conjugation. Conjugation involves the transfer of genetic material between bacteria through direct cell-to-cell contact via pilus. The process of conjugation is described, where the F+ donor cell transfers single-stranded DNA to the F- recipient cell. If the transfer is successful, it results in production of F+ recombinants that can serve as donor cells for further conjugation. An experiment demonstrating conjugation between HFR and F- E. coli strains on selective media is also summarized.
Conjugation: Discovery, F+, F- and Hfr conjugation, F- genetic crosses
This document summarizes the discovery and mechanisms of bacterial conjugation. Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum discovered conjugation in 1946 while experimenting with E. coli strains. They found that when two auxotrophic strains were mixed on minimal media, prototrophs grew, indicating genetic transfer. Bernard Davis provided evidence for direct cell-to-cell contact in 1950 using a filter to separate strains. Conjugation involves an F plasmid transferring via pili from an F+ donor cell to an F- recipient. This can involve the whole chromosome in Hfr cells. The mechanisms of F+, F-, and Hfr conjugation and their genetic crosses are then described.
Dna replication in virus ppt
Viruses replicate inside host cells by first attaching to and entering the cell. They then release their genome and use the host cell's machinery to produce new viral components. The virus assembles inside the cell and is released, either through cell lysis or budding, to infect new host cells. Key steps in the viral replication cycle include attachment, entry, genome release, replication, assembly, and exit from the host cell.
Gene transfer in bacteria
This document provides an overview of gene transfer in bacteria through three main methods: conjugation, transformation, and transduction. Conjugation involves the transfer of genetic material between bacteria via cell-to-cell contact through sex pili. Transformation refers to the uptake of naked DNA by competent bacterial cells. Transduction is the transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another via bacteriophage. Each method is described in 1-2 paragraphs detailing its history of discovery and basic mechanisms.
Prokaryote genome
This document summarizes key aspects of genome organization in prokaryotes. It notes that prokaryotes like E. coli have a single circular chromosome composed of DNA that is compacted into a nucleoid structure. The DNA is highly condensed via supercoiling facilitated by enzymes like topoisomerases. Prokaryotic genomes are also typically smaller than eukaryotic ones and can contain extra DNA on plasmids that are exchanged between bacteria.
Viruses structure and classification
Viruses consist of genetic material surrounded by a protein coat. They can have DNA or RNA as their genetic material and come in various shapes. The document discusses the structure and classification of viruses. It describes their components, sizes, morphologies like helical and icosahedral shapes. It provides examples of plant, animal, and bacterial viruses. It specifically examines the structure and replication of Cauliflower Mosaic Virus, a plant virus with circular double-stranded DNA genome.
Restriction endonucleases
Restriction Endonucleases are enzymes from bacteria that can recognize specific base sequences in DNA and cut (restrict) the DNA at that site (the restriction site). This powerpoint sllides illustrate the introduction, examples, nomenclature and types of restriction endonucleases.
Viral reproduction
Viruses reproduce through one of two cycles: lytic or lysogenic. In the lytic cycle, the virus immediately takes over the host cell, produces more viruses, and causes the host cell to burst and release new viruses to infect other cells. In the lysogenic cycle, the viral DNA incorporates into the host cell's DNA and remains dormant for generations before being triggered to enter the lytic cycle and produce more viruses. Retroviruses have RNA that is converted to DNA and inserted into the host genome using reverse transcriptase before undergoing transcription and translation, allowing them to integrate and remain dormant like in the lysogenic cycle.
Viruses
This document describes the characteristics, structure, replication process, and roles of viruses. It defines viruses as extremely small agents that are not living cells and can only replicate inside host cells. Viruses contain nucleic acids surrounded by protein coats and come in different shapes. The document outlines the history of virus discovery and explains the lytic and lysogenic replication cycles that viruses use to infect host cells and produce more viruses. It also discusses the classification of viruses based on their hosts, examples of viral diseases in animals, plants and humans, and some uses of viruses in research and vaccine development.
