Thurstone Scales - Mass Media Research.pptx
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Thurstone scales are used to measure attitudes toward concepts or constructs. They are called equal-appearing interval scales. To develop a Thurstone scale, a researcher first collects 100 or more statements related to the concept and has judges rate them on an 11-point scale of favorability. The statements are then ranked and 20-30 are chosen evenly across the ratings to construct a questionnaire. Respondents agree or disagree with the statements and their scores are the mean or median of agreed items, with disagreeing with all items scoring zero. One advantage is they provide an interval measurement scale, but developing them is time-consuming.
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Thurstone
The document describes the development of methods for measuring attitudes. It discusses the early work of a "Father of attitude measurement" who generated statements describing specific attitudes and had participants rate each statement on a 1-10 scale based on favorability. It also describes the development of the summated rating scale, which involves selecting items, scaling responses, having a target audience mark each item, and adding up the scores to get an overall attitude measurement. The document notes the summated rating scale is still widely used and is one of the most common instruments for measuring attitudes.
ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT SCALES-PSYCHOLOGY
This document discusses several methods for measuring attitudes, including Thurstone scales, Likert scales, and Guttman scales. It provides details on how each scale is constructed and used, including collecting statements, having judges sort statements, selecting statements for the final scale, and analyzing results. The key aspects covered include:
- Thurstone scales use equal intervals and judges sort statements independently
- Likert scales use a symmetric agree-disagree scale for statement items
- Guttman scales have a cumulative pattern where respondents who agree with later items also agree with previous items
- Advantages and limitations of each approach are presented
Validity and its types
Validity:
Validity refers to how well a test measures what it is purported to measure.
Types of Validity:
1. Logic valididty:
Validity which is in the form of theory, statements. It has 2 types.
I. Face Validity:
It is the extent to which the measurement method appears “on its face” to measure the construct of interest.
• Example:
• suppose you were taking an instrument reportedly measuring your attractiveness, but the questions were asking you to identify the correctly spelled word in each list
II. Content Validity:
Measuring all the aspects contributing to the variable of the interest.
Example:
For physical fitness temperature, height and stamina are supposed to be assess then a test of fitness must include content about temperatures, height and stamina.
2. Criterion
It is the extent to which people’s scores are correlated with other variables or criteria that reflect the same construct
Example:
An IQ test should correlate positively with school performance.
An occupational aptitude test should correlate positively with work performance.
Types of Criterion Validity
Concurrent validity:
• When the criterion is something that is happening or being assessed at the same time as the construct of interest, it is called concurrent validity.
• Example:
Beef test.
Predictive validity:
• A new measure of self-esteem should correlate positively with an old established measure. When the criterion is something that will happen or be assessed in the future, this is called predictive validity.
• Example:
GAT, SAT
Other types of validity
Internal Validity:
It is basically the extent to which a study is free from flaws and that any differences in a measurement are due to an independent variable and nothing else
External Validity
• It is the extent to which the results of a research study can be generalized to different situations, different groups of people, different settings, different conditions, etc.
Norms and the Meaning of Test Scores
Norms provide a framework for interpreting test scores by comparing an individual's performance to that of a standardized sample. Raw scores on their own have little meaning. Norms are derived from standardization samples and can be expressed in various ways, including percentiles, standard scores, grade equivalents, and mental ages. Norms allow evaluation of an individual's relative standing but are specific to the normative population used.
Characteristics of normal probability curve
The document discusses the characteristics and properties of a normal probability curve. A normal probability curve is used to determine the average strength or marks of a class and how they are distributed. The key properties are that the mean, median and mode are equal and located at the center of the symmetrical unimodal curve. The curve extends from negative to positive infinity and is determined solely by its mean and standard deviation. Approximately 68%, 95%, and 99.7% of the data falls within 1, 2, and 3 standard deviations of the mean, respectively.
Validity
Topic: Validity
Student Name: Parkash Mal
Class: B.Ed. (Hons) Elementary
Project Name: “Young Teachers' Professional Development (TPD)"
"Project Founder: Prof. Dr. Amjad Ali Arain
Faculty of Education, University of Sindh, Pakistan
Semantic differential
The document discusses the semantic differential scale (S.D. scale), which was developed by Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum to measure psychological meanings of objects. The S.D. scale is based on the idea that objects have multiple connotative meanings that can be located in a multidimensional "semantic space." It uses bipolar rating scales, usually 7 points, for respondents to rate concepts. For example, leadership candidates could be rated on scales like "successful-unsuccessful" to analyze meanings. The S.D. scale aims to measure three factors - evaluation, potency, and activity - that contribute most to meaningful judgments.
