The document discusses the concepts of underdetermination, observation, and the relationship between theory and observation in science. It defines underdetermination as situations where the available evidence is insufficient to identify the correct belief and there are at least two alternative theories that fit the data. It also defines observation and discusses its importance in science as the source of empirical evidence and in establishing objectivity. However, it notes that observation is theory-laden and influenced by the theoretical expectations of the observer. The relationship between theory and observation is described as reciprocal - theories guide what is observed and interpreted, but observations can also lead to changes in theories.

1. UNDERDETERMINATION AND OBSERVATION
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2. UNDERDETERMINATION

3. INTRODUCTION OF UNDERDETERMINATION
• DEFINITION:
- The underdetermination is refers to the situations
where the evidence available is insufficient to identify
which belief one should hold about that evidence.
- Which there are at least two different or alternative
theories that fit the same data set.

4. • Example:
- someone spent rm10 to buy orange and apple.
- 1 orange was rm2.00 and 1 apple was rm1.00
- so, one would not have enough evidence to know
what the combination of orange and apple was
purchased whether 4 oranges and 1 apple or 3
oranges and 2 apples.
- so, one would say that belief in what combination was
purchased is underdetermined by the available
evidence.

5. RESPONSIBLE ABILITIES OF SCIENCE
AIM
To produce the true description about
observable and unobservable phenomena.
Observable
phenomena?
Unobservable
phenomena?

6. Thunder
Decomposition
Fog

7. Atom
Sound

8. Explanation is realistic and psychological event
without clear and conducive features. Why???
Mesonychids (an extinct
terrestrial mammal) was
believed to be the ancestors
of modern whales.
Evidence: Vestiges
(remnants) of pelvis and leg
bones

9. The attitude of curiosity towards the
unobservable
Science is not something directly testable but
a feature that is not directly testable
Explanation must be evaluable
Science demand quality of theory that are
logic and consistent
Theory fit a coherent account are likely to be
true
RESPONSIBLEABILITIESOF
SCIENCE

10. THE ATTITUDE OF CUROSITY
TOWARDS THE UNOBSERVABLE

11. EXPLANATION MUST BE EVALUABLE

12. SCIENCE DEMAND QUALITY OF THEORY
THAT ARE LOGIC AND CONSISTENT

15. REALISM
ANTIREALISM
Attitude or practice of accepting a situation
as it is and being prepared to deal with it
accordingly
The truth of a statement rests on its
demonstrability through internal logic
mechanisms

16. ANTIREALISM/
EMPIRICIST
Justified in claims about observables
but not in claims about unobservable
Has the obligation to explain where on
this spectrum is the sharp division, or
even hazy division that separates what
we can know about from what we
cannot
Observability is significant to
justification

17. REALISM
Justified in claims about observables
and claims about unobservable
No sharp limiting of justification by
factor of observability

18. Most profitable approach to
understanding scientific
knowledge
Measurement of these
degrees will be in term of
internal virtues and external
comparison to evidence
Be sensitives to degrees of
observability of the objects
and events referred to by a
theory
Scientific method is to look
for degrees of justification
BENEFITS OF REALISM &
ANTIREALISM

19. GAME TIME

20. OBSERVATION

21. • Definition:
- observation is the action or the process that of closely
observed or monitoring something or someone.
- Observation also is the source of the world’s input
and guidance over our describing and modeling.
- Observation is a source of objectivity of science. The
observation can also involve the recording of data via
the use of instruments.
.

22. - For example, we do some experiment about the
bacteria and the aim of this activity is we want to
observe the type of bacteria under the microscope.
• The concept of the observation is used the rather
liberally by scientist to judge by the sorts of things
they claim to have observed.

