The paper aimed to analyze the role of middlemen in linking smallholder tomato farmers with Dar-es-salaam markets, Tanzania. Semi-structured questionnaires were administered to 133 small vegetable farmers and 109 traders. Data analysis was done using descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentage, chi-square and one way analysis of variance. The study revealed that majority (58%) of smallholder tomato farmers sold their produce to middlemen due to being geographical separated from the markets, poor local road network and poor access to market information. This study concluded that the use of middlemen to sell tomato produce cannot be avoided unless smallholder farmers are linked with urban markets. In order to enhance farmer’s access to markets, it is recommended that the government should strive to improve feeder roads. Improvement in feeder roads is likely to bring about large welfare gains in terms of large volumes of tomatoes traded and can make assembling of tomatoes easier and less costly for traders.
Potato is number one non-grain food commodity of the world. Even though, Ethiopia has favorable ecology, the production of potato is characterized by poor seed quality, low skills of farmers, diseases, high post-harvest losses and poor organization along chain. The study is aimed to identify potato value chain actors and their roles and analyze marketing margins for actor. For this study 136 potato producers were randomly selected, 5wholesalers, 8collectors, 12 retailers and 6 small scale processors were purposively selected. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected from primary and secondary sources. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze data, chain mapping was implemented to identify actors and their supply linkage. Margin analysis was used to estimate value gained by each actors involved in potato value chain. The identified actors were input suppliers, producers, wholesalers, retailers, small scale processors and consumers. Supporting actors were office of agriculture, irrigation, micro finance, cooperatives, trade and market development, NGOs and bank. The margin analysis revealed that 65.01%, 12.29%, 9.78%, 8.27%, 3.27% share of margin goes to small scale potato processors, potato producers, retailers, wholesalers and collectors respectively. The major constraints were high price of seed, poor infrastructure, interferences of brokers, low storage facilities, weak linkage, disease and pests. The opportunities were suitable agro-ecology and government support. Strengthening the linkage among actors, providing training on storage construction and disease control, improving bargaining power of producers and initiate small scale processors were recommended to improve potato value chain.
Postharvest Loss Assessment of Banana at Jimma Town Market.Premier Publishers
A survey was conducted to assess the extent of postharvest losses of banana fruits and its causes along the wholesaler and retailer supply chain at Jimma town. Postharvest loss at wholesalers and retailers were surveyed in jimma market by taking a total of 10 wholesalers and, 15 retailers who were randomly selected based on purposive sampling Primary data were collected with the aid of structured questionnaire. Based on the present context of banana marketing, two stages were identified to assess the postharvest loss: wholesale and retail levels. Two sets of questionnaires were scheduled and information on postharvest handling and marketing practices were collected from participants at the two levels of the marketing chain. Data regarding losses at wholesale and retail level were also collected separately. Finally, SPSS software was used to analyses the data obtained from the survey and then average means and percentages were used to compute postharvest losses. The study estimated postharvest losses of banana in the supply chain with the total loss found to be 26.5% of which more percent of the total loss being at the retail market (64.10%) and wholesale level (35.90%). Mechanical damage followed by improper transport and improper storage were identified as the main causes of banana loss at wholesale level while fruit rotting followed by improper ripening and mechanical damage were identified as the main causes to the loss of banana fruit at retail level. Despite the fact that poor postharvest handling during harvesting, transportation and marketing could have contributed more to the injuries noted, the respondent’s perception for these factors to influence the loss was lower.
Trends and determinants of coffee commercialization among smallholder farmers...Premier Publishers
Transforming agricultural output from subsistence to commercial based is being the crucial option for many agriculture dependent developing countries. This study was aimed to assess coffee commercialization trends and factors that affect coffee commercialization level. Primary data was collected from 156 households of three coffee potential districts of Jimma zone through personal interviews. Descriptive statistics and econometric models were used to analyze the data. The result of the study revealed that the mean coffee consumption level was 21.6 % and the overall mean commercialization level was 68 % which is higher at Manna district (74 %). The results of Tobit model also shows distance to main market and distance to marketing cooperatives, transport cost and land allocated for other crops affects level of coffee commercialization negatively and significantly. However, total land holding of the household head, coffee price and volume of coffee produced affects level of commercialization positively and significantly. It is recommended support towards developing institutional sectors like marketing cooperatives and improving physical access to market places could yield positive results towards coffee commercialization by smallholder coffee producers.
Potato is number one non-grain food commodity of the world. Even though, Ethiopia has favorable ecology, the production of potato is characterized by poor seed quality, low skills of farmers, diseases, high post-harvest losses and poor organization along chain. The study is aimed to identify potato value chain actors and their roles and analyze marketing margins for actor. For this study 136 potato producers were randomly selected, 5wholesalers, 8collectors, 12 retailers and 6 small scale processors were purposively selected. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected from primary and secondary sources. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze data, chain mapping was implemented to identify actors and their supply linkage. Margin analysis was used to estimate value gained by each actors involved in potato value chain. The identified actors were input suppliers, producers, wholesalers, retailers, small scale processors and consumers. Supporting actors were office of agriculture, irrigation, micro finance, cooperatives, trade and market development, NGOs and bank. The margin analysis revealed that 65.01%, 12.29%, 9.78%, 8.27%, 3.27% share of margin goes to small scale potato processors, potato producers, retailers, wholesalers and collectors respectively. The major constraints were high price of seed, poor infrastructure, interferences of brokers, low storage facilities, weak linkage, disease and pests. The opportunities were suitable agro-ecology and government support. Strengthening the linkage among actors, providing training on storage construction and disease control, improving bargaining power of producers and initiate small scale processors were recommended to improve potato value chain.
Postharvest Loss Assessment of Banana at Jimma Town Market.Premier Publishers
A survey was conducted to assess the extent of postharvest losses of banana fruits and its causes along the wholesaler and retailer supply chain at Jimma town. Postharvest loss at wholesalers and retailers were surveyed in jimma market by taking a total of 10 wholesalers and, 15 retailers who were randomly selected based on purposive sampling Primary data were collected with the aid of structured questionnaire. Based on the present context of banana marketing, two stages were identified to assess the postharvest loss: wholesale and retail levels. Two sets of questionnaires were scheduled and information on postharvest handling and marketing practices were collected from participants at the two levels of the marketing chain. Data regarding losses at wholesale and retail level were also collected separately. Finally, SPSS software was used to analyses the data obtained from the survey and then average means and percentages were used to compute postharvest losses. The study estimated postharvest losses of banana in the supply chain with the total loss found to be 26.5% of which more percent of the total loss being at the retail market (64.10%) and wholesale level (35.90%). Mechanical damage followed by improper transport and improper storage were identified as the main causes of banana loss at wholesale level while fruit rotting followed by improper ripening and mechanical damage were identified as the main causes to the loss of banana fruit at retail level. Despite the fact that poor postharvest handling during harvesting, transportation and marketing could have contributed more to the injuries noted, the respondent’s perception for these factors to influence the loss was lower.
Trends and determinants of coffee commercialization among smallholder farmers...Premier Publishers
Transforming agricultural output from subsistence to commercial based is being the crucial option for many agriculture dependent developing countries. This study was aimed to assess coffee commercialization trends and factors that affect coffee commercialization level. Primary data was collected from 156 households of three coffee potential districts of Jimma zone through personal interviews. Descriptive statistics and econometric models were used to analyze the data. The result of the study revealed that the mean coffee consumption level was 21.6 % and the overall mean commercialization level was 68 % which is higher at Manna district (74 %). The results of Tobit model also shows distance to main market and distance to marketing cooperatives, transport cost and land allocated for other crops affects level of coffee commercialization negatively and significantly. However, total land holding of the household head, coffee price and volume of coffee produced affects level of commercialization positively and significantly. It is recommended support towards developing institutional sectors like marketing cooperatives and improving physical access to market places could yield positive results towards coffee commercialization by smallholder coffee producers.
Factors influencing the intensity of market participation among smallholder w...AI Publications
Participation in commercial agriculture holds considerable potential for unlocking suitable opportunity sets necessary for providing better incomes and sustainable livelihoods for small scalefarmers. In developing countries like Ethiopia, most smallholder farmers are characterized by poor market participation because they lack market information on marketing of agricultural products. This study examined factors that influence the intensity of market participation among smallholder farmers in JabiTehnan districtusing survey data collected from randomly selected 120 farmers. The aim of this study was to analyze market participation of smallholder wheat farmers in JabiTehnan district. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected from primary and secondary data sources using cross sectional data.Probit model regression result showed that, perception of wheat market price, quantity of wheat produced, size of land allocated for wheat and frequency of extension contact had significant and positively effect on market participation decision, while distance to nearest market, family size had significant negative effect. Based on the study policy interventions like family planning, awareness to farmers to supply wheat to the market when price is fair for them, strength extension service and infrastructure like market access, improve land management practice by use of a right input at a right timeas a means to enhance wheat market participation.
Abstract—In Ghana, rural people, mostly farmers, experience food insecurity. In bargaining with marketers, farmers tend to lose profits. The use of traditional weights and measures led to inefficient transactions. These difficulties have negatively affected farmers’ productivity, calories intake, and international competitiveness. This research investigates how standard weights and measures can secure farmers’ profits at local markets. Using a random selection of 312 farmers for the questionnaire survey at two markets, we examine the impact of current pricing methods on farmers’ profits and advantages of standard weights and measures for farmers. The results show that price decision-making was based on three primary methods: (1) traditional weights and measures, (2) negotiation with individual marketers, and (3) negotiation with market queens. Markets queens and traditional measures negatively influenced farmers’ profits. Farmers’ perceptions showed that standard weights and measures would not only increase their profits at local markets but also enhance their international competitiveness.
Uncovering the potential of maize value chain in Northwest Vietnam: Implicati...ILRI
Poster prepared by Aziz A. Karimov and Jean-Joseph Cadilhon for the Tropentag 2014 Conference on Bridging the Gap between Increasing Knowledge and Decreasing Resources, Prague, 17-19 September 2014
Comparative Study of Economic Potentials of Cooperative and Non Cooperative M...ijtsrd
Cassava processing greatly influences the price value of cassava produce but processing and marketing through group approach will increase the value addition. Consequently, farmers' income will definitely increase, there will also be increase in savings habit. The study broad objective was to compare the economic potentials of cooperative and non cooperative members in cassava processing and marketing in agricultural zones of Anambra State. The farmers are poor and cannot access the needed agricultural facilities and technologies to enhance their productivity individually, that is why the rationale to compare their economic potentials through group approach becomes vital. Multistage sampling technique was used to determine the sample size of 287 for cassava farmers that were cooperative members and 294 sample size was equally determined for cassava farmers that were not cooperative members. Data obtained were analyzed with both descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Evidence from the study revealed that majority of the both respondents were females. The findings also revealed that the cooperative farmers earned more income from cassava processing and marketing more than those cassava farmers that were not cooperative members. In order to enhance the cooperative approach of cassava processing and marketing among the farmers, the farmers should be encouraged to expand their cassava production capacity. As a matter of necessity, the farmers should be provided with micro production loan and credit. The cooperative society should adopt more innovative processing technologies. Also, the cooperative society should be more informed with current market information and seek for alternative access from other markets to dispose processed cassava. Okafor I. P. | Umebali E. E "Comparative Study of Economic Potentials of Cooperative and Non Cooperative Members in Cassava Processing and Marketing in Agricultural Zones of Anambra State" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd25247.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/marketing/25247/comparative-study-of-economic-potentials-of-cooperative-and-non-cooperative-members-in-cassava-processing-and-marketing-in-agricultural-zones-of-anambra-state/okafor-i-p
Small companies and informal trade plays an important role in East African agriculture but are typically out of view. This study examines patterns of and incentives for private sector investments and activities in climate-smart agriculture (CSA) in East Africa. Building capacity of private sector entities and improving their coordination with the public sector so that smallholders are not excluded may be key to facilitating the scaling up of agricultural innovations that improve food security for smallholders grappling with a changing climate (Jayne et al.