124. Personality Assessment
This document discusses personality assessment and different methods used for assessment. It describes that personality assessment involves administering empirically supported measures of personality traits to refine diagnoses, structure interventions, and increase behavioral prediction accuracy. It discusses various methods like self-report inventories, projective tests, behavioral assessments using observation and situational tests, rating scales, and frequency counts. It provides details on commonly used assessments like MMPI, Rorschach, and classifications of self-report personality tests.
Recommended
Thurstone
The document describes the development of methods for measuring attitudes. It discusses the early work of a "Father of attitude measurement" who generated statements describing specific attitudes and had participants rate each statement on a 1-10 scale based on favorability. It also describes the development of the summated rating scale, which involves selecting items, scaling responses, having a target audience mark each item, and adding up the scores to get an overall attitude measurement. The document notes the summated rating scale is still widely used and is one of the most common instruments for measuring attitudes.
ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT SCALES-PSYCHOLOGY
This document discusses several methods for measuring attitudes, including Thurstone scales, Likert scales, and Guttman scales. It provides details on how each scale is constructed and used, including collecting statements, having judges sort statements, selecting statements for the final scale, and analyzing results. The key aspects covered include:
- Thurstone scales use equal intervals and judges sort statements independently
- Likert scales use a symmetric agree-disagree scale for statement items
- Guttman scales have a cumulative pattern where respondents who agree with later items also agree with previous items
- Advantages and limitations of each approach are presented
Validity and its types
Validity:
Validity refers to how well a test measures what it is purported to measure.
Types of Validity:
1. Logic valididty:
Validity which is in the form of theory, statements. It has 2 types.
I. Face Validity:
It is the extent to which the measurement method appears “on its face” to measure the construct of interest.
• Example:
• suppose you were taking an instrument reportedly measuring your attractiveness, but the questions were asking you to identify the correctly spelled word in each list
II. Content Validity:
Measuring all the aspects contributing to the variable of the interest.
Example:
For physical fitness temperature, height and stamina are supposed to be assess then a test of fitness must include content about temperatures, height and stamina.
2. Criterion
It is the extent to which people’s scores are correlated with other variables or criteria that reflect the same construct
Example:
An IQ test should correlate positively with school performance.
An occupational aptitude test should correlate positively with work performance.
Types of Criterion Validity
Concurrent validity:
• When the criterion is something that is happening or being assessed at the same time as the construct of interest, it is called concurrent validity.
• Example:
Beef test.
Predictive validity:
• A new measure of self-esteem should correlate positively with an old established measure. When the criterion is something that will happen or be assessed in the future, this is called predictive validity.
• Example:
GAT, SAT
Other types of validity
Internal Validity:
It is basically the extent to which a study is free from flaws and that any differences in a measurement are due to an independent variable and nothing else
External Validity
• It is the extent to which the results of a research study can be generalized to different situations, different groups of people, different settings, different conditions, etc.
Norms and the Meaning of Test Scores
Norms provide a framework for interpreting test scores by comparing an individual's performance to that of a standardized sample. Raw scores on their own have little meaning. Norms are derived from standardization samples and can be expressed in various ways, including percentiles, standard scores, grade equivalents, and mental ages. Norms allow evaluation of an individual's relative standing but are specific to the normative population used.
Characteristics of normal probability curve
The document discusses the characteristics and properties of a normal probability curve. A normal probability curve is used to determine the average strength or marks of a class and how they are distributed. The key properties are that the mean, median and mode are equal and located at the center of the symmetrical unimodal curve. The curve extends from negative to positive infinity and is determined solely by its mean and standard deviation. Approximately 68%, 95%, and 99.7% of the data falls within 1, 2, and 3 standard deviations of the mean, respectively.
Validity
Topic: Validity
Student Name: Parkash Mal
Class: B.Ed. (Hons) Elementary
Project Name: “Young Teachers' Professional Development (TPD)"
"Project Founder: Prof. Dr. Amjad Ali Arain
Faculty of Education, University of Sindh, Pakistan
Semantic differential
The document discusses the semantic differential scale (S.D. scale), which was developed by Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum to measure psychological meanings of objects. The S.D. scale is based on the idea that objects have multiple connotative meanings that can be located in a multidimensional "semantic space." It uses bipolar rating scales, usually 7 points, for respondents to rate concepts. For example, leadership candidates could be rated on scales like "successful-unsuccessful" to analyze meanings. The S.D. scale aims to measure three factors - evaluation, potency, and activity - that contribute most to meaningful judgments.
