Tre be civil

Guided by Dr. R. M. Damgir

Represented by Rahul Agrawal

April 18, 2013 Transportation Engineering Rahul 1
Agrawal

Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana
PMGSY
• Rural Road Connectivity is not only a key component of Rural Development by
promoting access to economic and social services and thereby generating
increased agricultural incomes and productive employment opportunities in
India, it is also as a result, a key ingredient in ensuring sustainable poverty
reduction. Notwithstanding the efforts made, over the years, at the State and
Central levels, through different Programmes, about 40% of the Habitations in
the country are still not connected by All-weather roads.
• It is well known that even where connectivity has been provided, the roads
constructed are of such quality (due to poor construction or maintenance) that
they cannot always be categorized as All-weather roads.
• With a view to redressing the situation, Government have launched the Pradhan
Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana on 25th December, 2000 to provide all-weather
access to unconnected habitations. The Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana
(PMGSY) is a 100% Centrally Sponsored Scheme. 50% of the Cess on High
Speed Diesel (HSD) is earmarked for this Programme.

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Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana
PMGSY
• The primary objective of the PMGSY is to provide Connectivity, by way of an All-
weather Road (with necessary culverts and cross-drainage structures, which is
operable throughout the year), to the eligible unconnected Habitations in the rural
areas, in such a way that all Unconnected Habitations with a population of 1000
persons and above are covered in three years (2000-2003) and all Unconnected
Habitations with a population of 500 persons and above by the end of the Tenth
Plan Period (2007). In respect of the Hill States (North-East, Sikkim, Himachal
Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttaranchal) and the Desert Areas (as identified in the
Desert Development Programme) as well as the Tribal (Schedule V) areas, the
objective would be to connect Habitations with a population of 250 persons and
above.
• The PMGSY will permit the Upgradation (to prescribed standards) of the existing
roads in those Districts where all the eligible Habitations of the designated
population size (refer Para 2.1 above) have been provided all-weather road
connectivity. However, it must be noted that Upgradation is not central to the
Programme and cannot exceed 20% of the State’s allocation as long as eligible
Unconnected Habitations in the State still exist. In Upgradation works, priority
should be given to Through Routes of the Rural Core Network, which carry more
traffic (see Para 3.7 below)

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Roman Road Construction
Basic cross section

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Institution for Highway Planning, Design and
Implementation at Different Levels
• Jayakar Committee (1927)
• Central Road Fund (1929)
• Indian Roads Congress (IRC), 1934
• Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), 1950
• National Highway Act, 1956
• National Highway Authority of India (NHAI),1995
• National highway act ( 1956 )
• Second twenty year road plan ( 1961 )
• Highway Research board ( 1973 )
• National Transport Policy committee ( 1978 )
• Third twenty year road plan ( 1981 )

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Jayakar Committee,1927
• Road development should be made a national
interest since the provincial and local govt do
not have financial and technical capacity for
road development.
• Levy extra tax on petrol from road users to
create the road development fund.
• To establish a semi-official ,technical institution
to pool technical knowledge, sharing of ideas
and to act as an advisory body.
• To create a national level institution to carry
research , development works and consultation.

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Classification of Highways
Depending on weather
• All weather roads
• Fair weather roads
Depending the type of Carriage way
• Paved roads
• Unpaved roads
Depending upon the pavement surface
• Surfaced roads
• Un surfaced roads
Based on the Traffic Volume
• Heavy
• Medium
• Light
Based on Load or Tonnage
• Class 1 or Class 2 etc or Class A , B etc Tonnes per day
Based on location and function ( Nagpur road plan )
NH, SH, MDR, ODR & VR

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Road Patterns
• Rectangular or Block patterns
• Radial or Star block pattern
• Radial or Star Circular pattern
• Radial or Star grid pattern
• Hexagonal Pattern
• Minimum travel Pattern

Classification of Roadways
• Expressways 200 Km
• National Highways 70,548 Km
• State Highways 1,31,899 Km
• Major District Roads 4,67,763 Km
• Rural and Other Roads 26,50,000 Km