2006; Gyau, 2015).
Farmers Markets as a Strategy to Improve Access to Healthy Food for Low-Income Families & Communities www.scribd.com/doc/239851313 ~ Public Spaces, Columbia University, For more information, Please see Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children www.scribd.com/doc/239851214 - Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech www.scribd.com/doc/239851079 - Free School Gardening Art Posters www.scribd.com/doc/239851159 - Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/239851159 - Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success www.scribd.com/doc/239851348 - City Chickens for your Organic School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/239850440 - Huerto Ecológico, Tecnologías Sostenibles, Agricultura Organica www.scribd.com/doc/239850233 - Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools, Teacher Guide www.scribd.com/doc/23985111 ~
The experiment was done to assess incidence and severity; variations in Colletotrichum kahawae isolates and resistance levels in Hararghe coffee. Assessment was conducted in Bedeno, Boke, Habro and Darolebu districts August to September 2010. Incidence and severity were recorded on 50 and 10 randomly selected coffee trees/ farm respectively. Pathogenic variability was studied by cultural and morphological characteristics, and placed into 4 based on colony color. Reactions of 11 landraces and checks were evaluated through hypocotyl inoculation. Mean disease incidence was 51 % at Darolebu and 75 % at Bedeno, and mean disease severity 26 % at Boke and 50 % at Bedeno. Mean radial colony growth of isolates was between 4.05 and 5.35 millimeter/24 hour on malt extract agar and potato dextrose agar, respectively. Conidia width and length ranged from 2.12-4.24 and 10.51-15.78 μm, respectively. Significant (P < 0.05) variation was observed among isolates in sporulation capacity. Highly significant variations (P < 0.0001) was observed among selections H-05/02, H-568/02, H-87/02 and the resistant check in percent mean incidence and percent mean severity, and were classified as moderately susceptible indicating presence of resistance sources. Hence, important to conserve and conduct intensive selection from more diverse populations.
Ultrasonic attenuation is a very important physical parameter to characterize the material, which is well associated to numerous physical quantities.An effort has been made for obtaining higher order elastic constants of CaO starting from basic parameters viz. nearest neighbor distance, hardness parameter and using Coulomb and Börn-Mayer potentials. These values are utilized to obtain Grüneisen parameters and non-linearity constants. Non-linearity constants ratio, ultrasonic attenuation due to phonon-phonon interaction (a/f2)p-p and thermo elastic loss (a/f2)th are calculated in a wide temperature range along <100>, <110> and <111> crystallographic directions of propagation for longitudinal and shear waves and compared with available theoretical and experimental results. From the attenuation values along different directions; it is evident that the ultrasonic attenuation is different along different directions of propagation and varies with the orientation of the crystal.
An economic analysis of mulberry raw silk production in traditional and non-t...Premier Publishers
Sericulture is cottage based industry which combines both the features of agriculture and industry. India has tremendous potential for silk development but yet unexploited, however development is not far away. The current study is an attempt to analyse the share between traditional and non-traditional states and between the states on the basis of mulberry silk production and mulberry cultivation. Regression analysis, coefficient of variation, growth rate was used to attain the objectives of the study. It was found that the traditional states hold the maximum share both in mulberry cultivation during 2012-13 was (82.90%) as well as production of raw silk (96.49%). In which Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal contributes maximum production among traditional states, while as Maharashtra, Manipur and Madhya Pradesh are the leading contributing states among the non-traditional states in total raw silk production in India.
Gamma ray induced early generation polygenic variability in medium grain arom...Premier Publishers
Two advanced breeding lines of aromatic non-basmati rice, IET 14142 and IET 14143, irradiated with 250Gy, 350Gy and 450Gy of gamma ray induced wide variation for polygenic characters in M2 and M3 generations. Wide range of genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation (GCV and PCV) for different characters indicated differential radio-sensitivity of the characters. Increase in values of GCV and PCV in M3 over M2 generation for flag leaf length and spikelet number was due to “release of additional variability”. Heritability in M3 generation increased over M2 in IET 14142 for days to flower and flag leaf angle at all three doses, and for other characters only at certain doses. The genetic advance increased from M2 to M3 in IET 14142 for some characters due to increase in variance, while it decreased in M3 generation in IET 14143 for certain characters due to increase in mean values. The overall results indicated the scope for isolating promising segregants in micro mutational population even in early generations.
Second or fourth-order finite difference operators, which one is most effective?Premier Publishers
This paper presents higher-order finite difference (FD) formulas for the spatial approximation of the time-dependent reaction-diffusion problems with a clear justification through examples, “why fourth-order FD formula is preferred to its second-order counterpart” that has been widely used in literature. As a consequence, methods for the solution of initial and boundary value PDEs, such as the method of lines (MOL), is of broad interest in science and engineering. This procedure begins with discretizing the spatial derivatives in the PDE with algebraic approximations. The key idea of MOL is to replace the spatial derivatives in the PDE with the algebraic approximations. Once this procedure is done, the spatial derivatives are no longer stated explicitly in terms of the spatial independent variables. In other words, only one independent variable is remaining, the resulting semi-discrete problem has now become a system of coupled ordinary differential equations (ODEs) in time. Thus, we can apply any integration algorithm for the initial value ODEs to compute an approximate numerical solution to the PDE. Analysis of the basic properties of these schemes such as the order of accuracy, convergence, consistency, stability and symmetry are well examined.
Problems faced by farmers in application of e-Agriculture in BangladeshPremier Publishers
The purpose of this research was to identify the obstacles that Bangladeshi farmers encountered while using e-Agriculture services. Primary data were collected in Bhatbour Block of Dhighi union under Sadar Upazila of Minikganj District where the local government had been implementing the e-Agriculture pilot project since 2011. Data were collected from 1 September, 2015 to 30 September, 2015. Descriptive statistics, multiple regression (B) method were used for analysis. Findings discovered that lack of knowledge on e-Agriculture was the major problem that affected the farmers in the study area. In addition to that, the study also revealed that education, participation in training, usages of e-Agriculture, attitude towards e-Agriculture and availability of e-Agriculture had significant contribution towards the problems faced by farmers’ in using e-Agriculture. These variables accounted for 65.8 percent of the problems faced by farmers’ in using e-Agriculture. Based on these findings, the researchers suggest that government should implement integrated marketing communication using the popular print and electronic media so that awareness about the service will reach majority of the population more and more people get aware of this service. In addition to that, the researchers recommend that the NGO’s and local government bodies should create awareness to the farmers via organization of local seminars and training programs on availability and usefulness of e-Agriculture service.
Perceptions of teachers towards the student expulsion procedures in Hwange di...Premier Publishers
Schools across all countries have a legal responsibility to protect staff and to provide a safe learning environment for all students. Sometimes the actions of some students threaten the health and safety of staff and other students or create violence, either by the destruction of school property or by possession of illegal weapons and substances or their actions generally disrupt good order and management of the school. This study sought to investigate teachers’ perceptions towards the student expulsion procedures in Zimbabwean secondary schools using the quantitative methodology. The study adopted the descriptive survey design. The target population comprised of all secondary school teachers in Hwange District in Matabeleland North Province. The random sample procedure was used to come up with a total sample of 80 respondents made up of 42 female and 38 male. The research instrument used was the questionnaire. The study revealed that teachers thought that the current student expulsion procedure was very ineffective. The study recommends that expulsion of students should take a shorter period of time in order to deter would-be offenders as well.
Soliton comb generation using add-drop ring resonatorsPremier Publishers
Add-drop ring resonator system is the fundamental building block of the optical transmission and communication systems. The microring resonator (MRR) made of semiconductor with a length of 750 μm, K1=k2= 0.02, is used to filter the input spectrum of Gaussian laser beam and generate the comb frequency of soliton pulses, where the transmission characteristics and group delay profile of the through and drop port output signals are presented. The semiconductor material (InGaAsP/InP) is used to generate the add-drop ring resonator. The operating wavelength is 1550 nm andthe iterative method is used to generate the results based on practical parameters of the system.
Some aspects of the oldest nearby moving cluster (Ruprecht 147)Premier Publishers
Based on the membership data retrieved from the Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), we have computed some parameters of the moving open cluster Ruprecht 147, like, vertex, velocity, distance, distance modulus, and center of the cluster. All of these aspects were carried out using an algorithm due to Sharaf et al. (2000), into which error estimates of these parameters will be established in closed analytical forms (e.g. standard and probable errors of the vertex coordinates, angular distance, velocity of the cluster, parallaxes of member stars, and distance of the cluster).
Finally, we compared our results with other published values, which is in good agreement.
Azo dyes are one of the oldest industrially synthesized organic compounds characterized by presence of Azo bond (-N=N-) and are widely utilized as coloring agents in textile, leather, cosmetic, paint, plastic, paper, and food industries During textile processing, inefficiencies in dyeing result in large amounts of the dyestuff (varying from 2% loss when using basic dyes to a 50% loss when certain reactive dyes used) is being directly lost to the wastewater, which ultimately finds its way into the environment. The physico-chemical method of industrial effluent treatment does not remove the dyes effectively. Microbial degradation and decolorization of azo dyes has gained more attention recently because of eco-friendly and inexpensive nature. Microbes and there enzymes could decolorize the dyes by both aerobic and anaerobic metabolis. This review provides a general idea of decolorization and biodegradation of azo dyes with various microbes and highlights the application of for the treatment of azo dye-containing wastewaters.