124. Personality Assessment
This document discusses personality assessment and different methods used for assessment. It describes that personality assessment involves administering empirically supported measures of personality traits to refine diagnoses, structure interventions, and increase behavioral prediction accuracy. It discusses various methods like self-report inventories, projective tests, behavioral assessments using observation and situational tests, rating scales, and frequency counts. It provides details on commonly used assessments like MMPI, Rorschach, and classifications of self-report personality tests.
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Student Name: Kanwal Naz
Class: B.Ed 1.5
Project Name: “Young Teachers' Professional Development (TPD)"
"Project Founder: Prof. Dr. Amjad Ali Arain
Faculty of Education, University of Sindh, Pakistan
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There are several common methods for measuring attitudes, including Thurstone scales, Likert scales, Guttman scales, and semantic differentials. Thurstone scales were the first to apply scaling principles to attitudes but have been replaced in popularity by Likert scales, which are easier to construct and more valid. Factor analysis is often used to develop attitude scales and ensure items are measuring only one construct.
Normal Distribution, Skewness and kurtosis
This document discusses normal distributions and properties of the normal probability curve. It is presented by Suresh Babu G, an assistant professor. The normal distribution is a bell-shaped, symmetric curve where most values cluster around the mean. It has important uses in education and psychology for relating mean, standard deviation, and percentiles. The document also discusses how distributions can diverge from normality through skewness, where the mean and median are not in the center, and through kurtosis, where a distribution is more or less peaked than the normal curve.
Norms[1]
The document discusses different types of psychological tests used to assess personality and behavior, including projective tests, objective tests, norm-referenced tests, and criterion-referenced tests. Projective tests use unstructured stimuli like inkblots and allow for open-ended responses that can be interpreted in various ways. Objective tests use structured questionnaires with clear scoring systems but can be susceptible to faking. Norm-referenced tests compare individuals to others in a group, while criterion-referenced tests compare performance to a specified standard or level of mastery.
Attitude scales
Attitudes have cognitive, affective, and behavioral components and can be measured using various scales. Common scaling techniques include Likert scales, semantic differentials, and rankings. Likert scales ask respondents to rate level of agreement with statements, semantic differentials use bipolar adjective scales, and rankings order objects based on a given criterion. While scales provide attitude measurements, their ability to predict actual behavior is limited, as external factors also influence behavior.
Reliability types
Reliability refers to the consistency or repeatability of measurement results. There are four types of reliability: inter-rater, parallel forms, test-retest, and internal consistency. Reliability can be estimated using external consistency procedures, which compare results from independent data collection processes, or internal consistency procedures, which assess consistency across items in the same test.
Reliability
1. Reliability in psychological testing refers to the consistency or accuracy of measurement - the degree to which a test is free from errors of measurement.
2. Several models of reliability are used to evaluate the error associated with administering a test, including test-retest, parallel forms, split-half, Kuder-Richardson, and coefficient alpha methods.
3. The level of reliability considered "high enough" depends on the purpose and use of the test, with clinical settings requiring higher reliability indices greater than .95 compared to basic research where .70-.80 may be sufficient.
Survey method.
Survey research involves studying a representative sample of a population to make inferences about characteristics of the whole population. It is a technique used in social science research to study opinions, attitudes, and social facts. There are different types of surveys, including personal interviews, questionnaires, telephone surveys, and panel techniques. Personal interviews can be structured or unstructured, and they may involve individual or group interactions. Questionnaires use a predetermined set of questions to collect information through self-reporting. Telephone surveys are convenient but risk superficial answers. Panel techniques interview the same sample successively to understand changes over time but are prone to sample loss.
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Nature and use of Psychological Tests
Psychological tests are formal tools used to measure mental functioning and behaviors. They can be administered in various settings like schools, hospitals, and workplaces to assess abilities, personality, and neurological status. Common uses of tests include education placement, career counseling, diagnosing disorders, and selecting job applicants. Tests vary in their administration method, targeted behaviors, and purpose between ability, personality, and clinical domains. Proper tests are standardized, objective, use norms, and are reliable and valid measures of their intended construct.