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Lamda phage
Lambda phage is a bacteriophage that infects E. coli bacteria. It has two life cycles: a lytic cycle and a lysogenic cycle. In the lytic cycle, the phage genome is transferred into the bacterial cell where it replicates and causes the bacterial cell to burst, releasing new phage particles. In the lysogenic cycle, the phage genome integrates into the bacterial chromosome and replicates with the host DNA without killing the cell. The phage can switch between these two cycles depending on environmental conditions inside the infected bacterial cell.
DNA Replication In Prokaryotes
The document summarizes DNA replication in prokaryotes. It describes how DNA replication begins at the origin of replication and proceeds bidirectionally. DNA helicases unwind and separate the DNA strands, while DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the leading strand continuously and the lagging strand discontinuously in Okazaki fragments. DNA polymerase proofreads the newly synthesized strands as replication occurs. DNA ligase and DNA polymerase I then join the Okazaki fragments.
Viriods and prions
Viriods are small circular RNA molecules without a protein coat that infect plants and animals. They replicate by hijacking the host's machinery and can cause diseases like potato spindle tuber disease in plants and Hepatitis D in humans. Prions are infectious protein particles that cause neurodegenerative diseases by changing the folding of normal host proteins. Examples include scrapie in sheep and mad cow disease in cattle. They are transmitted through ingestion and cause diseases by triggering apoptosis in the brain.
Isolation of mutants
Replica plating technique.
Resistance selection method.
Substrate utilization method.
Ames method
cultivation of virus
Viruses require living host cells to replicate and are cultivated using various methods. They can be grown in laboratory animals, embryonated eggs, or tissue/cell cultures. Animal cultivation allows studying pathogenesis but is expensive and difficult. Eggs are inexpensive and facilitate growth of viruses like influenza in specific areas. Tissue cultures, especially primary cultures and diploid cell lines, support growth of many viruses and are widely used. Isolated viruses are identified using techniques observing cytopathic effects, hemagglutination, interference, or immunofluorescence. Cell cultures are now the primary method for isolating and identifying viruses.
t4 bacteriohage
This document discusses bacteriophage T4, a virus that infects E. coli bacteria. It has a complex protein coat and large double-stranded DNA genome. T4 uses the host cell's machinery to replicate and kills the host cell. T4 plays a role in cholera and diphtheria by carrying toxin genes that allow the bacteria to cause disease. Bacteriophage may be useful for treating antibiotic-resistant bacteria or infections where antibiotics cannot reach. T4 is also used in recombinant DNA technology.
transformation
This document discusses bacterial transformation, which is the process by which bacteria take up naked DNA from their environment. There are three main ways bacteria exchange DNA: conjugation, transduction, and transformation. Transformation occurs when bacteria take up free DNA from their surroundings. Some bacteria have the natural ability to undergo transformation, while others can be artificially induced to become competent through chemical treatments or electroporation. The document outlines the key steps and proteins involved in natural and artificial bacterial transformation.
Animal viruses
Animal viruses are self replicating, intracellular parasites that completely rely on host animal cell for reproduction. They use the host's cellular components to replicate, then leaves the host cell to infect other cells.
Satellite viruses, satellite rna and viroid's
Satellite viruses are sub-viral agents that depend on a helper virus for replication. The first reported satellite virus was Tobacco necrosis satellite virus. Satellite viruses contain nucleic acids enclosed in a protein coat and lack genes for replication. Satellite genomes can be single-stranded RNA, DNA, or circular RNA.
Satellite RNAs are small, linear or circular RNA strands found in certain multicomponent virus particles. They do not encode their own coat protein and depend on a helper virus for replication and encapsidation.
Viroids were discovered in 1971 and are small, circular, naked RNA molecules that replicate independently using host polymerases. Well-studied viroids include potato spindle tuber viroid and av
Prokaryotic expression system
The document discusses prokaryotic expression systems, which are genetic constructs used to produce proteins or RNA inside or outside cells. It focuses on the prokaryotic system, which is most widely used for recombinant protein production in E. coli bacteria. Key aspects covered include the history of prokaryotic expression research, types of gene regulation like operons and regulatory molecules, examples of operons like the lac and trp operons, and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene expression.