Factors influencing the intensity of market participation among smallholder w...AI Publications
Participation in commercial agriculture holds considerable potential for unlocking suitable opportunity sets necessary for providing better incomes and sustainable livelihoods for small scalefarmers. In developing countries like Ethiopia, most smallholder farmers are characterized by poor market participation because they lack market information on marketing of agricultural products. This study examined factors that influence the intensity of market participation among smallholder farmers in JabiTehnan districtusing survey data collected from randomly selected 120 farmers. The aim of this study was to analyze market participation of smallholder wheat farmers in JabiTehnan district. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected from primary and secondary data sources using cross sectional data.Probit model regression result showed that, perception of wheat market price, quantity of wheat produced, size of land allocated for wheat and frequency of extension contact had significant and positively effect on market participation decision, while distance to nearest market, family size had significant negative effect. Based on the study policy interventions like family planning, awareness to farmers to supply wheat to the market when price is fair for them, strength extension service and infrastructure like market access, improve land management practice by use of a right input at a right timeas a means to enhance wheat market participation.
Abstract—In Ghana, rural people, mostly farmers, experience food insecurity. In bargaining with marketers, farmers tend to lose profits. The use of traditional weights and measures led to inefficient transactions. These difficulties have negatively affected farmers’ productivity, calories intake, and international competitiveness. This research investigates how standard weights and measures can secure farmers’ profits at local markets. Using a random selection of 312 farmers for the questionnaire survey at two markets, we examine the impact of current pricing methods on farmers’ profits and advantages of standard weights and measures for farmers. The results show that price decision-making was based on three primary methods: (1) traditional weights and measures, (2) negotiation with individual marketers, and (3) negotiation with market queens. Markets queens and traditional measures negatively influenced farmers’ profits. Farmers’ perceptions showed that standard weights and measures would not only increase their profits at local markets but also enhance their international competitiveness.
Uncovering the potential of maize value chain in Northwest Vietnam: Implicati...ILRI
Poster prepared by Aziz A. Karimov and Jean-Joseph Cadilhon for the Tropentag 2014 Conference on Bridging the Gap between Increasing Knowledge and Decreasing Resources, Prague, 17-19 September 2014
Comparative Study of Economic Potentials of Cooperative and Non Cooperative M...ijtsrd
Cassava processing greatly influences the price value of cassava produce but processing and marketing through group approach will increase the value addition. Consequently, farmers' income will definitely increase, there will also be increase in savings habit. The study broad objective was to compare the economic potentials of cooperative and non cooperative members in cassava processing and marketing in agricultural zones of Anambra State. The farmers are poor and cannot access the needed agricultural facilities and technologies to enhance their productivity individually, that is why the rationale to compare their economic potentials through group approach becomes vital. Multistage sampling technique was used to determine the sample size of 287 for cassava farmers that were cooperative members and 294 sample size was equally determined for cassava farmers that were not cooperative members. Data obtained were analyzed with both descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Evidence from the study revealed that majority of the both respondents were females. The findings also revealed that the cooperative farmers earned more income from cassava processing and marketing more than those cassava farmers that were not cooperative members. In order to enhance the cooperative approach of cassava processing and marketing among the farmers, the farmers should be encouraged to expand their cassava production capacity. As a matter of necessity, the farmers should be provided with micro production loan and credit. The cooperative society should adopt more innovative processing technologies. Also, the cooperative society should be more informed with current market information and seek for alternative access from other markets to dispose processed cassava. Okafor I. P. | Umebali E. E "Comparative Study of Economic Potentials of Cooperative and Non Cooperative Members in Cassava Processing and Marketing in Agricultural Zones of Anambra State" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd25247.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/marketing/25247/comparative-study-of-economic-potentials-of-cooperative-and-non-cooperative-members-in-cassava-processing-and-marketing-in-agricultural-zones-of-anambra-state/okafor-i-p
Small companies and informal trade plays an important role in East African agriculture but are typically out of view. This study examines patterns of and incentives for private sector investments and activities in climate-smart agriculture (CSA) in East Africa. Building capacity of private sector entities and improving their coordination with the public sector so that smallholders are not excluded may be key to facilitating the scaling up of agricultural innovations that improve food security for smallholders grappling with a changing climate (Jayne et al.
2006; Gyau, 2015).
Farmers Markets as a Strategy to Improve Access to Healthy Food for Low-Income Families & Communities www.scribd.com/doc/239851313 ~ Public Spaces, Columbia University, For more information, Please see Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children www.scribd.com/doc/239851214 - Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech www.scribd.com/doc/239851079 - Free School Gardening Art Posters www.scribd.com/doc/239851159 - Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/239851159 - Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success www.scribd.com/doc/239851348 - City Chickens for your Organic School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/239850440 - Huerto Ecológico, Tecnologías Sostenibles, Agricultura Organica www.scribd.com/doc/239850233 - Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools, Teacher Guide www.scribd.com/doc/23985111 ~
The experiment was done to assess incidence and severity; variations in Colletotrichum kahawae isolates and resistance levels in Hararghe coffee. Assessment was conducted in Bedeno, Boke, Habro and Darolebu districts August to September 2010. Incidence and severity were recorded on 50 and 10 randomly selected coffee trees/ farm respectively. Pathogenic variability was studied by cultural and morphological characteristics, and placed into 4 based on colony color. Reactions of 11 landraces and checks were evaluated through hypocotyl inoculation. Mean disease incidence was 51 % at Darolebu and 75 % at Bedeno, and mean disease severity 26 % at Boke and 50 % at Bedeno. Mean radial colony growth of isolates was between 4.05 and 5.35 millimeter/24 hour on malt extract agar and potato dextrose agar, respectively. Conidia width and length ranged from 2.12-4.24 and 10.51-15.78 μm, respectively. Significant (P < 0.05) variation was observed among isolates in sporulation capacity. Highly significant variations (P < 0.0001) was observed among selections H-05/02, H-568/02, H-87/02 and the resistant check in percent mean incidence and percent mean severity, and were classified as moderately susceptible indicating presence of resistance sources. Hence, important to conserve and conduct intensive selection from more diverse populations.
Ultrasonic attenuation is a very important physical parameter to characterize the material, which is well associated to numerous physical quantities.An effort has been made for obtaining higher order elastic constants of CaO starting from basic parameters viz. nearest neighbor distance, hardness parameter and using Coulomb and Börn-Mayer potentials. These values are utilized to obtain Grüneisen parameters and non-linearity constants. Non-linearity constants ratio, ultrasonic attenuation due to phonon-phonon interaction (a/f2)p-p and thermo elastic loss (a/f2)th are calculated in a wide temperature range along <100>, <110> and <111> crystallographic directions of propagation for longitudinal and shear waves and compared with available theoretical and experimental results. From the attenuation values along different directions; it is evident that the ultrasonic attenuation is different along different directions of propagation and varies with the orientation of the crystal.
An economic analysis of mulberry raw silk production in traditional and non-t...Premier Publishers
Sericulture is cottage based industry which combines both the features of agriculture and industry. India has tremendous potential for silk development but yet unexploited, however development is not far away. The current study is an attempt to analyse the share between traditional and non-traditional states and between the states on the basis of mulberry silk production and mulberry cultivation. Regression analysis, coefficient of variation, growth rate was used to attain the objectives of the study. It was found that the traditional states hold the maximum share both in mulberry cultivation during 2012-13 was (82.90%) as well as production of raw silk (96.49%). In which Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal contributes maximum production among traditional states, while as Maharashtra, Manipur and Madhya Pradesh are the leading contributing states among the non-traditional states in total raw silk production in India.
Gamma ray induced early generation polygenic variability in medium grain arom...Premier Publishers
Two advanced breeding lines of aromatic non-basmati rice, IET 14142 and IET 14143, irradiated with 250Gy, 350Gy and 450Gy of gamma ray induced wide variation for polygenic characters in M2 and M3 generations. Wide range of genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation (GCV and PCV) for different characters indicated differential radio-sensitivity of the characters. Increase in values of GCV and PCV in M3 over M2 generation for flag leaf length and spikelet number was due to “release of additional variability”. Heritability in M3 generation increased over M2 in IET 14142 for days to flower and flag leaf angle at all three doses, and for other characters only at certain doses. The genetic advance increased from M2 to M3 in IET 14142 for some characters due to increase in variance, while it decreased in M3 generation in IET 14143 for certain characters due to increase in mean values. The overall results indicated the scope for isolating promising segregants in micro mutational population even in early generations.
Second or fourth-order finite difference operators, which one is most effective?Premier Publishers
This paper presents higher-order finite difference (FD) formulas for the spatial approximation of the time-dependent reaction-diffusion problems with a clear justification through examples, “why fourth-order FD formula is preferred to its second-order counterpart” that has been widely used in literature. As a consequence, methods for the solution of initial and boundary value PDEs, such as the method of lines (MOL), is of broad interest in science and engineering. This procedure begins with discretizing the spatial derivatives in the PDE with algebraic approximations. The key idea of MOL is to replace the spatial derivatives in the PDE with the algebraic approximations. Once this procedure is done, the spatial derivatives are no longer stated explicitly in terms of the spatial independent variables. In other words, only one independent variable is remaining, the resulting semi-discrete problem has now become a system of coupled ordinary differential equations (ODEs) in time. Thus, we can apply any integration algorithm for the initial value ODEs to compute an approximate numerical solution to the PDE. Analysis of the basic properties of these schemes such as the order of accuracy, convergence, consistency, stability and symmetry are well examined.
Problems faced by farmers in application of e-Agriculture in BangladeshPremier Publishers
The purpose of this research was to identify the obstacles that Bangladeshi farmers encountered while using e-Agriculture services. Primary data were collected in Bhatbour Block of Dhighi union under Sadar Upazila of Minikganj District where the local government had been implementing the e-Agriculture pilot project since 2011. Data were collected from 1 September, 2015 to 30 September, 2015. Descriptive statistics, multiple regression (B) method were used for analysis. Findings discovered that lack of knowledge on e-Agriculture was the major problem that affected the farmers in the study area. In addition to that, the study also revealed that education, participation in training, usages of e-Agriculture, attitude towards e-Agriculture and availability of e-Agriculture had significant contribution towards the problems faced by farmers’ in using e-Agriculture. These variables accounted for 65.8 percent of the problems faced by farmers’ in using e-Agriculture. Based on these findings, the researchers suggest that government should implement integrated marketing communication using the popular print and electronic media so that awareness about the service will reach majority of the population more and more people get aware of this service. In addition to that, the researchers recommend that the NGO’s and local government bodies should create awareness to the farmers via organization of local seminars and training programs on availability and usefulness of e-Agriculture service.
Perceptions of teachers towards the student expulsion procedures in Hwange di...Premier Publishers
Schools across all countries have a legal responsibility to protect staff and to provide a safe learning environment for all students. Sometimes the actions of some students threaten the health and safety of staff and other students or create violence, either by the destruction of school property or by possession of illegal weapons and substances or their actions generally disrupt good order and management of the school. This study sought to investigate teachers’ perceptions towards the student expulsion procedures in Zimbabwean secondary schools using the quantitative methodology. The study adopted the descriptive survey design. The target population comprised of all secondary school teachers in Hwange District in Matabeleland North Province. The random sample procedure was used to come up with a total sample of 80 respondents made up of 42 female and 38 male. The research instrument used was the questionnaire. The study revealed that teachers thought that the current student expulsion procedure was very ineffective. The study recommends that expulsion of students should take a shorter period of time in order to deter would-be offenders as well.