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Standardization and norming involve administering psychological tests to representative samples to establish norms. Norms provide a framework to interpret individual test scores. There are different types of norms including percentiles, age/grade norms, and national/local norms. The normative sample used to develop norms should be large, representative of the target population, and clearly defined. Norm-referenced tests interpret scores based on an individual's performance relative to the normative sample, while criterion-referenced tests evaluate performance against a set standard or criteria. Proper norming and understanding of different norm types is important for accurately interpreting psychological test results.
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This document discusses methods for measuring attitudes through scales. It defines attitude and describes the characteristics and assumptions related to measuring attitudes. Two major methods are described: Thurstone's equal-appearing intervals method and Likert's method of summated ratings. Both methods involve collecting statements, sorting them, selecting statements for the final scale, and determining reliability and validity. The document also discusses analyzing and interpreting attitude scale data and limitations in measuring attitudes.
Projective techniques
This document discusses projective techniques, which are indirect interview methods used to collect data about respondents' underlying motives, attitudes, and intentions. Projective techniques involve having respondents project their own perspectives onto incomplete stimuli like sentences, pictures, or stories. There are several types of projective techniques, including association, completion, construction, expressive, and ordering techniques. While requiring specialized training, projective techniques can provide rich insights into respondents' unconscious beliefs when used correctly as part of qualitative research.
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Attitude scale
Attitude scales are designed to quantitatively measure attitudes towards issues, institutions, or groups of people. They present statements along a continuum from strongly favorable to strongly unfavorable. Respondents indicate their level of agreement using a rating scale. Common methods include Thurstone's technique of having judges sort statements, Likert's method of summated ratings which scores responses, and Guttman's approach which orders statements by level of agreement. The scales aim to indirectly assess attitudes on controversial topics through standardized questionnaires.
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The document discusses different types of psychological tests used to assess personality and behavior, including projective tests, objective tests, norm-referenced tests, and criterion-referenced tests. Projective tests use unstructured stimuli like inkblots and allow for open-ended responses that can be interpreted in various ways. Objective tests use structured questionnaires with clear scoring systems but can be susceptible to faking. Norm-referenced tests compare individuals to others in a group, while criterion-referenced tests compare performance to a specified standard or level of mastery.
Attitude scales
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Reliability types
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1. Reliability in psychological testing refers to the consistency or accuracy of measurement - the degree to which a test is free from errors of measurement.
2. Several models of reliability are used to evaluate the error associated with administering a test, including test-retest, parallel forms, split-half, Kuder-Richardson, and coefficient alpha methods.
3. The level of reliability considered "high enough" depends on the purpose and use of the test, with clinical settings requiring higher reliability indices greater than .95 compared to basic research where .70-.80 may be sufficient.
Survey method.
Survey research involves studying a representative sample of a population to make inferences about characteristics of the whole population. It is a technique used in social science research to study opinions, attitudes, and social facts. There are different types of surveys, including personal interviews, questionnaires, telephone surveys, and panel techniques. Personal interviews can be structured or unstructured, and they may involve individual or group interactions. Questionnaires use a predetermined set of questions to collect information through self-reporting. Telephone surveys are convenient but risk superficial answers. Panel techniques interview the same sample successively to understand changes over time but are prone to sample loss.
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It reflects upon the objectivity of scoring, types of objective tests, merits and demerits about the same.
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Nature and use of Psychological Tests
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Test standardization and norming
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Measurement of attitude
This document discusses methods for measuring attitudes through scales. It defines attitude and describes the characteristics and assumptions related to measuring attitudes. Two major methods are described: Thurstone's equal-appearing intervals method and Likert's method of summated ratings. Both methods involve collecting statements, sorting them, selecting statements for the final scale, and determining reliability and validity. The document also discusses analyzing and interpreting attitude scale data and limitations in measuring attitudes.
Projective techniques
This document discusses projective techniques, which are indirect interview methods used to collect data about respondents' underlying motives, attitudes, and intentions. Projective techniques involve having respondents project their own perspectives onto incomplete stimuli like sentences, pictures, or stories. There are several types of projective techniques, including association, completion, construction, expressive, and ordering techniques. While requiring specialized training, projective techniques can provide rich insights into respondents' unconscious beliefs when used correctly as part of qualitative research.
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The document discusses the importance of validity in test construction and identifies three main types of validity: content validity, which refers to how well the test items align with the objectives being measured; criterion-related validity, which examines the correlation between test scores and external criteria; and construct validity, which refers to how well test scores are explained by theoretical constructs. Validity is specific to each test administration and is determined through evidence rather than absolute measures, with the most important type for classroom teachers being content validity.