Conjugation
Conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells that are in direct contact. Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum discovered conjugation in 1946 through an experiment where they mixed two auxotrophic E. coli strains that could complement each other's mutations. Bernard Davis provided evidence in 1950 that direct cell contact was required by showing that genetic transfer did not occur when the two strains were separated by a filter. During conjugation, a pilus forms to attach the donor and recipient cells and allows single-stranded DNA to pass between them to make both cells viable donors that can now transfer the genetic material.
Transduction
Transduction is a mode of genetic transfer between bacteria mediated by bacteriophages. During viral replication, fragments of bacterial DNA can become packaged within viral particles. These particles may then infect other bacteria and insert the donor DNA into the recipient genome. There are two types of transduction - generalized, where any bacterial DNA fragment can be transferred, and specialized, where only DNA near the site of viral integration is transferred. Cotransduction frequencies can also be used to map the relative locations of bacterial genes, as genes closer together are more likely to be cotransferred within the same viral particle. Transduction is useful for genetic engineering and mapping bacterial chromosomes.
Taq dna polymerase - enzyme used in PCR amplification technology
Taq polymerase is a thermostable DNA polymerase enzyme isolated from the bacterium Thermus aquaticus. It is used for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) because it can withstand the high temperatures needed to denature DNA during PCR cycling. Taq polymerase has optimal activity between 75-80°C and can replicate 1000 base pair DNA strands in under 10 seconds at 72°C. However, it lacks proofreading ability, resulting in a relatively high error rate of around 1 in 9,000 nucleotides.
Bacterial Conjugation
This document discusses genetic variability and horizontal gene transfer in prokaryotes. It describes three main mechanisms of horizontal gene transfer - transduction, transformation, and conjugation. Conjugation involves the transfer of genetic material between bacteria through direct cell-to-cell contact via pilus. The process of conjugation is described, where the F+ donor cell transfers single-stranded DNA to the F- recipient cell. If the transfer is successful, it results in production of F+ recombinants that can serve as donor cells for further conjugation. An experiment demonstrating conjugation between HFR and F- E. coli strains on selective media is also summarized.
Conjugation: Discovery, F+, F- and Hfr conjugation, F- genetic crosses
This document summarizes the discovery and mechanisms of bacterial conjugation. Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum discovered conjugation in 1946 while experimenting with E. coli strains. They found that when two auxotrophic strains were mixed on minimal media, prototrophs grew, indicating genetic transfer. Bernard Davis provided evidence for direct cell-to-cell contact in 1950 using a filter to separate strains. Conjugation involves an F plasmid transferring via pili from an F+ donor cell to an F- recipient. This can involve the whole chromosome in Hfr cells. The mechanisms of F+, F-, and Hfr conjugation and their genetic crosses are then described.
Dna replication in virus ppt
Viruses replicate inside host cells by first attaching to and entering the cell. They then release their genome and use the host cell's machinery to produce new viral components. The virus assembles inside the cell and is released, either through cell lysis or budding, to infect new host cells. Key steps in the viral replication cycle include attachment, entry, genome release, replication, assembly, and exit from the host cell.
Gene transfer in bacteria
This document provides an overview of gene transfer in bacteria through three main methods: conjugation, transformation, and transduction. Conjugation involves the transfer of genetic material between bacteria via cell-to-cell contact through sex pili. Transformation refers to the uptake of naked DNA by competent bacterial cells. Transduction is the transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another via bacteriophage. Each method is described in 1-2 paragraphs detailing its history of discovery and basic mechanisms.
Prokaryote genome
This document summarizes key aspects of genome organization in prokaryotes. It notes that prokaryotes like E. coli have a single circular chromosome composed of DNA that is compacted into a nucleoid structure. The DNA is highly condensed via supercoiling facilitated by enzymes like topoisomerases. Prokaryotic genomes are also typically smaller than eukaryotic ones and can contain extra DNA on plasmids that are exchanged between bacteria.
Viruses structure and classification
Viruses consist of genetic material surrounded by a protein coat. They can have DNA or RNA as their genetic material and come in various shapes. The document discusses the structure and classification of viruses. It describes their components, sizes, morphologies like helical and icosahedral shapes. It provides examples of plant, animal, and bacterial viruses. It specifically examines the structure and replication of Cauliflower Mosaic Virus, a plant virus with circular double-stranded DNA genome.