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Factors Influencing Highway Alignment
Requirements:
 Short
 Easy
 Safe
 Economical
Factors controlling alignment :
1) Obligatory points
A. Obligatory points through which alignment is to pass ( bridge site, intermediate
town , Mountain pass etc
B. Obligatory points through which alignment should not pass.
2) Traffic
3) Geometric design
4) Economics
5) Other considerations

Additional care in hill roads
Stability
Drainage
Geometric standards of hill roads
Resisting length

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Steps in New Highways Project Works
• Map Study (available topographic map)
• Reconnaissance Survey (identification of soil & on spot site inspection)
• Preliminary Survey (alternate alignment, comparison of alternate route
& economic analysis)
• Location of Final Alignment (transfer of alignment, circular curve &
transition curve & super elevation)
• Detailed Survey (Earth work quantities & other construction materials)
• Materials Survey (their collection & testing)
• Design (embankment & cut slopes, bridges & pavement layers)
• Earth Work ( highway cutting & drainage system)
• Pavement Construction (preparation of sub grade, sub base & surface
course)
• Construction Control (quality control tests during different stages)

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Necessity of Re-alignment
• Improvement of horizontal alignment design elements such as radius,
super elevation, transition curve, clearance on inner side of the curve
• Improvement of vertical alignment design elements like steep gradients,
changes in summit curve to increase sight distance, correction of
undesirable undulations like humps and dips etc
• Raising level of portion of road which is subjected to flooding,
submergence or water logging during monsoons
• Reconstruction of weak & narrow bridges & culverts & changes in
water way at locations slightly away from existing site
• Construction of over bridges or under bridges at suitable locations
across a railway line in place of level crossing or another roads to
provide grade separate inter section
• Construction of bypass to avoid the road running through a town or city
• Defence requirements

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Alignment for hill roads
• Minimum hair pin bends.
• Bends should be located on stable and flat slopes.
• Cross section for hair pin bends should be at intervals of 20-25m.
 15 m on either side of centre line in straight alignment
• Avoid bends in valleys.
• Survey for a width of ; 30m on sharp curves.

Geometric Design
• Elements of design:
– Sight distance
• The length of road ahead visible to drivers
– Stopping sight distance
– Passing sight distance
– Horizontal alignment
• Super elevation rates (0.1 for rural areas, 0.06 for urban)
• Minimum radius
– Vertical alignment
– Pavement design
– Intersection and crossing design

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Cross Slope or Camber
• It is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction to drain off the rain water from the
road surface. Drainage and quick disposal of water from pavements surface by providing cross slope is
considered important because
– To prevent entry of surface water into the sub grade soil through pavement, stability & life of
pavement get affected if water enters in the sub grade and the soil gets soaked.
– To prevent entry of water into the bitumen layer and results in deterioration of pavement layers.
• Shape of Camber
– Parabolic shape
– Straight line camber
– Combination of straight and parabolic shape

Class of road Width of carriage way
Single lane 3.75m
Two lanes, without raised Krebs 7.0m
Two lanes, with raised Krebs 7.5m
Intermediate carriage way 5.5m
Multi lane pavements 3.5m per lane

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Sight Distance
• Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance along the road surface,
which driver from specific height above the carriage way has visibility of the
stationary or moving object.
• Length of road visible ahead the driver at any instance.
• Sight distance are of
– Stopping or absolute minimum sight distance
– Safe over taking or passing sight distance
– Safe sight distance for entering into uncontrolled intersections

Stopping Sight Distance
– Minimum sight distance available on highway at any spot should be of
sufficient to length to stop vehicle traveling at design speed, safely without
collision with any other obstruction.
– Depends on factor
• Total reaction time of driver
• Speed of vehicle
• Efficiency of brakes
• Frictional resistance between road and tyre
• Gradient of the road

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PIEV Theory
• According to this theory the total reaction time of the driver is split into four
parts viz. time by the driver for
– Perception
• It is time required for the sensation received by the eyes or ears to be transmitted to the
brain through nervous system & spinal cord.
– Intellection
• It is time required for understanding the situation
– Emotion
• It is time elapsed during emotional sensations and disturbance such as fear, anger or
other feelings.
– Volition
• It is time taken for final action.
I E