Soliton comb generation using add-drop ring resonatorsPremier Publishers
Add-drop ring resonator system is the fundamental building block of the optical transmission and communication systems. The microring resonator (MRR) made of semiconductor with a length of 750 μm, K1=k2= 0.02, is used to filter the input spectrum of Gaussian laser beam and generate the comb frequency of soliton pulses, where the transmission characteristics and group delay profile of the through and drop port output signals are presented. The semiconductor material (InGaAsP/InP) is used to generate the add-drop ring resonator. The operating wavelength is 1550 nm andthe iterative method is used to generate the results based on practical parameters of the system.
Some aspects of the oldest nearby moving cluster (Ruprecht 147)Premier Publishers
Based on the membership data retrieved from the Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), we have computed some parameters of the moving open cluster Ruprecht 147, like, vertex, velocity, distance, distance modulus, and center of the cluster. All of these aspects were carried out using an algorithm due to Sharaf et al. (2000), into which error estimates of these parameters will be established in closed analytical forms (e.g. standard and probable errors of the vertex coordinates, angular distance, velocity of the cluster, parallaxes of member stars, and distance of the cluster).
Finally, we compared our results with other published values, which is in good agreement.
Azo dyes are one of the oldest industrially synthesized organic compounds characterized by presence of Azo bond (-N=N-) and are widely utilized as coloring agents in textile, leather, cosmetic, paint, plastic, paper, and food industries During textile processing, inefficiencies in dyeing result in large amounts of the dyestuff (varying from 2% loss when using basic dyes to a 50% loss when certain reactive dyes used) is being directly lost to the wastewater, which ultimately finds its way into the environment. The physico-chemical method of industrial effluent treatment does not remove the dyes effectively. Microbial degradation and decolorization of azo dyes has gained more attention recently because of eco-friendly and inexpensive nature. Microbes and there enzymes could decolorize the dyes by both aerobic and anaerobic metabolis. This review provides a general idea of decolorization and biodegradation of azo dyes with various microbes and highlights the application of for the treatment of azo dye-containing wastewaters.
Teacher participation in organisational development efforts: the case of seco...Premier Publishers
The study examined the extent of teacher participation in different areas of decision-making in secondary schools in Bulawayo Province of Zimbabwe and the impact of this involvement on school improvement through organisational development. A survey using self-administered questionnaires with a Likert-type scale assessing teachers’ actual and preferred participation in decision-making was employed. The sample comprised 200 teachers and 20 school heads. Of the sample respondents, 78% were female and 22% were male. Data were collected through semi-structured questionnaires. Descriptive statistical analysis was used to interpret data. The study indicated that the actual teacher participation in decisions concerning learners was fairly high, but quite low in respect of managerial decisions. The difference between the actual and the preferred levels of participation showed high levels of deprivation. Greater involvement in issues concerning learners and the lower levels of participation in respect of managerial issues were attributable to such dimensions as failure to adopt new decisions, passive resistance by teachers, bureaucracy and lack of knowledge by heads. The significance of the results of this study lies on the implications for school improvement practice: heads of schools should enhance teacher participation not only in issues relating to pedagogy but managerial issues as well.
We present a new BVR light curves of the system EQ Tau carried out in the period from March to April 2006 using a 50-cm F/8.4 Ritchey–Chretien telescope (Ba50) of the Baja Astronomical Observatory (Hungary), and 512 × 512 Apogee AP-7 CCD camera. The observed light curves were analyzed using the 2004 version of the Wilson-Devinney code. The results show that the more massive component is hotter than the low massive one by 100 K. A long term orbital period study shows that the period increases by the rate 8.946 (±0.365) x10-11 days/cycle. Evolutionary state of the system has been investigated and showed that, the primary component of the system is located nearly on the ZAMS for both the M-L and M-R relations. The secondary component is close to the TAMS track for M-L and above the M-R relations.
Production of alcohol by yeast isolated from apple, orange and bananaPremier Publishers
The purpose of this study was to isolate wild yeast strains present in different fruits (apple, orange and banana) and to determine the yeast growth and the amount of alcohol production at various glucose concentrations. Three fruits namely apple, banana and orange were selected as natural sources for yeast isolation. Medium used for isolation of yeast from fruits was consisting of 50 glucose, 3 malt extract, 3 yeast extract, 5 peptone and 15g/L agar. For fermentation MGYP medium used with different glucose concentrations of 5, 10, 30, 50 and 70g/L. Inocula were prepared by loop transfers from stock slants to 50 mL of the 20 percent medium in 500-mL Erlenmeyer flasks. The results showed that with higher concentration of glucose (30g/L) higher amount of alcohol (0.22g/100mL) was produced. Similarly, the yeast isolated from apple showed maximum yeast biomass (0.38g/100mL) at 70g/L glucose concentration and minimum on 50g/L (0.03g/100mL) glucose concentration. In conclusion, the wild yeast produce higher ethanol amount in case of banana fruits.
Distribution assessment and pathogenicity test of coffee berry disease (Colle...Premier Publishers
Coffee berry disease causes about 30 % national average crop losses every year in Ethiopia. This study was conducted to assess the distribution of coffee berry disease and test to know the pathogenicity of the disease on coffee landraces. Assessment of the disease was conducted in Bedeno, Boke, Habro and Darolebu districts from August to September 2011. Incidence and severity were recorded on 50 and 10 randomly selected coffee trees per farm; respectively. This disease was prevalent in all surveyed districts of Hararghe. The mean disease incidence was 51 % at Darolebu and 75 % at Bedeno and the mean disease severity was 26 % at Boke and 50 % at Bedeno. There was a highly significant difference among cultivar * isolate interactions. This indicated the presence of resistance sources in Hararghe coffee germplasms that may be exploited for coffee improvement purpose. Hence, it is important to conserve both in situ and ex situ and use sustainably the Hararghe coffee germplasms by conducting intensive selection from more diverse coffee populations and evaluations for resistance to coffee berry disease.
Biosystem treatment approach for seaweed processing wastewater Premier Publishers
Wastewater obtained from the seaweed washing process often contains residual chemicals, as the seaweed is typically washed using chemicals. Here, we used a biosystem to treat wastewater obtained after seaweed processing. The research goals were to determine the effectivity and capacity of this biosystem for reducing chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD), and nitrites in the wastewater. We planted and prepared the biosystem bin, adapted the plants in the biosystem bin until they were ready for use, and we performed wastewater treatment using the biosystem either with or without the addition of an active bacterial suspension. The results show that addition of the active suspension significantly improved effectivity with respect to COD and nitrites (p<0.05). With respect to COD, BOD, and nitrites, the effectivity of the biosystem with an added active suspension was 83.9, 87.2, and 55.5%, respectively; the effectivity of the biosystem without the active suspension was 79.2, 83.3, and 38.7%, respectively. The capacity of the biosystem with an added active suspension was 13.226, 6.805, and 0.014mg/L/m3hour with respect to reducing COD, BOD, and nitrites, respectively; the capacity of the biosystem without an active suspension was 12.485, 6.496, and 0.009 mg/L/m3hour, respectively.
Determinants of Tomato Smallholder Farmers Market Outlet Choices in West Shew...Premier Publishers
Vegetables are group of horticultural crops and important for income generation to a large proportion of the rural households. Enhancing tomato farmers to reach markets and actively engage in the markets is a key challenge influencing tomato production in Ethiopia. The perishable nature of tomato necessitates effective marketing channels. The main objective of study was to determine factors influencing tomato farmer’s market outlet choices decision in West Shewa Zone, Ethiopia. Purposive sampling procedure based on different attributes was used to select villages and households, whereby 300 farm households were surveyed for the study. Multivariate probit model were used for analyzing the tomato farmer’s market outlet choices. The multivariate probit model results revealed that transaction costs such as distance to nearest markets, access to credit, family size, age of household head, education status, farming experience and volume of tomato produced significantly influence the tomato market channels choices of tomato farmers. Retailer market outlet choices were negatively affected by age of household head, education status and distance to the nearest market where as access to credit affected positively at different levels of significance. However, wholesaler market outlet choices were negatively affected by access to credit, family size and amount of tomato produced at different level of probability. Based on the finding of the study it is better to establish farmer’s networks since it helps the sharing of knowledge through which the farmers can improve produce quality as required by market.
Determinants of Coffee Market Outlet Choices in Gewata District, Kaffa Zone, ...Premier Publishers
Ethiopia has a broad genetic diversity among its coffee varieties. Coffee is one of the cash crop which is highly marketed through world next to petroleum. It has a great contribution in earning foreign currency and it is an income source for around 20 % Ethiopian population either directly or indirectly. Linking small producers to markets are widely recognized as a valuable development route and market outlets choice is one of the most important farm household decisions to sell their produce and has a great impact on household income. Even if the study area has great potential of coffee production, the farmers faced the marketing problem particularly in choice of appropriate coffee market outlets. This study was therefore carried out to analyze determinants of coffee producers’ market outlet choice decisions in Gewata district. Purposive and two stage random sampling technique was used and data was collected from 121 coffee producers. Multivariate probit model (MVP) was used to analyze factors influencing the choice of coffee market outlets choice by coffee producers. The multivariate probit model results indicated that quantity of coffee sold, education level, frequency of extension contacts, household size, years of farming experience, distance to nearest market, off/non-farm income, land under coffee and transport access significantly influenced coffee producers’ choice of market outlet. Therefore, strengthening farmers coffee cooperative and enhancing the financial capacity of cooperative with functional collection center, improving accessibility of transport services and developing infrastructure, improving farmers’ knowledge through adult education as well as their experience sharing with other coffee producing farmers, improving productivity through strengthening supportive institutions (extension service provider).
Value Chain Analysis of Banana in Mizan Aman Town of Benchi Maji Zone, Southw...AI Publications
This study was aimed at analyzing value chain of banana in Mizan-Aman town, Bench Maji zone with specific objectives of describing important marketing channels and actors involved on banana value chain, dealing the determinant of supply of banana and identify constraints in value chain of the banana. The data were collected from both primary and secondary sources. The primary data for this study were collected through application of appropriate statistical procedures. The data were analyzed by using both descriptive and Econometric models. Accordingly, the value chain activities in the survey period were production, marketing and consumption. To identify factors affecting farm level marketable supply of banana, OLS regression analysis was employed. About 10 variables were hypothesized to affect farm level of marketable supply of banana in the study area. Age of respondent, experience, family size, education level of the household head, market information and distance to the market affects farm level marketable supply of banana positively and negatively. The study result exhibited also that banana producers are faced lack market, lack of cooperatives and low price of banana. The result revealed that banana passes through several intermediaries with little value being added before reaching the end users. Therefore, farmers are forced to capture a lower share of profit margin. The highest marketing cost is incurred by wholesalers and the highest market profit is shared by retailers. The value chain analysis revealed that the major actors in the area are producers, local collectors, wholesalers, retailers and consumers. The study showed that Input Suppliers, Improved infrastructure and strengthening the linkage/interaction among value chain actors is necessary for good marketing of banana.