Restriction endonucleases
Restriction Endonucleases are enzymes from bacteria that can recognize specific base sequences in DNA and cut (restrict) the DNA at that site (the restriction site). This powerpoint sllides illustrate the introduction, examples, nomenclature and types of restriction endonucleases.
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Taq dna polymerase - enzyme used in PCR amplification technology
Taq dna polymerase - enzyme used in PCR amplification technology
Conjugation: Discovery, F+, F- and Hfr conjugation, F- genetic crosses
Conjugation: Discovery, F+, F- and Hfr conjugation, F- genetic crosses
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Viral reproduction
Viruses reproduce through one of two cycles: lytic or lysogenic. In the lytic cycle, the virus immediately takes over the host cell, produces more viruses, and causes the host cell to burst and release new viruses to infect other cells. In the lysogenic cycle, the viral DNA incorporates into the host cell's DNA and remains dormant for generations before being triggered to enter the lytic cycle and produce more viruses. Retroviruses have RNA that is converted to DNA and inserted into the host genome using reverse transcriptase before undergoing transcription and translation, allowing them to integrate and remain dormant like in the lysogenic cycle.
Viruses
This document describes the characteristics, structure, replication process, and roles of viruses. It defines viruses as extremely small agents that are not living cells and can only replicate inside host cells. Viruses contain nucleic acids surrounded by protein coats and come in different shapes. The document outlines the history of virus discovery and explains the lytic and lysogenic replication cycles that viruses use to infect host cells and produce more viruses. It also discusses the classification of viruses based on their hosts, examples of viral diseases in animals, plants and humans, and some uses of viruses in research and vaccine development.
virus
Computer viruses are programs that can copy themselves and infect computers without permission. They share traits with biological viruses and pass from computer to computer. Some examples of damaging viruses include Mydoom in 2004, Melissa in 1999, and ILOVEYOU in 2000. Viruses work by attaching themselves to other programs or system areas of the disk. They have dormant, propagation, triggering, and execution phases. Anti-virus software uses techniques like pattern recognition, heuristics, integrity checking, and behavior blocking to detect viruses.
Bohomolets Microbiology Lecture #5
The document discusses various aspects of virology including:
1. The stages of viral replication including adsorption, penetration, uncoating, gene expression, genome replication, assembly, and release.
2. Different types of virus interactions with host cells including abortive, productive, and integrative (latent, persistent) infections.
3. Methods for cultivating and detecting viruses including in live animals, chicken embryos, cell cultures, and newborn mice.
4. Characteristics of important virus families that infect animals including their envelopes, sizes, capsid structures, genome types, and examples.
Dna Viruses
DNA viruses like poxviruses, herpesviruses, and hepatitis B viruses use DNA as their genetic material. Herpesviruses have larger virions and genomes than adenoviruses. They enter cells through fusion with the plasma membrane or endocytosis. During replication, herpesviruses use host enzymes to transcribe early genes that regulate expression of late genes for structural proteins. Virions assemble in the nucleus and acquire an envelope as they bud through the inner nuclear membrane. Viral genomes evolve through spontaneous or induced mutation during replication and by recombining genetic material within or between viruses through breaking and rejoining DNA or RNA.
Viral replication
The document discusses the process of viral replication. It begins with an introduction that defines viral replication as the production of all virus components through an assembly process rather than cellular division. It then describes the 7 key steps in viral replication: 1) Attachment, 2) Penetration, 3) Uncoating, 4) Genome replication, 5) Assembly, 6) Maturation, and 7) Release of new virus particles. The document concludes that while the details vary, all viruses follow a similar overall replication process to initiate infection, replicate their genomes, and release new virions.
Phage replication cycles
The document summarizes the lytic and lysogenic cycles of viruses. In the lytic cycle, a virus infects a host cell and uses its machinery to replicate itself before destroying the host cell. In the lysogenic cycle, the virus inserts its genome into the host's genome and remains dormant, replicating with the host cell before entering the lytic cycle. Some key terms are defined, including latency, bacteriophage, and pseudolysogeny. Examples are provided of viruses that undergo lytic replication like T4 bacteriophage and lysogenic replication like lambda bacteriophage.