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Projective tests such as the Rorschach inkblot test, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), and House-Tree-Person (HTP) test use ambiguous stimuli like inkblots or pictures to reveal hidden emotions and unconscious conflicts by analyzing subjects' responses. The Rorschach and HTP involve drawing interpretations while the TAT and other tests involve telling stories about pictures. These tests are used to assess personality traits, intelligence, and psychological disorders but require administration by trained professionals and subjective interpretation carries some risk of bias.
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Attitude scales are designed to quantitatively measure attitudes towards issues, institutions, or groups of people. They present statements along a continuum from strongly favorable to strongly unfavorable. Respondents indicate their level of agreement using a rating scale. Common methods include Thurstone's technique of having judges sort statements, Likert's method of summated ratings which scores responses, and Guttman's approach which orders statements by level of agreement. The scales aim to indirectly assess attitudes on controversial topics through standardized questionnaires.
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This document discusses various techniques for measuring attitudes, including scales and methods. It describes:
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2) Other methods like Thurstone scales where judges rank statements and Guttman scales where responses are expected to follow a deterministic pattern.
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The document discusses various methods for measuring attitudes, including single-item scales, multi-item scales, and specific scales like Likert scales, semantic differential scales, and Thurstone scales. It also discusses considerations for selecting an appropriate attitude measurement scale, such as whether the scale should have an even or odd number of categories and whether it allows for a neutral option.
2 attitude
An attitude scale is used to measure attitudes towards issues, institutions, or groups of people. It provides a quantitative measure on a continuum from extremely positive to extremely negative. The Likert scale and Thurstone technique are two common methods for indirectly measuring attitudes. The Likert scale uses statements rated on a 5-point agreement scale, while the Thurstone technique has judges sort statements into categories to determine scaled values. Attitude scales are useful but have limitations such as respondents potentially hiding their true attitudes or being unaware of them. Overall, attitude scales remain a valuable tool for measuring attitudes in social research.
BRM Unit II
The document discusses various methods for scaling and measurement in research. It describes four main types of scales: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales. It also discusses sources of error in measurement and characteristics of sound measurement, including validity, reliability, and practicality. The document provides examples of different scaling techniques used in research, including rating scales, attitude scales, Thurstone scales, Likert scales, and semantic differential scales.
Triangulation
This document discusses different types of triangulation that can be used in research to increase validity and credibility. It defines triangulation as using multiple methods, data sources, investigators, theories or research contexts to check results. Specifically, it outlines data triangulation, investigator triangulation, theory triangulation, methodological triangulation and environmental triangulation. For each type, it provides an example of how it could be applied in practice to strengthen research findings.
Attitude scaling
The document discusses several types of attitude scales used to measure opinions and attitudes, including Likert scales, Thurstone scales, Guttman scales, and semantic differential scales. Likert scales use numbered responses to statements to assess level of agreement. Thurstone scales use judges to rate statements and select a set with the least inconsistencies. Guttman scales sum the values of statements a respondent agrees with. Semantic differential scales use bipolar adjective pairs to rate concepts on dimensions of evaluation, potency, and activity.
Unit 9c. Data Collection tools.pptx
Data Collection Tools: Validity & Reliability.
Objectives:
Discuss types of measurement tools for collecting data for quantitative, qualitative and outcome research.
Differentiate between interview guide and interview schedule
Discuss reliability and validity of questionnaires.
Data:
The set of values collected for the variable of each of the elements belonging to the sample
Data sources include (Quantitative)
Surveys where there are a large number of respondents (esp where you have used a Likert scale)
Questionnaires, data collection tools/ instruments
Observations (counts of numbers and/or coding data into numbers)
Secondary data (government data; SATs scores etc)
Analysis techniques include hypothesis testing, correlations and cluster analysis.
Data sources include (Qualitative)
Interviews (structured, semi-structured or unstructured)
Focus groups
Questionnaires or surveys
Secondary data, including diaries, self-reporting, written accounts of past events/archive data and company reports;
Direct observations – may also be recorded (video/audio)
Ethnography
Data analysis; thematic or content analysis .
Data Collection:
“The process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer queries, stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.”
Data Collection Methods:
Surveys, quizzes, and questionnaires
Interviews
Focus groups
Direct observations
Documents and records.
Data Collection Tools for Quantitative Research:
Closed-ended Surveys and Online Quizzes
Closed-ended surveys and online quizzes are based on questions that give respondents predefined answer options to opt for. There are two main types of closed-ended surveys – those based on categorical and those based on interval/ratio questions.