P V

Reflex Action

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Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance
1. It is sum of
– Lag distance (distance traveled by vehicle during total reaction time)
– Braking distance (distance traveled by vehicle after application of brakes)
2. Ld = v t meters
3. Bd = (V.V) / (2gf) meters

4. SSD = Ld + Bd
= (v t ) + {(v v) / (2gf)} meters
= (0.278 v t ) + {(v v) / (254 f)} kmph
V = speed of vehicles
F = design coefficient of friction 0.4 to 0.35
G = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec2

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Analysis of Overtaking Sight Distance
1. The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of vehicle intending
to overtake of slow vehicle ahead with the safety against traffic of opposite
direction is known as Min. OSD or Safe OSD
2. Factor for min. OSD
1. Overtaking speed of vehicle
2. Overtaken speed of vehicle
3. Speed of Vehicle coming from opposite side
4. Skill and reaction time of driver
5. Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
6. Gradient of road
3. (Justo Khanna Page no. 96)
OSD = 0.28 Vb t + 0.28 Vb T + 2s+ 0.28 V T
Vb = speed of over taking vehicle kmph
T = reaction time of driver = 2secs
V = speed of overtaking vehicle or design speed kmph
T = (14.4 s / A)^0.5 and Spacing = s = (0.2 Vb + 6 )

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Traffic Engineering
1. Traffic characteristics
1. Road user characteristics
1. Physical characteristics
2. Mental characteristics
3. Environmental factors
2. Vehicular characteristics
1. Static characteristic : Vehicle Dimension, Weight, Speed & Power of vehicle
2. Braking characteristic
2. Traffic studies and analysis
1. Traffic volume studies
2. Origin and destination study
3. Parking study
3. Traffic operation-control and regulation
4. Planning and analysis
5. Geometric design
6. Administration and management

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PCU Passenger Car Unit
1. Different class of vehicles such as cars, vans, buses, trucks, auto rickshaw,
motor cycles, pedal cycles, bullock carts, etc are found to use common
roadway facilities without segregation on most of the roads in developing
countries like India.
2. The flow of traffic with unrestrained mixing of different vehicle classes on
the roadways forms the heterogeneous traffic flow or mixed traffic flow.
3. Different vehicle have different dimension like speed, length,
acceleration.. and apart this it has different driver behavior..
4. Common practice of considering the passenger car as the standard vehicle
unit to covert the other vehicle classes and this unit is called as PCU
5. PCU/lane or PCU/ hour or PCU/ kilometer length of lane..

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Regulatory signs
1. Regulatory or mandatory sign are meant to inform the road users of certain laws,
regulations and prohibitions; the violation of these signs is legal offence.
2. Signs are classified as
1. Stop and Give-way sign
2. Prohibitory sign
3. No parking and no stopping sign
4. Speed limit and vehicle control sign
5. Restriction ends sign
6. Compulsory direction control and other sign
3. Informative signs
1. This sign are used to guide road users along routes, inform them of destination and
distance and provide with information to make travel easier, safe and pleasant.
2. Direction and place identification signs
3. Facility information signs
4. Other useful information signs
5. Parking signs
6. Flood gauge

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Traffic Signals
1. At intersection where there are a large number of crossing and right turn
traffic, there is possibility of several accidents as there can’t be orderly
movements.
2. Traffic signals are control devices which could alternately direct traffic to
stop and proceed at intersections using Red, Yellow and Green.
3. Advantages
1. Smooth movements and crossings
2. Reduce accidents
3. Safety
4. Control speed
4. Disadvantages
1. Rear end collisions may increase
2. Improper design and location of signal may lead to violation of control systems
3. Failure of signal due to electric power.