Determinants of Teff Market Channel Choice in Abay Chomen District, Western E...Premier Publishers
This study analyzes the determinants of Teff market outlet choices in Abay chomen District of Ethiopia. Survey of one hundred eighty-four (184) household heads was conducted in three kebeles of the district in 2016. Multivariate Probit model was used to identify determinants of households’ teff market outlet choice decisions. Farm gate collectors, retailers and wholesaler marketing outlets were used by teff producing farmers in the study area. The model result revealed that age of the households significantly determined the probability of choosing farm gate, retailers and wholesalers market outlets. The study also revealed that sex, land size and quantity of teff produced in 2016 significantly affected the farm gate outlet choice of the smallholders. Additionally, the retailer outlet choice of farmers was significantly determined by quantity of teff produced. On the other hand, the wholesale market outlet choice of farmers was significantly determined by education level of the farmers. This implies that the need to invest on improving the education status of farmers; improving the production capacity of farmers that would help smallholder farmers to choose the more rewarding market outlet. Therefore, any policy attempting to benefit smallholder farmers to link with fair market outlets should focus on their educational status and their production capacity.
Analyzing Marketing Margins and the Direction of Price Flow in the Tomato Val...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
— The Limpopo Province is home to South Africa's tomato farming giants, some of whom also occupy the position of the largest producers of the commodity in the Southern Hemisphere. Regardless of its importance in the tomato industry of the country, there are few studies analysing the mechanism through which prices of tomatoes are determined and transmitted from the farm gate in Limpopo to the various provincial, local and international markets. This study attempts to fill the knowledge gap on the performance of Limpopo Province's tomato markets by examining the marketing margins and the direction of price flow amongst the successive tomato marketing levels. By means of the Concurrent Marketing Margin Analysis approach, it was established that the farmers' portion of the consumer's Rand is low. About 85.1% of the consumer's Rand goes to pay for marketing margins. Granger causality tests show that both the wholesale and retail prices are caused by farm gate prices. The farm level is therefore key to tomato price determination in Limpopo Province of South Africa and pertinent policies that improve the commodity's primary sector may potentially enhance the other sectors in value chain that depend on tomato production. Keywords— Limpopo Province, market dominance, marketing margins, price flow, tomato markets, vertical price linkage.
"Explaining Smallholder Maize Marketing in Eastern and Southern Africa: The Roles of Market Access, Technology, and Resource Endowments", David Mather, Duncan Boughton, and T.S. Jayne, Workshop on Transformation of Agri-food Systems and Commercialization of Smallholder Agriculture in Mozambique: Evidence, Challenges and Implications Maputo, Mozambique, December 9, 2013
Sharing gains of the potato in Kenya: A case of thin governanceSharing gains ...Premier Publishers
The potato offers a good alternative for diversification from maize, the staple food in Kenya. This article presents the results of a study on the potato marketing system, the factors affecting prices and the predominant governance system impacting on the market. Survey data were collected from 402 farmers in the three potato growing regions and addition information on monthly prices in major markets was provided the Ministry of Agriculture. There were also semi-structured interviews with the major actors in the potato sector.
Potato marketing exhibits the captive governance structure with traders collaboratively acting as the lead firm. An analysis of the split in selling price between the various players indicates that margins were concentrated at the coordination of marketing activities as opposed to the production activities. Coordination activities took about 40% of the consumer price. Besides the market channel used, the production region, the size of the land cultivated and the yields obtained determined the price obtained by the farmers. Given the distribution of the value added in the chain and the current dominance of traders, we argue in favour of upgrading the value chain and giving more power to the farmers and their organizations.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Farmer’s Participation in Irish Potato Marketing in Njombe Urban and Wanging’...Premier Publishers
Irish potato is one of the most important economic crops in Tanzania contributing to household food requirements and income. In order to ascertain the contributions of Irish potatoes to stakeholders involved, this study aimed at determining the factors influencing Irish potato farmers’ decision to participate in the marketing and the extent of participation in Southern Highlands of Tanzania. Multistage sampling technique was used to collect cross section data from 497 Irish potato farmers. Cragg’s two step model was used to analyze data. In the first step Probit model was used to determine the factors that influence decision to participate in the market, while in the second step Truncated regression model was used to determine factors that influence the proportion of output sold. The results showed that socio-economic factors significant in the first stage are not necessarily significant in the second stage. Factors such as farming experience, farm size, price, education, extension service, credit and gender significantly influence the decision to participate in the marketing and the extent of participation. Policies need to enhance capacity of farmers through adult literacy programmes and help farmers to adopt the modern farming techniques that will lead to increased Irish potatoes output and market participation.
Farmer’s Participation in Irish Potato Marketing in Njombe Urban and Wanging’...Ochuko Siemuri
Irish potato is one of the most important economic crops in Tanzania contributing to household food requirements and income. In order to ascertain the contributions of Irish potatoes to stakeholders involved, this study aimed at determining the factors influencing Irish potato farmers’ decision to participate in the marketing and the extent of participation in Southern Highlands of Tanzania. Multistage sampling technique was used to collect cross section data from 497 Irish potato farmers. Cragg’s two step model was used to analyze data. In the first step Probit model was used to determine the factors that influence decision to participate in the market, while in the second step Truncated regression model was used to determine factors that influence the proportion of output sold. The results showed that socio-economic factors significant in the first stage are not necessarily significant in the second stage. Factors such as farming experience, farm size, price, education, extension service, credit and gender significantly influence the decision to participate in the marketing and the extent of participation. Policies need to enhance capacity of farmers through adult literacy programmes and help farmers to adopt the modern farming techniques that will lead to increased Irish potatoes output and market participation.
This study was analyzed value chain analysis of sesame in Bench Maji Zone of Southwestern, Ethiopia. It was specifically aimed to address the research gaps by, identifying the major value chain actors and mapping the value chain, and identifying major factors affecting market outlet choices of sesame producers in Meinit Goldya and Guraferda Districts. For addressing these objectives the study used both primary and secondary data obtained from field survey and desk review. Multistage random sampling technique was used to draw 270 sesame producers. Descriptive statistics and econometric method of data analysis were used to analyze the data. The major value chain actors for sesame marketing in the districts were producers, wholesalers, rural collector, cooperatives, broker/commission agents, retailers, local consumers, ECX, exporters and non-governmental organizations. The multivariate probit model results indicated that Years of experiences, Coop membership, household size, Education level, Land under sesame, Quantity supply, participating in training and distance to nearest market significantly influenced sesame producer’s choice of market outlet. Depending on results of this study recommend that strengthening farmers sesame cooperative and enhancing the financial capacity of cooperative, improving accessibility of Transport services and developing infrastructure, improving farmers’ knowledge through adult education as well as their experience sharing with other sesame producing farmers, improving productivity through strengthening supportive institutions(extension service provider) motivating sesame producing farm household to participate different training. Therefore, those important socioeconomic and institutional factors which are mentioned above must take into account to improve the productivity of sesame in the study area.
Does use of ict based market information services (mis) improve welfare of sm...ACORN-REDECOM
The need to provide agricultural information to farmers has led to emergence of numerous ICT-based MIS projects in
developing country. These projects aim at promoting commercialization of smallholder agriculture and subsequently their
welfare. This study examines the welfare effects one such project in western Kenya. It uses household food security and
access to medical health services as proxies of welfare. The study finds that farmers that use ICT-based market information
are more food secure and have better access to medical health services than their counterpart. It discusses policy implications
of these findings.
Determinants of Market outlet Choice for Major Vegetables Crop: Evidence from...Premier Publishers
This study was initiated to investigate factors affecting market outlet choices by smallholder farmers’ in Ambo and Toke-Kutaye districts. A total of 150 sample households were randomly selected for an interview using a semi-structured questionnaire. The Descriptive statistics and multinomial logit regression model were used for data analysis. Hence, 49.33% of sampled respondents choice direct sell to market while the remaining 31.33% and 19.33% of respondents choice wholesaler and retailer channel respectively. On the other hand, the multinomial logit regression analysis result showed that family size and access to market negatively affecting choice of retailer channel. Similarly, dummy model farmer, education level, and access to credit decrease the probability choice of retailer channel while it increases probability choice of wholesaler channel. Livestock in TLU and access to market decreases the probability choice of wholesaler channel. Finally, the study suggested that being model farmer, allocating more land for vegetables production, efficient use of family labor, access to market, and access to credit services would help to enhance smallholders capacity to produce vegetables that aligned to improve vegetables value chain in the study areas.
Postharvest status of plantains in some selected markets in Ghanaresearchagriculture
Plantain production and marketing has been done traditionally, as the problem of food production shortage during the last decade in Ghana has temporarily been solved with import substitute staple like rice. A survey of marketing and utilisation of plantain in twenty-two urban markets from five regions of Ghana revealed that fruit maturity has important criteria to all players in the plantain postharvest system. Unavailable, improper infrastructure and facilities coupled with unreliable transportation system and poor road network shorten the shelf-life thus causing rapid ripening with subsequent increase in postharvest losses. The practiced technology for enhancing ripening of fruits, though low, was appropriate and cost effective. The role of market queens in the retailing of the product had a negative effect on the rate of returns of the retailers, which contributed to about 45% of the traders being seasonal sellers. However with about 60% of respondents had basic education and their level of record and book keeping was impressive.
Article Citation:
Pearl A. Adu-Amankwa, Bernard Agyeman Boateng.
Postharvest status of plantains in some selected markets in Ghana
Journal of Research in Agriculture (2011) 1: 006-010.
Full Text:
http://www.jagri.info/documents/AG0002.pdf
Postharvest status of plantains in some selected markets in Ghanaresearchagriculture
Plantain production and marketing has been done traditionally, as the problem of
food
production shortage during the last decade in Ghana has temporarily been solved
with
import substitute staple like rice.
A survey of marketing and utilisation of plantain in
twenty
-
two urban markets from five regions of Ghana revealed that fruit maturity has
important criteria to all players in the plantain postharvest system.
Unavailable, improper
infrastructure and facilities coupled with unreliable transportation system and poor road
network shorten the shelf
-
life thus causing rapid ripening with subsequent increase in
postharvest losses.
The practiced technology for enhancing ripening of fruits, though
low, was appropriate
and cost effective. The role of market queens in the retailing of
the product had a
negative effect on the rate of returns of the retailers, which
contributed to about 45% of
the traders being seasonal sellers. However with about 60%
of respondents had basic education and their level of record and book keeping was
impressive.