Virus multiplication cycle
The document summarizes the virus replication cycle. It occurs in living host cells and involves several key steps:
1) Attachment and entry of the virus into the host cell.
2) Uncoating of the viral genome from the protein shell.
3) Synthesis of viral mRNA and proteins using the host cell machinery.
4) Replication of the viral genome.
5) Assembly of new viral particles.
6) Release of progeny viruses through cell lysis or budding, which is how enveloped viruses acquire their lipid envelope. The cycle can take 6-40 hours depending on the virus.
Viral replication (1)
This document discusses viral replication. It begins by defining viruses and their basic components. Viruses replicate through an intracellular process that involves attaching to and entering a host cell, uncoating their genome, expressing genes, replicating their genome, assembling new virions, and exiting the host cell. The replication process varies between virus families but generally follows these basic steps. Viruses are classified based on characteristics like their nucleic acid, replication strategy, and presence of an envelope.
Virology
The document discusses different types of viruses including their structure, replication cycles, and examples of diseases they cause. It describes viruses as consisting of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat, and that they come in helical, icosahedral, enveloped, and bacteriophage forms. It also discusses viral replication cycles including lytic versus lysogenic, and how DNA and RNA viruses replicate. Examples of viral diseases in humans covered include chickenpox, viral hepatitis, and AIDS.
8 - Virus Structure Multiplication
Viruses are small infectious agents that cannot replicate without a host cell. They contain either DNA or RNA as their genetic material and have a protein capsid that protects the genetic material. Some viruses have an additional envelope outside the capsid. Viruses hijack the machinery of host cells to replicate their genetic material and assemble new virus particles. The replication cycle involves attachment to and entry into the host cell, uncoating of the virus, replication of the genetic material, assembly of new virus particles, and release of progeny viruses. DNA viruses can either integrate into the host cell genome or replicate episomally. RNA viruses use RNA-dependent RNA polymerases or reverse transcriptase. Viruses may cause disease in hosts by
Viruses ppt
Viruses exist at the boundary between living and non-living things. They consist of nucleic acids and proteins but cannot reproduce outside of a host cell. Viruses come in different shapes and sizes and have unique structures suited to their method of infection. They hijack the machinery of living cells to reproduce either through lytic or lysogenic cycles, ultimately resulting in the destruction of the host cell. While viruses rely on host cells, they are not considered alive as they do not have their own metabolism or respond to their environment.
Virus structure: classification: replication
The document discusses the structure, classification, and replication of viruses. It begins by describing different viral structural components, including the capsid, envelope, and nucleic acid core. Viruses are classified based on their nucleic acid composition and structure, focusing on whether they have DNA or RNA genomes and whether they are enveloped or not. The document also examines different capsid structures like icosahedral, helical, and complex shapes. It provides examples of representative virus families and discusses how viruses are named.
Virus ppt
This document defines viruses and summarizes their key characteristics and classification. It describes how viruses were first discovered through experiments filtering bacteria and plant extracts. Viruses are non-cellular particles that contain genetic material and invade living cells. They are smaller than bacteria, contain either DNA or RNA, and lack organelles. Viruses replicate only inside host cells and do not undergo binary fission. They have various structures depending on their nucleic acid arrangement and symmetry. Viruses are classified into groups based on their nucleic acids and ability to produce mRNA.
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Viral replication is a complex process that involves six main steps: 1) adsorption/attachment where the virus binds to receptors on the host cell, 2) penetration of the virus into the cell, 3) uncoating to release the viral genome, 4) biosynthesis of new viral components, 5) assembly of new virus particles, and 6) release of progeny viruses from the host cell through lysis, degeneration, or budding. Each step involves specific mechanisms depending on whether the virus is enveloped or non-enveloped, DNA or RNA based.
vorology.pptx
Virology is the scientific study of biological viruses. It is a subfield of microbiology that focuses on their detection, structure, classification and evolution, their methods of infection and exploitation of host cells for reproduction, their interaction with host organism physiology and immunity,
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The viral replication cycle involves 5 main steps: 1) attachment to a host cell, 2) entry of viral nucleic acid into the host, 3) synthesis of viral components using the host's machinery, 4) assembly of new virions, and 5) release of new virions. Viruses can have lytic cycles that destroy the host cell or temperate cycles where the viral genome integrates into the host DNA and replicates with it (lysogeny). Growth curves show viral replication over time, with an eclipse period while viral components are produced, followed by a maturation period where new virions are assembled and released.