Categorical survey questions can be further classified into dichotomous (‘yes/no’), multiple-choice questions, or checkbox questions and can be answered with a simple “yes” or “no” or a specific piece of predefined information.
Interval/ratio questions, on the other hand, can consist of rating-scale, Likert-scale, or matrix questions and involve a set of predefined values to choose from on a fixed scale.
Data Collection Tools for Qualitative Research:
1. Open-Ended Surveys and Questionnaires
Opposite to closed-ended are open-ended surveys and questionnaires. The main difference between the two is the fact that closed-ended surveys offer predefined answer options the respondent must choose from, whereas open-ended surveys allow the respondents much more freedom and flexibility when providing their answers.
2. In-depth Interviews/ Face to Face Interviews
One-on-one (or face-to-face) interviews are one of the most common types of data collection methods in qualitative research. Here, the interviewer collects data directly from the interviewee.
Understanding the Scaling in Research
This Power Point Presentation has been made while referring to the research books written by eminent, renowned and expert authors as mentioned in the references section. The purpose of this Presentation is to help the research students in developing an insight about the Scaling in Research.
Sampling for Various Kinds of Quantitative Research.pptx
This document defines key concepts related to sampling for quantitative research. It discusses types of quantitative research designs including survey, experimental, correlational, and causal-comparative research. It also defines sampling, populations, the sampling process, sampling frames, and common sampling techniques. Probability sampling methods allow statistical inference while non-probability sampling does not. Sample size and how it relates to population parameters and statistics are also addressed.
Edad 510 final
The document defines and discusses various types of validity and reliability in research experiments and measurements. It summarizes the key threats to internal and external validity in experiments. It also defines correlation research and distinguishes between explanatory and predictive research designs. Finally, it defines ethnographic research, when it should be used, and outlines the five key steps in conducting an ethnographic study.
validity and reliability
The document discusses the concepts of validity and reliability in testing. It defines different types of validity including content validity, face validity, criterion-oriented validity, concurrent validity, and construct validity. It also defines internal validity and external validity in research studies. The document then defines reliability and lists different types of reliability such as test-retest reliability, parallel forms reliability, inter-rater reliability, and internal consistency reliability.
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH.pptx
how to write a research and what the type of research is. which kind of topic do you choose for research? here is the short slide
Validity and reliability
This document discusses the importance of validity and reliability in research. It defines reliability as producing consistent results under the same conditions, while validity refers to accurately measuring what is intended. There are different types of reliability, including test-retest, parallel-form, and internal consistency. Validity includes face validity, predictive validity, concurrent validity, and convergent validity. High reliability is necessary for a measurement to be valid. The document provides examples to illustrate each concept.
Psychological Testing 05 Validity.pptx
A test is valid if the inferences made from it are appropriate and useful. There are three main types of validity: content validity measures how representative test items are of the domain being tested, criterion-related validity measures how well test scores correlate with outcomes, and construct validity pertains to tests measuring complex psychological attributes. A valid test accurately classifies individuals and has appropriate convergent and discriminant validity based on correlations with other related and unrelated tests. Validity is an overall judgment of how well a test serves its intended purpose.
Rep
This document discusses the importance of reliability and validity in testing. It defines reliability as consistency and discusses different types of reliability including test-retest, inter-rater, parallel-forms, and internal consistency reliability. Validity refers to a test measuring what it intends to measure. There are several types of validity discussed including content, construct, criterion-related (concurrent and predictive), face, convergent, treatment, and social validity. The standard error of measurement is also explained as estimating how repeated measures on the same person tend to be distributed around their true score.
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The document discusses several key differences between qualitative and quantitative research approaches. Qualitative research focuses on interpretation and understanding phenomena through the researcher's active involvement, while quantitative research aims for objectivity by controlling variables. Some key differences covered include the researcher's role, research design flexibility, measurement tools, and theory building processes. The document also addresses reliability, validity, and trustworthiness in qualitative research.
Stratified Sampling Technique - Probability Sampling - Mass Media Research.pptx
A stratified sample is the approach used to get adequate representation of a subsample. The characteristics of the subsample (strata or segment) may include almost any variable: age, gender, religion, income level, or even individuals who listen to specific radio stations or read certain magazines.
The strata may be defined by an almost unlimited number of characteristics; however, each additional variable or characteristic makes the subsample more difficult to find and costs to find the sample increase substantially.