Similar to The role of middlemen in fresh tomato supply chain in Kilolo district, Tanzania (20)
Evaluation of Agro-morphological Performances of Hybrid Varieties of Chili Pe...Premier Publishers
In Benin, chilli pepper is a widely consumed as vegetable whose production requires the use of performant varieties. This work assessed, at Parakou and Malanville, the performance of six F1 hybrids of chilli including five imported (Laali, Laser, Nandi, Kranti, Nandita) and one local (De cayenne), in completely randomized block design at four replications and 15 plants per elementary plot. Agro-morphological data were collected and submitted to analysis of variance and factor analysis of mixed data. The results showed the effects of variety, location and their interactions were highly significant for most of the growth, earliness and yield traits. Imported hybrid varieties showed the best performances compared to the local one. Multivariate analysis revealed that 'De cayenne' was earlier, short in size, thin-stemmed, red fruits and less yielding (≈ 1 t.ha-1). The imported hybrids LaaliF1 and KrantiF1 were of strong vegetative vigor, more yielding (> 6 t.ha-1) by developing larger, long and hard fruits. Other hybrids showed intermediate performances. This study highlighted the importance of imported hybrids in improving yield and preservation of chili fruits. However, stability and adaptation analyses to local conditions are necessary for their adoption.
An Empirical Approach for the Variation in Capital Market Price Changes Premier Publishers
The chances of an investor in the stock market depends mainly on some certain decisions in respect to equilibrium prices, which is the condition of a system competing favorably and effectively. This paper considered a stochastic model which was latter transformed to non-linear ordinary differential equation where stock volatility was used as a key parameter. The analytical solution was obtained which determined the equilibrium prices. A theorem was developed and proved to show that the proposed mathematical model follows a normal distribution since it has a symmetric property. Finally, graphical results were presented and the effects of the relevant parameters were discussed.
Influence of Nitrogen and Spacing on Growth and Yield of Chia (Salvia hispani...Premier Publishers
Chia is an emerging cash crop in Kenya and its production is inhibited by lack of agronomic management information. A field experiment was conducted in February-June and May-August 2021, to determine the influence of nitrogen and spacing on growth and yield of Chia. A randomized complete block design with a split plot arrangement was used with four nitrogen rates as the main plots (0, 40, 80, 120 kg N ha-1) and three spacing (30 cm x 15 cm (s1), 30 cm x 30 cm (s2), 50 cm x 50 cm (s3)). Application of 120 kg N ha-1 significantly increased (p≤0.05) vegetative growth and seed yield of Chia. Stem height, branches, stem diameter and leaves increased by 23-28%, 11-13%, 43-55% and 59-88% respectively. Spacing s3 significantly increased (p≤0.05) vegetative growth. An increase of 27-74%, 36-45% and 73-107% was recorded in number of leaves, stem diameter and dry weight, respectively. Chia yield per plant was significantly higher (p≤0.05) in s3. However, when expressed per unit area, s1 significantly produced higher yields. The study recommends 120 kg N ha-1 or higher nitrogen rates and a closer spacing of 15 cm x 30 cm as the best option for Chia production in Kenya.
Enhancing Social Capital During the Pandemic: A Case of the Rural Women in Bu...Premier Publishers
Social capital plays an essential role in empowering people for social and economic change even during the pandemic. A livelihood project of the government was implemented among the members of a women’s association of a disadvantaged upland community in Bukidnon province, Southern Philippines for inclusive development. This study was conducted to determine the influence of some socio-economic attributes and the change in the knowledge level on the social capital of the rural women amidst the pandemic. The activities of the project were implemented considering the health protocols imposed by the government during the health crisis. The findings revealed that the trainings conducted resulted to a positive change in the knowledge level among the rural women. This facilitated the production of vegetables for their households and generated additional income very necessary during the pandemic especially that other economic activities were hindered. Similarly, there was a significant increase in the social capital of the rural women during the last two years. The main occupation, sources of income and their ethnicity significantly influenced the social capital of the rural women. The rural development workers and policymakers must consider the social capital of the group in the implementation of poverty alleviation programs.
Impact of Provision of Litigation Supports through Forensic Investigations on...Premier Publishers
This paper presents an argument through the fraud triangle theory that the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations in relation to corporate fraud cases is adequate for effective prosecution of perpetrators as well as corporate fraud prevention. To support this argument, this study operationalized provision of litigation supports through forensic audit and investigations, data mining for trends and patterns, and fraud data collection and preparation. A sample of 500 respondents was drawn from the population of professional accountants and legal practitioners in Nigeria. Questionnaire was used as the instrument for data collection and this was mailed to the respective respondents. Resulting responses were analyzed using the OLS multiple regression techniques via the SPSS statistical software. The results reveal that the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations, fraud data mining for trends and patterns and fraud data collection and preparation for court proceedings have a positive and significant impact on corporate fraud prevention in Nigeria. This study therefore recommends that regulators should promote the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations in relation to corporate fraud cases in publicly listed firms in Nigeria, as this will help provide reports that are acceptable in court proceedings.
Improving the Efficiency of Ratio Estimators by Calibration WeightingsPremier Publishers
It is observed that the performances of most improved ratio estimators depend on some optimality conditions that need to be satisfied to guarantee better estimator. This paper develops a new approach to ratio estimation that produces a more efficient class of ratio estimators that do not depend on any optimality conditions for optimum performance using calibration weightings. The relative performances of the proposed calibration ratio estimators are compared with a corresponding global [Generalized Regression (GREG)] estimator. Results of analysis showed that the proposed calibration ratio estimators are substantially superior to the traditional GREG-estimator with relatively small bias, mean square error, average length of confidence interval and coverage probability. In general, the proposed calibration ratio estimators are more efficient than all existing estimators considered in the study.
Urban Liveability in the Context of Sustainable Development: A Perspective fr...Premier Publishers
Urbanization and quality of urban life are mutually related and however it varies geographically and regionally. With unprecedented growth of urban centres, challenge against urban development is more in terms of how to enhance quality of urban life and liveability. Making sense of and measuring urban liveability of urban places has become a crucial step in the context of sustainable development paradigm. Geographical regions depict variations in nature of urban development and consequently level of urban liveability. The coastal regain of West Bengal faces unusual challenges caused by increasing urbanization, uncontrolled growth, and expansion of economic activities like tourism and changing environmental quality. The present study offers a perspective on urban liveability of urban places located in coastal region comprising of Purba Medinipur and South 24 Parganas districts. The study uses the liveability standards covering four major pillars- institutional, social, economic and physical and their indicators. This leads to develop a City Liveability Index to rank urban places of the region, higher the index values better the urban liveability. The data for the purpose is collected from various secondary sources. Study finds that the eastern coastal region of the country covering state of West Bengal depicts variations in index of liveability determined by physical, economic, social and institutional indicators.
Transcript Level of Genes Involved in “Rebaudioside A” Biosynthesis Pathway u...Premier Publishers
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2. The role of middlemen in fresh tomato supply chain in Kilolo district, Tanzania
Mwagike and Mdoe 046
The scattered nature of the smallholder tomato farmers
and the long distance between the tomato producing
villages to the major tomato consumption centers appear
to be the major constraints for tomato farmers and
traders in the study area. Besides costs of transporting
tomatoes to major consumption centers like Dar es
Salaam, tomatoes in the study area are produced on
small farms scattered over a large area. This situation is
exacerbated by poor road network that links the tomato
farms to collection centers and markets in the study area,
making assembling of tomatoes difficult and costly for
traders. Most roads in the study area other than a few
well maintained roads including the Dar es Salaam -
Zambia highway are in poor condition. Farmers who are
far from the good roads are marginalized not only
because they have difficulty in reaching the tomato
markets, but more so because tomato traders avoid
farms in areas off the good roads where transport costs
are too high (Eskola, 2005). Difficulties faced by farmers
in reaching markets contribute to post-harvest losses.
According to MMA (2008) and MUVI-SIDO (2009),
approximately 30 - 40% of the tomatoes are lost due to
poor post-harvest handling including transportation. The
long distance from the tomato farmers to the urban
markets like Dar es Salaam makes smallholder tomato
farmers who cannot sell their tomatoes at nearby local
markets to depend on middlemen who buy tomatoes for
the urban markets. The middleman trader exercises the
essential entrepreneurial functions of exploring and
creating market exchange opportunities and bears the
risk entailed in this task. It operates in two markets –
helping the smallholder tomato farmer’s access
customers and the customers get the products.
Banson et al., (2014) found that in many African
countries, cultivation and production of crops is produced
by smallholder farms with limited mechanization and
capacity, leading to high transaction cost and poor yields.
In addition the research revealed that fragmented
markets, price controls, and poor infrastructure also
hamper production and development. Inefficient
agricultural marketing system has been observed to have
major drawbacks in the development of the agricultural
sector (Mdoe et al., 2001). Vegetable marketing system
is prone to various sources of inefficiencies. Farmers in
vegetable producing areas are unable to attract
competitive buyers. Many of the farms are located in
relatively isolated areas, a considerable distance from
improved roads making access to competitive markets
difficult and costly (Massawe, 2007). Lack of bargaining
power along with various credit bound relationships with
the buyers has lead to farmers being exploited during
transaction. Eskola, (2005); deputter, (2007) reveals
that lack of market information and the weak legal
framework lead to difficulties in negotiating trade
agreements and enforcing the existing contracts.
Previous studies on vegetable supply chain found that
smallholder farmers sell their produce to various
middlemen (assemblers, wholesalers and retailers) due
to high transaction costs. Lambert and cooper (2000)
and Robinson and Kolavalli (2010). MUVI (2009)
conducted a study on tomato value chain analysis in
Iringa region. The study found that smallholder farmers
relied on middlemen to sell their produce due to high
transaction costs such as transportation and imperfect
market information. Suryavanshi et al., (2006) reveals
that 80% of the vegetable was sold through middlemen
due to high transportation costs incurred in transporting
produce from rural areas to urban markets. Eskola (2005)
found that most farmers sold their agricultural products
either to the local traders who are the residents of the
villages who in turn sold the produce to other buyer
coming from Dar es Salaam. Local traders act as
facilitators between many local producers and a few Dar
es Salaam buyers. Thus middlemen are needed in
several parts of the supply chain to transfer information of
the quantities and prices supplied and demanded, and
acting as guarantors of the two parties. Gabre-Madhin
(2001) found that institutions of middlemen in the
Ethiopian grain market play an important role in trade
facilitation in terms of market information dissemination
between producers and other buyers.