Viruses general properties
General Properties of Viruses including Morphology, Multiplication, Cultivation, Classification and Nomenclature
Viral replication
Viral replication is the formation of biological viruses during the infection process in the target host cells. Viruses must first get into the cell before viral replication can occur. From the perspective of the virus, the purpose of viral replication is to allow production and survival of its kind. By generating abundant copies of its genome and packaging these copies into viruses, the virus is able to continue infecting new hosts. Replication between viruses is greatly varied and depends on the type of genes involved in them. Most DNA viruses assemble in the nucleus while most RNA viruses develop solely in cytoplasm
viral_replication.pdf
Viruses can only replicate inside living cells. They hijack the host cell's machinery to produce new viral components and assemble them into new virus particles. There are seven basic stages of viral replication: 1) adsorption, 2) entry, 3) uncoating, 4) transcription, 5) synthesis of viral components, 6) assembly, and 7) release. Bacteriophages follow a similar process in bacterial cells, using either a lytic cycle that kills the host or a lysogenic cycle that allows long-term infection. Plant viruses enter through wounds or vectors and replicate using virus-specific RNA polymerases. Animal viruses recognize receptors to enter cells and then use the host to produce new virions.
Steps_of_Virus_Infections.pdf
Viral replication involves six key steps: 1) attachment, where the virus attaches to the host cell; 2) penetration, where the virus enters the host cell; 3) uncoating and replication, where the viral genetic material incorporates into the host cell and induces replication; 4) assembly, where new viral components are assembled; 5) release, where new viruses are released by cell lysis or budding; 6) for retroviruses like HIV, reverse transcription must occur to convert viral RNA into DNA before integration and replication. The overall process allows the virus to hijack the host cell's machinery to produce new viral progeny and spread infection.
33. an introduction to the viruses
Viruses have capsids made of protein subunits that enclose and protect their nucleic acid. Viruses come in two main shapes - helical or icosahedral - determined by the arrangement of capsomers in the capsid. Some viruses have an envelope in addition to the capsid.
Viral replication involves the virus binding to and entering a host cell, then using the cell's machinery to produce new viral components which are assembled and released to infect new cells. DNA and RNA viruses replicate via different mechanisms using virus-specific enzymes. Animal virus replication is more complex than bacterial viruses due to host cell complexity.
Growing viruses requires appropriate cell cultures or animal hosts that provide an environment where the virus can replicate
Replication-of-Virus.pdf
Viruses replicate inside host cells using the cell's machinery. There are three phases to viral replication: initiation, replication of the viral genome, and assembly/release. Initiation involves attachment and penetration of the host cell. Replication varies depending on whether the virus has DNA or RNA as its genome. RNA viruses must first transcribe their genome into mRNA before it can be translated. DNA viruses can use the host's transcription machinery directly. Assembly involves packaging of new viral particles, which are then released to infect new host cells.
4. life cycle and replication of viruses
Viruses can only replicate inside host cells. There are basic stages required for viral replication: attachment, penetration, uncoating, replication, assembly, maturation, and virion release. Attachment involves the interaction of the virus with a receptor on the host cell surface. Penetration allows the virus to enter the host cell. Uncoating releases the viral genome. Replication produces copies of the viral genome. Assembly packages the new genomes. Maturation modifies viral proteins. Release occurs when new virions exit the host cell through lysis or budding.
Exploring-the-Fascinating-World-of-Virus-Replication-Cycle (1).pptx
Details of viral replication:
The viral replication cycle refers to the series of steps involved in the replication and multiplication of a virus within a host organism. While the specific details can vary among different types of viruses, the general replication cycle typically involves the following stages:
Attachment: The virus attaches to specific receptor molecules on the surface of the host cell. This attachment is usually mediated by viral proteins on the outer surface of the virus and complementary receptors on the host cell.
