Towards the Renaissance discusses several key developments in late medieval Europe including the rise of towns and commercial capitalism, Gothic architecture and universities, Catholic philosophy including Scholasticism, the background and effects of the Crusades, the Black Death plague, social upheaval in the late middle ages including peasant revolts, the Great Schism in the Catholic church, heresy, the decline of chivalry, technological innovations, and the rise of humanism as a challenge to Scholasticism. It then outlines some of the artistic developments of the early Renaissance including a focus on classical subject matter, realistic sculpture, techniques like chiaroscuro and perspective, and the revival of Roman architectural styles.