A number of studies in vegetable supply chains have
mainly documented that smallholder farmers incur high
transactions costs linked to search for buyers, market
information and negotiation and other costs associated
with marketing their vegetable produce (Lamber and
Cooper, 2000; Eskola, 2005; Eaton et al., 2007;
Robinson and Kolavalli,2010). However, there is limited
information on analytical dimensions on how farmers
overcome transaction costs associated with marketing of
their produce. This paper looked at tomato supply chain,
actors and their function, the role of middlemen in linking
tomato producers and traders in Dar-es-salaam and
challenges facing chain actors. It is very crucial that both
policy makers and development practitioners understand
the status of vegetable supply chain if small scale farming
is to be profitable business at a local level, national level
and for future inclusion in global supply chains.
METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted in Kilolo District in Iringa
3. The role of middlemen in fresh tomato supply chain in Kilolo district, Tanzania
Int. J. Agric. Mark. 047
Figure 1. Map showing Iringa Region, Tanzania
Region (see Fig. 1). The main economic activity in
Iringa Region is agriculture. It is estimated that more
than 80% of its population depends on agriculture.
According to Putheti, (2015), a variety of crops are found
in the Region. Maize is the main staple food. Horticultural
crops comprising of onions, tomatoes, fruits and cabbage
are grown commercially mainly in Iringa Rural and Kilolo
districts. Kilolo District was selected for the study due to
its potential for tomato production. Tomato is an
important cash-earning commodity for Iringa region. It
can be estimated that 60 000 farmers are involved in
tomato production in the region. According to regional
agricultural statistics, Kilolo District accounted for 51% of
the 107 000 MT of tomatoes produced in the 2007/08
season while Iringa Rural accounted for 44% (URT,
2012). Tomato farmers in Kilolo District are small scale
farmers who cultivate an average of 0.25-0.50 acres of
land per household.
A multistage sampling technique was used to select
sample areas. The first stage involved selection of one
district from Iringa Region. At this stage Kilolo District
was selected from the four districts in the region on the
basis of volume of tomato production. According to the
Kilolo District Agricultural officer, Kilolo District was the
leading District in terms of planted area and volume of
tomatoes produced. It accounted for 51% and 69.3% of
area planted with tomatoes and volume of tomatoes
produced in the region during the 2007/2008 season
(URT, 2012). In the second stage, one division
(Mazombe) was selected out of three divisions in Kilolo
District on the basis of volume of tomatoes produced.
According to the Kilolo District Agricultural Officer,
Mazombe Division was the leading producer of tomatoes
among the three divisions. However, the researcher
failed to get up to date data on volumes of tomato by
division. The third stage involved selection of sample
4. The role of middlemen in fresh tomato supply chain in Kilolo district, Tanzania
Mwagike and Mdoe 048
Table 1. Sample size for the study
Village No of tomato household Sample
size
Sample size as % of the tomatoes
growing households
Madizini 840 44 5
Masukanzi 860 44 5
Lugalo 890 45 5
Total 2 590 133 5
Source: Village register book (2010)
villages from Mazombe Division. The selection criteria of
the study villages were; to cover areas that represent
typical tomato farming in the Division while the last stage
involved selection of tomato farming households from the
sample villages. With the assistance of the division
officer, random sampling technique was employed to
select three villages namely Madizini, Masukanzi and
Lugalo out of the 12 villages in Ilula and Lugalo wards.
The target population included all households involved in
tomato production in the sampled villages. With the
assistance of the Village Executive Officers (VEO) a
simple random sampling technique was employed to
select a sample of tomato producing households from the
lists of tomato growers in Madizini, Masukanzi and
Lugalo villages. The sampling frame was the village
register book. The total sample size comprised of 133
households. The sample size for farmers was obtained
by using the following formula n/N≥5% (Sudman, 1976).
Table 1 shows the distribution of the sample households
by village. A lottery method was employed to select
respondents from the sampling frame. The researcher
wrote names of the tomato farmers in pieces of papers,
the pieces of papers were put in a box, they were mixed
them up and then the researcher picked one piece of the
paper randomly. The procedure was repeated until the
researcher got the sample required.
Two wholesale markets namely Tanzania Social Action
Fund (TASAF) markets located in Ilula ward and Mlamke
markets located in Lugalo ward were purposely selected
out of three markets in the division. These markets are
the two main tomato collection points in Mazombe
Division where farmers/assemblers bulk tomatoes waiting
for traders from urban areas especially Dar es Salaam.
Snowball sampling (from one actor, the other actors were
contacted) to identify traders for interview who came to
the markets (TASAF and Mlamke) to purchase tomatoes.
A total of 109 traders comprising 36 assemblers 40
wholesalers and 33 retailers were selected. Out of 109
traders, 35 were traders from Dar es Salaam. According
to Bailey (1994) regardless of the population size, a
sample or sub-sample of 30 cases is the bare minimum
for studies in which statistical data analysis is to be done.
Both primary and secondary information were collected
for the study. Data from the sample farmers and traders
were collected using the pre-tested questionnaire. The
questionnaire was administered to respondents through
face-to-face interviews. Besides questionnaire,
discussions guided by checklists were held separately
with groups of farmers, assemblers, wholesalers.
Secondary information for the study was obtained from
published and unpublished reports from different sources
such as Iringa Regional Agricultural Office, District
Agricultural and Livestock Development Office (DALDO)
in Kilolo District, Sokoine National Agricultural Library
(SNAL) and web sites.
Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used in
data analysis. Below is a description of the analyses
carried to achieve the objective of the study. Qualitative
data analysis was used to analyze the challenges actors
faced in marketing their produce. In analyzing the
challenges in the study area, the researcher organized
the information according to emerging themes and sub-
themes. The recorded dialogue was broken into smallest
units of information and theme (Corbin and Strauss,
2007). Content analysis was used to analyze qualitative
information obtained from focus group discussions. In
groups, the following questions were asked: (i) to whom
did you sell your produce? (ii)Where did you sell your
produce? (iii)Why did you prefer to sell to this particular
buyer?(IV)Do you always sell all the vegetables
produced? (V)What were the problems of vegetable
marketing in the area? (VI) How do you preserve
vegetables produced?
The structure of the fresh tomato supply chain was
analyzed using a supply chain analysis (SCA). The SCA
examines all the actors involved in the chain, the linkages
between them, and the activities in each link (Gereffi et
Int. J. Agric. Mark. 049
5. The role of middlemen in fresh tomato supply chain in Kilolo district, Tanzania
Figure 2. Structure of the fresh tomato supply chain in Kilolo District
al., 2005 and Putheti, 2015). In this study the SCA
examined two key actors in the fresh tomato supply chain
-farmers and traders who were involved in production and
marketing of tomatoes, the linkages between them and
the activities within each link. Distribution of tomatoes
was traced from farmers to the final consumers. The flow
chart was used to trace the fresh tomato supply chain
used by farmers and traders to market their produce.
The percentage of tomatoes sold to different chain actors
was analyzed using frequency counts and percentages.
Actor’s share of the price paid by consumers along the
longest fresh tomato supply chain was calculated by
dividing the farm gate price to the subsequent price levels
along the chain.
Mathematically actors share (AS) was calculated as
follows,
AS= AP/Pi,
Where
AS=Actor’s share
AP=Actor price
Pi= Price of tomato at market level i in Tshs/per tenga.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figure 2 shows the fresh tomato supply chain map
encompassing the key actors and the functions they
performed. The functions performed include input supply,
tomato production, assembling, sorting, packaging,
transportation, wholesaling, processing and retailing of
tomatoes. Details of these functions are provided in
subsequent sections below.
Input supply and service provision
At the base of Figure 2 input suppliers and service
providers played the role of supply chain supporters.
Mwagike and Mdoe 050
Retailing
Tomato supply
chain functions
Consumers
Processing and
wholesaling
Bulking
Packaging
Transportation
Production
Input supply
Retailers
Wholesalers
Assemblers
Tomato Farmers
Consumption
Input suppliers and service providers
6. The role of middlemen in fresh tomato supply chain in Kilolo district, Tanzania
Table 2. Distribution of farmers by land area under tomato production (acres) during 2010 tomato growing season
Madizini Masukanzi Lugalo Whole sample
Minimum 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Maximum 1 0.50 2 2
Mean 0.28 0.27 0.35 0.30
SD 0.13 0.07 0.20 0.15
Table 3. Tomato varieties planted by sampled farmers in 2010 tomato growing season
Seed
variety
Village
Madizini Masukanzi Lugalo Total
No % No % No % No %
Tanya 19 4.3 14 5.3 7 5.3 40 30.1
Roma 25 18.8 30 22.6 38 8.6 93 69.9
χ2=8.169 **, df=1, P<0.05, *1US$ Dollar= 1,650Tanzanian shillings
They supplied seeds, fertilizers and pesticides to farmers.
They sold these inputs but also provided information
concerning their use. During focus group discussions
farmers reported major constraints regarding the quality
of seeds they buy. They reported that in some cases the
quality of seeds sold by input suppliers was not poor.
Some of the input suppliers sold seeds with expired dates
of use.
Tomato Production
Tomato production in Kilolo District was dominated by
smallholder producers. Table 2 presents minimum and
maximum land area under tomato production during the
first main 2010 tomato growing season across villages.
One way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test was
conducted to determine whether there is significant
difference in the land area under tomato production for
the farmers in three sample villages. The ANOVA results
in Table 2 show that the variation in mean land area
under tomato production during the 2010 tomato growing
season for the farmers in the three villages was
statistically significant (p <0.05) for the mean pairs
compared.
Tomato producers in Kilolo District have the opportunity
of producing tomatoes three times per year. The first
opportunity is during the main season in which harvesting
takes place between April and June. The second
opportunity is between July and September while the
third opportunity is production of irrigated tomatoes which
are planted during the dry season between July and
October and harvested between November and March.
Smallholder tomato farmers in the study area were found
to grow two major varieties of tomatoes depending on the
type of seed available during the planting season as well
as the cost of the different tomato seed varieties. Table 3
shows the proportion of sampled farmers who grew the
two tomato varieties during the 2010 tomato growing
season. Majority (69.9%) of the sampled farmers planted
Roma tomato variety. The remaining 30.1% of the
sampled farmers planted Tanya tomato variety. The
findings in Table 3 suggest that Roma variety was the
most popular tomato variety grown in the study area.
Chi-square test (χ2=8.169, p<0.019) revealed that there
was significant difference in the proportion of farmers
who grew the two tomato varieties in the 2010 tomato
growing season.
Apart from tomato seeds, successful production of
tomatoes requires other purchased inputs such as
fertilizer, pesticides and hired labor. Tables 4 and 5
present the price and costs of these inputs during the
2010 tomato growing season. On average a farmer
incurred Tshs 19 969 per packet of 100 gram of seeds
(=12.10 USD dollars, )Tshs 60 504 per bag of 50 kg of
urea fertilizer (36.66 USD dollars) and Tshs 7 000 (4.24
USD dollars) per liter of pesticides. Producers got
supplies of seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and fungicides
from inputs stockiest who are available normally within 10
kms radius. The stockiest do also provide information on
the best practice in tomato seedbed management.