Entry: The virus enters the host cell, either through direct fusion of the viral envelope with the host cell membrane or by endocytosis, where the virus is engulfed by the host cell and enclosed in a vesicle called an endosome.
Uncoating: Once inside the host cell, the virus undergoes uncoating, which involves the removal of the viral capsid or envelope. This step exposes the viral genetic material, allowing it to be accessed and replicated by the host cell's machinery.
Genome Replication: The viral genetic material, which can be either DNA or RNA depending on the type of virus, is replicated by the host cell's enzymes and machinery. This step involves the synthesis of new viral nucleic acid molecules using the viral genome as a template.
Transcription and Translation: The newly synthesized viral genetic material is transcribed into viral messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules, which are then translated by the host cell's ribosomes into viral proteins. These proteins serve various functions, including the assembly of new virus particles.
Assembly: The newly synthesized viral proteins and replicated genetic material come together to form new virus particles, also known as virions. This assembly process often occurs in specific regions of the host cell, such as the nucleus or cytoplasm, depending on the virus.
Release: Once assembled, the mature virus particles are released from the host cell. This can occur through various mechanisms, such as cell lysis, where the host cell bursts open, or through budding, where the virus acquires a portion of the host cell membrane as it exits, thus enveloping itself.
Micro Ch13 Edited
Viruses are obligatory intracellular parasites that contain either DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat. They multiply by using the host cell's machinery to produce more virus particles. Viruses range greatly in size and structure, and are classified based on their nucleic acid, replication method, and morphology. Viruses must infect living host cells to replicate, and the process involves attachment, entry, hijacking the cell to produce new viral components, and eventual cell lysis or budding of new viral particles.
Replication.pptx
Viruses must complete several steps in their life cycle in order to replicate successfully. They must first find and bind to a host cell, enter the cell, release their genome, replicate it along with transcribing and translating viral proteins, package these components, and finally exit the host cell. The specific mechanisms vary between virus types, but generally involve attachment to receptors, membrane fusion or endocytosis, uncoating of the capsid, replication of the genome, assembly of new virions, and release through lysis or budding.
generalpropertiesofviruses-140309015013-phpapp02.pdf
Viruses are acellular organisms that replicate inside host cells using host cell machinery. They have either RNA or DNA genomes but not both. Viruses consist of a protein capsid that encloses and protects their nucleic acid. Inside host cells, viruses hijack the host's metabolic machinery and ribosomes to produce new viral components which then assemble and exit the cell. The viral life cycle consists of attachment, entry, uncoating, replication, assembly and release stages. Viruses are cultivated using techniques like cell culture, embryonated eggs and animal inoculation to study them and produce vaccines.
Virus
Viruses are non-living particles composed of nucleic acid and protein that can only replicate inside living cells. They have a simple structure without DNA or RNA and come in various shapes like helical or icosahedral. Viruses infect all types of living organisms and have caused many historic epidemics. They evolve through constant mutations that allow them to evade host immune systems and are classified based on features like nucleic acid type and presence of an envelope. Viruses replicate through lytic and lysogenic cycles, with lytic causing cell lysis and lysogenic integrating viral DNA into the host genome.
viruses.pptx
This document discusses the morphology, classification, and cultivation of viruses. It begins by defining viruses as obligate intracellular parasites containing either RNA or DNA surrounded by a protein coat. It then describes how viruses are classified based on their nucleic acid composition (DNA or RNA), structure/symmetry (complex, radial, cubic/icosahedral, rod/spiral), and host (animal, plant, bacteriophage). The replication cycle of viruses is also summarized in six stages: attachment, entry/penetration, uncoating, biosynthesis/replication, assembly, and release. The document provides details on each stage of the viral replication cycle within host cells.
VIRUS PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY (BP303T)Unit-IIIPart-2Study of morphology, ...
PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY (BP303T)Unit-IIIPart-2Study of morphology, classification, reproduction/replication and cultivation of Virus. Introduction, Def General characteristics of Viruses: small size characteristic shapes, obligate intracellular parasites no built-in metabolic machinery no ribosomes
only one type of nucleic acid
do not grow in size. Morphology of Virus: Helical, Polyhedral (Icosahedral) Viral Envelop, Complex virus, Classification of virus. Viral Replication LIFE CYCLE OF BACTIRIOPHAGES Lytic cycle: Attachment, Penetration, Biosynthesis, Maturation and Release of progeny Phage Particles. The Lysogenic Cycle, Cultivation of virus : Animal inoculation, Embryonated eggs or chick embryo method and Tissue culture or cell culture: Organ cultures Explant culture and Cell culture. Types of cell culture
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MULTIPLICATION OF HUMAN VIRUS:1. Attachment of Viral Particles 2. Penetration 3. Uncoating 4. Replication Of Viral Nucleic Acids And Translation Of The Genome 5) Maturation Or Assembly Of Virions. ) 6. Release Of Virions Into The Surrounding Environment
Morphology of virus
Viruses are the smallest known infectious agents and lack cellular organization. They contain either DNA or RNA but not both, and are obligate intracellular parasites that depend on host cell machinery for replication. Viruses infect host cells through attachment to receptors, then undergo a replication process involving uncoating, biosynthesis, maturation, and release of new virions. Their structure can be enveloped or nonenveloped, with capsids that have different symmetries and surface proteins important for infection.
Viral replication
Viral replication occurs in six sequential phases: (1) attachment to host cell receptors, (2) penetration via endocytosis or membrane fusion, (3) uncoating of the viral capsid and release of genetic material, (4) biosynthesis of viral mRNA, proteins, and new genomes using host cell machinery, (5) assembly of new virus particles, and (6) release through cell lysis or budding. The host cell provides energy and materials for the virus to replicate its proteins and nucleic acids.
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1. A virus is a small particle that contains genetic material and requires a host cell to replicate. It has a protein coat and in some cases an envelope.
2. Viruses are classified based on their morphology, genome, replication strategy, and other properties. The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) establishes standards for viral classification.
3. Viruses infect host cells by attaching to receptors on the cell, entering, hijacking the cell's machinery to produce more viral components, which then assemble and exit the cell to infect other cells.
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Virus
- 2. DID YOU KNOW? Virus has a different reproduction way. Virus undergoes proliferation. WHAT IS PROLIFERATION? Proliferation is a growth caused by active cell fission and not by cell size growth.
- 3. VIRUS REPLICATION The virus replication can take place through lytic cycle or lysogenic cycle
- 4. LYTIC CYCLE The process of lytic cycle is divided into 5 parts as follows: Adsorption Phase Penetration Phase Replication Phase Assembling Phase
- 5. ADSORPTION PHASE The virus tail fibre adhered in the receptor part of the host cell
- 6. PENETRATION PHASE Virus tail coat contracted and injects its own DNA into the cytoplasm of cell. Previously, membrane of the cell is falling down caused by lysozime in the base plate of virus
- 7. REPLICATION PHASE DNA of virus directed cell to code hydrolitic enzyme in order to destroy the cell’s DNA and multiply DNA protein and virus through transcription and translation process. This is what we called as “eclipse period”.
- 8. ASSEMBLING PHASE After getting the metabolism process of cell under control, the virus gene directs the host cell to produce virus components.
- 9. LYSOGENIC CYCLE Virus that performs lysogenic cycle is called temperate virus. That means, the virus not always destroy their hosts. It consists of 3 stages: Adsorptionand Penetration Gene Insertion Division
- 10. ADSORPTION AND PENETRATION STAGE Viruses attach to host cells, and insert their genetic materials into host cells cytoplasm
- 11. GENE INSERTION Viral genetic material is inserted into host cell DNA, performing provirus (provirus: host cell DNA that contains virus genes)
- 12. DIVISION In this final step, provirus replicates itself following host cell replication. Each time host cell divide, provirus is transferred into host daughters cell.
- 13. DID YOU KNOW? If the virus get the suitable environment, from lysogenic cycle, they could have possibilities to develop themselves to enter lytic cycle, and it might be destroy the host cell too.