23. IMPORTANCE OF
OBSERVATION

24. An essential aspect of the
scientific method
Should not be interpreted
as an attack or disguised
critism
Darwin’s
Theory
Scrutinized
Empirical Science:
• Natural Science
• Social Science
Non-Empirical Science:
• Mathematics
• Logic
VS Observing
the events in
nature

25. Observation to be
decisive and authoritative
arbiter of truth in science
A common ground of
agreement for all
participants of science
Observation can be
appealed to as adjucators
of theories
To convince
skeptics and those
of alternative
theoretical
persuasion
Free of interpretive
influences

26. Unaltered information
from the world
A plenty of plausibility
with the idea
Interpretations
Inferences
True-false questions

27. Accountable Observation
• Also known as Responsible observation.
• Participate in the process of science.
• Accountable observation requires a claim as to what is
observed and an assertion of the information that is being
conveyed by the world.
Does an observation can be useful as evidence ? What do you
think

28. Observational Report
• If an observational report is private, the sensation must be
described to make it useful report.
• If an observation report is to be relevant to a theory, it must
include some of the language of theory.
• For examples : You must have assertive evidence evolution by
natural selection if it is to be evidence in the case to justify a
theory about the evolution by natural selection.

29. Aspects of
accountable
observation.
1. Informative,
assertive and
propositional.
2. Must be
justified in the
sense of being
certifiably.

30. Let’s observe together

31. a) The red blood cell
is swollen and burst
due to hypotonic
solution.
b) The red blood cell
is normal due to
isotonic solution.
c) The red blood
cell is shrink due to
hypertonic solution.

32.  All scientific knowledge must be based on observation.
 As the basis of scientific method, but there is a close link between
observation and theory
 Knowledge is prerequisite for making scientific observations.
Observation and theory?

33.  According to Kasso, all observation in science is influenced by theory.
 Term ‘theoretical’ cannot distinguish an idea as being believable or not.
 They all describe objects or events that are not directly observable.

34.  It is crucial to see how theory influences observation.
 With a theoretical background, it’s a start to describing the method
 It allows different interpretations on how one will specifies the
outcome and conclusion.
 After interpretation, as the theories are things that cannot be directly
checked by observation, it can be regarded as useful models

35. Theory influences observation in several ways…
1. It is impossible to observe everything.
• With theoretical understanding, scientist selecting what to
observe and what to ignore.
• Worth time and money.
• Only focus on what that require attention from a relevant
factor.
2. Theory guide the decisions
• Provide standards to evaluate the observation.
• Conforms the accountability of the observation.

36. 3. Applied in most of observation that assisted by machines
• For example:
 The manufacturing of microscope
 A lot of theory applied in its production
 The results is accountable

37.  In our everyday lives, and in science we allow some manner of careful
inference that goes beyond the observations
“I wake up in the morning and see the ground is wet, the trees are dripping,
and there are puddles everywhere. I know it rained, even though I didn’t
directly observe the rain. And since it is passed, I can’t observe the rain.”
 In science, knowledge extends beyond the observed and the observable.

38. Theory – Laden Observation
Theory-Laden means denoting a term,
concept or statement as a part of some
theory, so that it is use to indicates the
acceptance of that theory.
Observation in science are Theory-Laden
Affected by the theoretical prediction
held by the researcher.

39. Accountable Observation
Contribute to acquisition and justification
of knowledge about the world.
We are forced to admit the notion of pure,
unaltered information from the world.
However, better to think of observational
information not simply given by nature,
but as actively taken by the observer in a
research guided by theories, beliefs, and
concepts in the mind of the researcher.

40. Accountable Observation
Accountable Observation based:
Accountable theories
Or
Observation is done with the
assistance of instrumentation
In science, observation must offer reason
to think, not only believe what we see.
For example, sea breeze and land breeze.

41. Indelible Theoretical Component Of Observation
Observational beliefs are not rigid enough
to make refutation. As the rule, theories
must bend to the pattern of observation. It
is acceptable so far as they fit into
theoretical network.
Conflict- observation clash with theory.
Solution- deduct the observation rather
than the theory.
Do not simply ignore the troublesome
observation, as it never happened. Better
to explain it. Avoid to throw a statement
based on single observation.

42. Relation between theory and observation
“More like Republic”
Theory- Rulers
Observation- Populace. They chooses
their Rulers & can do something only by
the will of the Rulers.
Theories has ambiguity
Coherence among theories, like consensus
among people. It is an ultimate source of
new observation and perception.

43. OBSERVING
READING
&

44. UNDERSTAND
METHOD
MEANINGFUL