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In general, a content analysis is conducted in several discrete stages. Although the steps are listed here in sequence, they need not be followed in the order given.
In fact, the initial stages of analysis can easily be combined.
Nonetheless, the following steps may be used as a rough outline:
Simple Rating Scales in Mass Media Research and How to Transform Them.pptx
Rating scales are common in mass media research. Researchers frequently ask respondents to rate a list of items such as a list of programming elements that can be included in a radio station’s weekday morning show, or to rate how much respondents like radio or TV on-air personalities.
The researcher’s decision is to decide which type of scale to use: 1 to 3? 1 to 5? 1 to 7? 1 to 10? 1 to 100? Or even a 0 to 9 scale, which is commonly used by researchers who don’t have computer software to accept double-digit numbers (like 10).
Selecting a type of scale is largely a matter of personal preference, but there are a few things to consider:
Quantitative vs Qualitative - Mass Media Research.pptx
Qualitative research is a process of naturalistic inquiry that seeks in-depth understanding of social phenomena within their natural setting. It focuses on the "why" rather than the "what" of social phenomena and relies on the direct experiences of human beings as meaning-making agents in their every day lives.
Reliability and Validity and How to Achieve Them - Mass Media Research.pptx
At least one pilot study should be conducted for any newly developed scale to ensure its reliability and validity. To be useful, a measurement must possess these two related qualities.
A measure is reliable if it consistently gives the same answer. Reliability in measurement is the same as reliability in any other context.
For example, a reliable person is one who is dependable, stable, and consistent over time. An unreliable person is unstable and unpredictable and may act one way today and another way tomorrow.
Similarly, if measurements are consistent from one session to another, they are reliable and can be believed to some degree.
Simple Random Sampling Technique - Probabiltiy Sampling - Mass Media Research...
The document discusses simple random sampling methods. It describes how simple random sampling involves giving each unit in the population an equal chance of being selected, either with or without replacement. Researchers often use random number tables to generate simple random samples by numbering units and selecting numbers from the table. For example, a researcher could sample 10 television programs out of 100 total by numbering programs 00-99 and choosing 10 random numbers. Simple random samples for surveys can also be obtained through random digit dialing or address-based dialing. The key aspects of random sampling are that each unit has an equal chance of selection and the process is free from subjective intervention.
Reliability in Content Analysis and How to Measure It - Mass Media Research.pptx
Reliability refers to levels of agreement among independent coders who code the same content using the same coding instrument. If the results fail to achieve reliability, something is amiss with the coders, the coding instructions, the category definitions, the unit of analysis, or some combination of these. To achieve acceptable levels of reliability, the following steps are recommended:
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Quantitative research uses standardized questions and instruments, while qualitative research uses flexible questioning. The key differences between quantitative and qualitative research are in the role of the researcher, research design, setting, measurement instruments, and theory building. Qualitative research ensures reliability through multiple data collection methods, an audit trail, member checks, and a research team.
Limitations of Content Analysis in Mass Media Research.pptx
Content analysis alone cannot serve as the basis for making statements about the effects of content on an audience. A study of Saturday morning cartoon programs on television might reveal that 80% of these programs contain commercials for sugared cereal, but this finding alone does not allow researchers to claim that children who watch these programs will want to purchase sugared cereals.
An additional study of the viewers is necessary
Research Error in Mass Media Research.pptx
There are two broad types of error present in all research: sampling error and non-sampling error. Sampling error occurs when the sample selected is not representative of the entire population and the results differ from what would be found in the full population. This error can be reduced by increasing the sample size. Non-sampling error includes measurement errors, data analysis mistakes, and other unpredictable influences that cannot be identified or controlled.
Likert Scale and Types of Questions - Mass Media Research.pptx
Perhaps the most commonly used scale in mass media research is the Likert scale, also called the summated rating approach.
A number of statements are developed with respect to a topic, and respondents can strongly agree, agree, be neutral, disagree, or strongly disagree with the statements.
Each response option is weighted, and each subject’s responses are added to produce a single score on the topic.
Difference Between EFA and CFA in Mass Media Research.pptx
Exploratory factor analysis is a statistical technique that is used to reduce data to a smaller set of summary variables and to explore the underlying theoretical structure of the phenomena. It is used to identify the structure of the relationship between the variable and the respondent.
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is a multivariate statistical procedure that is used to test how well the measured variables represent the number of constructs.