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Highway Materials
1. Sub grade soil is an integral part of the road pavement structure as it
provides the support to the pavement from beneath.
2. Desirable properties of soil as highway materials are
1. Stability and incompressibility
2. Permanency of strength
3. Minimum changes in volume
4. Good drainage and Ease of compaction
3. Factor on which strength characteristics of soil depends on
1. Soil type and moisture content
2. Dry density
3. Internal structural of soil
4. Type and mode of stress application
4. Evaluation of soil
1. Shear tests
2. Bearing tests
3. Penetration tests

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Direct Shear Tests
1. It is oldest shear tests.
2. Apparatus consists of box divided horizontally into two halves.
3. One halve is kept fixed and other half is free to move horizontally.
4. A vertical load is applied and horizontal movements are measured by dial
gauges and horizontal force is noted from the providing ring dial.
5. Limitation : failure plane being predetermined horizontal plane, need not
necessarily represent the imminent plane of failure.
6. The shearing stress and strain along this horizontal failure plane is seldom
uniform.

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Plate Bearing Test
1. It is used to evaluate this supporting power of sub grade for use in
pavement design by using relatively large diameter plates.
2. The PBT was originally devised to find the modulus of sub grade reaction
in the Westergaard’s analysis for wheel load stress in cement concrete
pavements.
3. Setup consists of a set of plates of diameter 75, 60, 45 & 30cm, a loading
device consisting of jack and providing ring arrangement and reaction
frame against ehich the jack give thrust to the plate.
4. A datum frame resting far from the loaded area and dial gauges from this
frame are used to measure the settlement of the loaded plate.

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California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test
• CBR was developed by the California Division
of Highways as a method of classifying and
evaluating soil- sub grade and base course
materials for flexible pavements.
• CBR is a measure of resistance of a material to
penetration of standard plunger under
controlled density and moisture conditions.
• CBR test may be conducted in remoulded or
undisturbed sample.
• Test consists of causing a cylindrical plunger of
50mm diameter to penetrate a pavement
component material at 1.25mm/minute. The
loads for 2.5mm and 5mm are recorded.
• This load is expressed as a percentage of
standard load value at a respective deformation
level to obtain CBR value.
Definition:
• It is the ratio of force per unit area
required to penetrate a soil mass with
standard circular piston at the rate of
1.25 mm/min. to that required for the
corresponding penetration of a
standard material.

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Test for Road Aggregates
1. Crushing test
1. Stone aggregates give low aggregate crushing valve
2. Crushing valve for base course shouldn’t exceed 45 %
3. Crushing valve for surface course shall be less than 30 %
2. Abrasion test
1. Loss Angeles abrasion test
2. Deval abrasion test
3. Dory abrasion test
3. Impact test
Maximum permissible valve is 35% for bituminous macadam and 40% for water bound
macadam base course.
4. Soundness
5. Shape test
Flakiness index used in road is less than 15% and doesn’t exceed 25%
6. Specific gravity and water absorption test
1. Specific gravity lies between 2.6 to 2.9
2. Water absorption is less then 0.6 %
7. Bitumen adhesion test

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Bitumen adhesion test
1. Bitumen and tar adhere well to all normal types of road aggregates
provided they are dry and are free from dust.
2. Several laboratory test are
1. Static immersion test
Very commonly used and very easy and simple test
1. Dynamic immersion test
2. Chemical immersion test
3. Immersion mechanical test
4. Immersion trafficking test
5. Coating test

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Various test on Bitumen
1. Penetration test
Determines hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring depth of penetration
2. Ductility test
Carried to test the property of the binder in bitumen
3. Viscosity test
4. Float test
5. Specific gravity test
6. Softening test
7. Flash and fire point test
8. Solubility test
9. Spot test
10. Loss of heating test
11. Water content test

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Various test on Bitumen : Penetration test

1. Determine the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the
depth in tenth of millimeter to which standard loaded needle will
penetrate vertically in five second.
2. Needle weight of 100gm and device for releasing and locking in
any position with dial gauge to read penetration valves of 1/10 th of
millimeter
3. The penetration valves of various types of bitumen used in
pavement construction in this country range between 20 and 225,
30/40 and 80/100 grade bitumen are more used.
4. In hot climate lower penetration grade bitumen like 30/40 bitumen
is preferred.