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) are similar techniques, but in exploratory factor analysis (EFA), data is simply explored and provides information about the numbers of factors required to represent the data. In exploratory factor analysis, all measured variables are related to every latent variable. But in confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), researchers can specify the number of factors required in the data and which measured variable is related to which latent variable. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is a tool that is used to confirm or reject the measurement theory.
Multistage Sampling Technique - Probability Sampling - Mass Media Research.pptx
Multistage sampling is the taking of samples in stages using smaller and smaller sampling units at each stage. Multistage sampling can be a complex form of cluster sampling because it is a type of sampling which involves dividing the population into groups (or clusters).
Determining Sample Size, Sampling Error and Sample Weightage - Mass Media Res...
Determining an adequate sample size is one of the most controversial aspects of sampling. How large must a sample be to provide the desired level of confidence in the results? Unfortunately, there is no simple answer.
The size of the sample required for a study depends on at least one or more of the following seven factors: (1) project type, (2) project purpose, (3) project complexity, (4) amount of error tolerated, (5) time constraints, (6) financial constraints, and (7) previous research in the area.
However, projects intended to answer significant questions (those designed to provide information for decisions involving large sums of money or decisions that may affect people’s lives) require high levels of precision and, therefore, large samples.
Systematic Random Sampling Technique - Probability Sampling - Mass Media Rese...
Systematic sampling is a simple random sampling with a shortcut selection procedure. Everything is the same except that instead of using a list of random numbers, we first calculate a sampling interval to create a quasi-random selection method.
The sampling interval (i.e., 1 in k, where k is some number) tells us how to select elements from a sampling frame by skipping elements in the frame before selecting one for the sample.
Population vs Sample - Mass Media Research.pptx
One goal of scientific research is to describe the nature of a population—a group or class of subjects, variables, concepts, or phenomena. In some cases, an entire class or group is investigated, as in a study of prime-time television programs during the week of September 10–16. The process of examining every member in a population is called a census.
In many situations, however, an entire population cannot be examined due to time and resource constraints. Studying every member of a population is also generally cost-prohibitive and may, in fact, confound the research because measurements of large numbers of people often affect measurement quality
The usual procedure in these instances is to take a sample from the population.
How to Do Literature Review in Mass Media Research.pptx
Choose a topic. Define your research question.
Your literature review should be guided by a central research question. Remember, it is not a collection of loosely related studies in a field but instead represents background and research developments related to a specific research question, interpreted and analyzed by you in a synthesized way.
Decide on the scope of your review.
How many studies do you need to look at? How comprehensive should it be? How many years should it cover?
Types of Non Probability Sampling - Mass Media Research.pptx
The document discusses four types of non-probability sampling: convenience sampling, purposive sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling. Convenience sampling involves readily available subjects but lacks representation of the overall population. Purposive sampling selects subjects with specific characteristics. Quota sampling aims for a predetermined percentage of certain groups. Snowball sampling starts with a few subjects who then refer additional subjects.
Semantic Differential Scales - Mass Media Research.pptx
The semantic differential technique measures the meaning and attitude toward concepts or items using evaluative scales. Researchers found three main factors measured - activity, potency, and evaluation. Communication researchers adopted the evaluation dimension to measure attitudes by placing a concept at the top of 7-point bipolar adjective scales, such as pleasant/unpleasant. However, the document recommends developing unique adjective scales for each specific measurement situation rather than using standard scales.
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- 1. Thurstone scales are also called equalappearing interval scales because of the technique used to develop them and are typically used to measure the attitude toward a given concept or construct. To develop a Thurstone scale, a researcher first collects a large number of statements (Thurstone recommends at least 100) that relate to the concept or construct to be measured. Next, judges rate these statements along an 11-category scale in which each category expresses a different degree of favorableness toward the concept. The items are then ranked according to the mean or median ratings assigned by the judges and are used to construct a questionnaire of 20 to 30 items that are chosen more or less evenly from across the range of ratings. 10/14/2022 Thurstone Scales Muhammad Awais (facebook.com/awwaiis)
- 2. The statements are worded so that a person can agree or disagree with them. The scale is then administered to a sample of respondents whose scores are determined by computing the mean or median value of the items agreed with. A person who disagrees with all the items has a score of zero. One advantage of the Thurstone method is that it is an interval measurement scale. On the downside, this method is time consuming and labor intensive. Thurstone scales are not often used in mass media research, but they are common in psychology and education research. 10/14/2022 Muhammad Awais (facebook.com/awwaiis)