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Various test on Bitumen : Ductility test

1. Bitumen binder form ductile films around the aggregates.
2. Test is believed to measure adhesive property of bitumen and its
ability to stretch.
3. Bitumen may satisfy penetration test but may fail in bitumen
ductility test. So both test should be satisfied.
4. The ductility is expressed as the distance in centimeters to which a
standard briquette of bitumen can be stretched before the thread
breaks.
5. Test is conducted at 27’C and rate of pull of 50 mm per minute.
6. Ductility valve changes from 5 to over 100 for different bitumen
grades.
7. According to ISI ductility valve should be 45 cm for bitumen grade
75 & above.

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Various test on Bitumen : Fire point test
1. Bitumen leaves out volatiles at temperature depending upon their
grade.
2. These volatiles catch fire causing a flash.
3. This condition is very hazardous and it is therefore essential to
qualify this temperature for each bitumen grade, so that paving
engineers may restrict the mixing and application temperatures.
4. Flash point : the flash point of material is the lowest temperature
at which the vapor of substance momentarily takes fire in the form
of flash under specified condition of test.
5. Fire point : The fire point is the lowest temperature at which the
material gets ignited and burns under specified conditions of test.

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Various test on Bitumen : Softening point test

1. It is temperature at which substance attains a particular degree of
softening under specified condition of test.
2. The softening point of bitumen is usually determined by Ring &
Ball test.
3. Higher softening point indicates lower temperature susceptibility
and its preferred in warm climates.
4. Hard grade bitumen possess higher softening point than soft grade
bitumen.
5. Softening point of various bitumen grades in paving jobs vary
between 35’C to 70’C.

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Design of Bitumen Mixes

1. Selection of Aggregates
Aggregate posses sufficient strength, hardness, toughness & soundness
2. Selection of Aggregates Grading
Property of Bituminous mix including density & stability are much
dependent on aggregates and their grain size
3. Determination of Specific gravity
4. Proportioning of Aggregates
5. Preparation of Specimens
6. Determination of Specific gravity of compacted specimens
7. Stability tests on compacted specimens
8. Selection of optimum Bitumen content

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Bituminous Mix Design : Introduction
• A good design of bituminous mix is expected to result in a mix which
is adequately
– strong
– durable
– resistive to fatigue & permanent deformation
– Environment friendly
– economical and so on.
• A mix designer tries to achieve these requirements through a number of
tests on the mix with varied proportions and finalizes with the best one.
• This often involves a balance between mutually conflicting parameters.
• The present article tries to identify some of the issues involved in this
art of bituminous mix design and the direction of current research.

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Selection of Mix Constituents :
Binder
• Generally binders are selected based on some simple tests and
other site-specific requirements.
• These tests could be different depending of the type of binder
viz. penetration grade, cutback, emulsion, modified binder etc.
For most of these tests, the test conditions are pre-fixed in the
specifications.
• Rolling Thin Film Oven Test (RTFO), Pressurized Aging
Vessel (PAV), Dynamic Shear Rheometer, Rotational
Viscometer, Bending Beam Rheometer, Direct Tension Tester
are some of the tests recommended in Super pave binder
selection.

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Selection of Mix Constituents :
Aggregates
• Number of tests are recommended in the specifications to judge the
properties of the aggregates, e.g. strength, hardness, toughness,
durability, angularity, shape factors, clay content, adhesion to binder
etc.
• Angularity ensures adequate shear strength due to aggregate
interlocking, and limiting flakiness ensures that aggregates will not
break during compaction and handling.
• The restricted zone and control points are incorporated in order to
ensure certain proportion of fines for
– proper interlocking of aggregates
– to avoid the fall in shear strength of mix due to excess of fines
– to maintain requisite Voids in Mineral Aggregates (VMA).
• These control points and restriction zones are more as guidelines for
selecting a gradation than a compulsion to be followed.

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Role of Mix Volumetric Parameters
• Bitumen holds the aggregates in position, and the load is taken by the
aggregate mass through the contact points.
• If all the voids are filled by bitumen, then the load is rather transmitted by
hydrostatic pressure through bitumen, and strength of the mix therefore
reduces.
• That is why stability of the mix starts reducing when bitumen content is
increased further beyond certain value.
• However excess void will make the mix weak from its elastic modulus and
fatigue life considerations. The chances of oxidative hardening of bitumen are
more, where, the mix has more voids.
• Evaluation and selection of aggregate gradation to achieve minimum VMA is
the most difficult and time- consuming step in the mix design process.
• VMA specification has always been a big issue in mix design specifications.
The recommendation of minimum VMA is sometimes questioned by the
researchers, and is said not to be equitable across different gradations. It is seen
that the bitumen film thickness, rather than the VMA, may be related to
durability of the mix.

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Various mix design approaches

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Selection of base course and the surface course
depend upon the following factors
1. Type and intensity of traffic
2. Funds available for the construction project and for the subsequent
maintenance
3. Sub grade soil and drainage conditions
4. Availability of construction materials at site
5. Climatic conditions
6. Plants and equipment available
7. Time available for completing the project
8. Altitude at which construction has to be done

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Excavation Equipment : Power Sovels
1. Long lasting and useful class of earth moving equipment.
2. One of basic equipment employed to excavate the earth and to load the
trucks.
3. It is capable of excavating all types of earth, except hard rock.
4. It may be crawler mounted or wheel mounted.
5. Crawler mounted have low speeds but very effective in unstable soils
6. Wheel mounted have higher speeds and are effective only in firm soils
7. The size of Power Sovels varies from 0.375 to 5 cubic meter
8. Basic parts include track system, cabin, cables, rack, stick, foot pin, saddle
block, boom point sheaves and bucket.

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Excavation Equipment : Drag Line

1. Prominent operation of dragging the bucket against the material to be dug
2. Long light crane boom and bucket is loosely attached to the boom through
cables.
3. Useful in digging below its track level and handling softer materials
4. The capacity of dragline is indicated by size of the bucket in cubic meters
5. It can be crawler mounted, wheel mounted or trucked mounted.
6. Basic part dragline include the boom, hoist cable, drag cable, hoist chain,
drag chain and bucket.

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Excavation Equipment : Clamshell

1. Also named as resemblance of its bucket to a clam which is like a shell
fish with hinged double shell.
2. The front end is essentially a crane boom with specially designed bucket
loosely attached at the end through cables as in drag line.
3. Basic part are closing line, hoist line, sheaves, brackets, tagline, shell and
hinge.

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Surface Dressing
• A Surface Dressing is a process of spraying a road surface with bituminous
binder and then covering the binder with clean, crushed aggregate or natural
gravel.
• These layers are then rolled in order to press the aggregate into the binder
film.
• Traffic movement commences the process of chipping movement which will
produce eventually an interlocking matrix.

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FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT RIGID PAVEMENT

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Types of Pavements

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Properties Flexible Rigid
Design Empirical method Designed and analyzed by using the elastic
Principle Based on load distribution theory
characteristics of the
components
Material Granular material Made of Cement Concrete either plan,
reinforced or prestressed concrete
Flexural Low or negligible flexible Associated with rigidity or flexural strength
Strength strength or slab action so the load is distributed over
a wide area of subgrade soil.
Normal Elastic deformation Acts as beam or cantilever
Loading
Excessive Local depression Causes Cracks
Loading
Stress Transmits vertical and Tensile Stress and Temperature Increases
compressive stresses to the
lower layers

Design Constructed in number of Laid in slabs with steel reinforcement.
Practice layers.

Temperature No stress is produced Stress is produced
Force of Less. Deformation in the Friction force is High
Friction sub grade is not transferred
to the upper layers.
Opening to Road can be used for traffic Road cannot be used until 14 days of curing
Traffic within 24 hours
Surfacing Rolling of the surfacing is Rolling of the surfacing in not needed.
April 18, 2013
needed Transportation Engineering Rahul 48
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Factors for design of pavements
IRC (37-2001)
• Design wheel load
 Static load on wheels
 Contact Pressure
 Load Repetition

• Subgrade soil
 Thickness of pavement required
 Stress- strain behaviour under load
 Moisture variation
• Climatic factors
• Pavement component materials
• Environment factors
• Traffic Characteristics
• Required Cross sectional elements of the alignment

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