Table 4 shows the mean variation of the labor charge
paid by smallholder tomato farmers across the three
villages. The results of one way ANOVA test conducted
to compare the wages paid to hired labor across the
three sample villages show that the variation in mean
wage paid to hired labor by farmers in the three sample
villages during the 2010 tomato growing season was
Int. J. Agric. Mark. 051
7. The role of middlemen in fresh tomato supply chain in Kilolo district, Tanzania
Table 4. Cost of tomato seeds and fertilizer paid by sampled farmers in 2010 tomato growing season
Seeds (Tshs pkt 100 gram) Fertilizer Tshs 50kg
N Min Max Mean SD Min Max Mean SD
Madizini 44 20 000 20 000 20 000 0 000 45 000 68 000 60 200 4 317
Masukanzi 44 15 000 30 000 19 800 2 771 55 000 68 000 60 500 3 940
Lugalo 45 15 000 30 000 20 000 1 894 45 000 70 000 59 700 4 606
Table 5. Cost of pesticides and hired labour paid by sample farmers in 2010 tomato growing season
Village Pesticides Tshs per litre Labor charge
N Min Max Mean SD Min Max Mean SD
Madizini 44 7 000 7 000 7 000 000 15 000 80 000 38 600 17 399
Masukanzi 44 7 000 7 000 7 000 000 20 000 85 000 43 300 18 009
Lugalo 45 7 000 7 000 7 000 000 10 000 140 000 56 300 26 955
F = 7.808*** ***Significant at 1%
Table 6. Volume of tomatoes harvested per household during April-June 2010 tomato growing season (In tenga)
Madizini Masukanzi Lugalo Whole sample
Minimum 50 45 70 50
Maximum 120 110 120 120
Mean 87 85 94 88
SD 18.68 15.599 13.72 16.50
F = 3.619**, ** Significant at p <0.05, 1 tenga in Kiswahili=1bucket =20 kg
statistically significant (p<0.01) for the mean pairs
compared (Table 5). The reason for the difference could
be due to difference in farm size and the activity for which
labor was hired such as land preparation, planting, spray
of pesticides, weeding and harvesting. According to
MUVI (2009) about 95% of the farmers manage their
plots using household (family) labor or with the help of
casual workers. It is common for farmers to employ
casual workers in times of heavy workloads such as land
cultivation, stocking, weeding and harvesting.
Harvesting of tomatoes in the study area takes place in
piece meals as they mature and ripe. The main tomato
harvesting season is April and June. The second season
tomatoes are harvested between July and September
while the dry season irrigated tomatoes are harvested
between November and March. One way ANOVA test
was conducted to compare the volume of tomatoes
harvested by farmers in the three sample villages. The
ANOVA results in Table 6 show that the variation in the
mean volume of tomatoes harvested per farmer during
April-June 2010 tomato growing season in the three
sample villages was statistically significant (p<0.05) for
the mean pairs compared. The difference in the volume
of tomatoes harvested across the three sample villages
was largely due to differences in farm size but may also
be attributed by differences in the rate of application of
inputs such as fertilizer and pesticides which influence
total output.
Harvested tomatoes are normally spread in an open
space at the markets or put in tengas to maintain
freshness while waiting for the buyers who have placed
orders. The tomatoes can be stored in the open space for
up to two weeks without rotting. However, this depends
on weather conditions and handling practices after
harvest. Sorting of tomatoes before selling them is a
common practice among farmers in the study area.
Farmers sort out tomatoes that have deteriorated in
quality and leave the good ones for the market. If the
produce is sold at the farm gate the traders do re-grade
according to market needs before transporting them to
the distant urban markets. In most cases farmers use
carts (mkokoteni in kiswahili) pulled by animals for
ferrying the harvested tomatoes to collection centers
where traders and farmers interact. During focus group
discussions it was revealed that there were high levels of
post-harvest losses (about 40 - 50%) of tomatoes in the
course of loading, unloading and transportation.
Mwagike and Mdoe 052
8. The role of middlemen in fresh tomato supply chain in Kilolo district, Tanzania
Marketing channels and the role of middlemen in the
tomato supply chain
Figure 2 above further illustrates the various marketing
channels through which farmers in the study area sell
their fresh tomatoes. There are five market channels
through which farmers sell their fresh tomatoes.
According to Figure 2 the most important channel
comprises of farmers who sale through assemblers.
Approximately 58% of the farmers sold their tomatoes
through this channel during the April-June 2010 tomato
growing season. This is the longest channel in the fresh
tomatoes supply chain in the study area with more
intermediaries than the other market channels.
Assemblers played a very crucial role in the fresh tomato
supply chain since they had several close links with many
local producers and wholesalers who came from different
parts of the country to purchase tomatoes. Farmers
wanted to save transport cost, loading and unloading
costs that’s why they sold their tomatoes to assemblers
at farm gate. The study found that on average farmers
sold about 65 tengas out of 88 tengas harvested. This
indicates that losses were about 20 tengas (26%) of the
tomatoes harvested. Average selling price was Tshs 7
515 per tenga of tomatoes. This finding supports finding
by Suryavanshi et al. (2006) who found that 80% of the
tomato produce was sold through assemblers because
farmers wanted to save transport cost, loading and
unloading costs.
The second important market channel comprises
farmers who sell their fresh tomatoes through
wholesalers instead of passing through assemblers.
Approximately 18% of the sampled farmers sold their
fresh tomatoes to wholesalers in the April-June 2010
tomato growing season. The farmer-wholesaler
arrangement is similar to the farmer-assembler
arrangement in that transacting parties meet at the farm
gate or collection centres. The pricing system of
wholesalers depends on current market prices. The
shortening of the distribution chain by having a direct
buying-link between farmers and wholesalers implies that
few negotiation and bargaining transactions take place
among smallholder farmers and wholesalers. When
disagreements occur, farmers and wholesalers can
directly re-negotiate with each other instead of depending
on assemblers as intermediaries. Wholesalers are
generally well funded; and for this reason, provided
farmer’s with loans which was used by smallholder
farmers to purchase production inputs such as seeds,
fertilizers, or chemicals for pest and disease control.
Wholesalers’ assistance however, does not come without
consequences because farmers are compelled to pay the
loans or give priority to their wholesaler-financier when
tomatoes are ready for harvesting. Thus they are forced
into an agreement that can be referred to as a kind of
locked-in effect.
According to traders
We could lend to farmers up to 300,000 Tanzanian
shillings with 5% interest per month. Payment was made
after harvest or through agreed sales. Traders reported
that some farmers diverted the purpose of loan accessed
to other businesses hence failed to pay the loan on time.
During focus group discussions farmers were asked to
give their opinion about the informal contractual
arrangement with traders. It was established that the
arrangement was good because farmers had a certain
degree of assured market and income security through
agreed sales.
According to farmers
„‟We consider the contractual arrangement to be good
because we are assured of selling our produce to traders
who have provided credit to us. However, sometimes we
are forced to sell our produce for low market price
because of the contractual agreements. This makes us to
get low cash income from tomato produce”
The above two market channels handled slightly above
three quarters (76%) of the fresh tomatoes produced in
the study area during the April-June 2010 tomato growing
season. The remaining 24% were channeled through
processors, retailers or sold directly to ultimate
consumers. Approximately 1%, 13% and 10% of the
sampled farmers reported to sell their tomatoes through
processors, retailers and directly to consumers
respectively. Consumers of fresh tomatoes include
individual households and organizations such as schools,
colleges and hospitals. During focus group discussion it
was revealed that there were high level of losses about
40 - 60% of the tomatoes were lost due to poor post
harvest handling.
According to farmers:
“Limited access to markets for our produce is the most
challenging problem we face. Most of us sell our
tomatoes to middlemen at below market price because of
limited access to urban markets. We do not have the
capacity to sell our tomatoes to places where can get
better prices, because of high transportation costs. We
also lack storage facilities for conserving tomatoes. This
result into big losses thus we don‟t have choice other
than selling at the price determined by middlemen on a
specific date.”
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9. The role of middlemen in fresh tomato supply chain in Kilolo district, Tanzania
Table 7. Volume of fresh tomatoes handled by assemblers in April-June 2010 tomato growing season
Quantity in tengas per assembler per season
Min Max Mean SD
Quantity bought 400 7 760 2 226 2 054
Quantity sold 395 7 750 2 218 2 049
Table 8. Fresh tomato prices paid and received by assemblers in April-June 2010 tomato growing season
Prices per tenga in Tshs
Min Max Mean SD
Buying price 6 000 12 000 7 861 1 663
Selling price 1 0000 25 000 1 6611 4 114
Table 9. Volume of tomatoes handled by wholesalers in April-June 2010 tomato growing season
Quantity of tomatoes in tengas per wholesaler per season
Min Max Mean SD
Quantity bought 150 2 000 608 437
Quantity sold 135 1 995 597 434
Table 10. Prices paid and received by wholesalers in April-June 2010 tomato growing season
Prices per tenga in Tshs.
Min Max Mean SD
Buying price 7000 18000 11200 2665
Selling price 18000 40000 25850 5907
There are three main trader categories in the fresh
tomato supply chain in Kilolo District. The first category is
assemblers. Rural assemblers play a crucial role in the
supply chain since they have close links with many local
producers and buyers who come from different parts of
the country to purchase tomatoes. Exchange of tomatoes
from producers to assemblers takes place at the farm
gate or collection centers near areas where tomatoes are
being grown. Assemblers have to bear the cost of tomato
loading, transportation to their buyers and unloading.
Assemblers sell the fresh tomatoes to wholesalers,
retailers or directly to consumers. Majority (55.6%) of the
assemblers sold their tomatoes at village markets to
wholesalers from urban areas such as Dar es Salaam,
Morogoro, Ruvu, Mtwara, Chalinze, Tanga and
Mombasa. Approximately 25% of the assemblers sold
their tomatoes to retailers and the remaining 19.4% sold
their produce to final consumers. Quantities of tomatoes
handled by the assemblers varied greatly as indicated in
Table 7. On average assemblers bought approximately 2
226 tengas and sold 2 218 tengas per season. Similarly
prices paid to producers (buying price) and prices
received by the assemblers varied greatly with mean
buying price of Tshs. 7 861 and selling price of Tshs. 16
611 per tenga in April-June 2010 tomato growing season
(Table 7).
The second category of traders is wholesalers.
Wholesalers purchase tomatoes from farmers and/or
assemblers at the farm gate or collection centers.
Wholesalers ensure that the purchased tomatoes are
properly packed, stored ready for transportation to selling
points in urban area. About 70% of the wholesalers
reported that they sold their produce to retailers and the
remaining 30% sold their produce directly to consumers.
Quantities of tomatoes purchased and sold by
wholesalers are shown in Table 9 while prices paid and
received by wholesalers are indicated in Table 10. As
revealed from the two tables both quantities handed and
prices paid/received varied greatly. On average
wholesalers bought and sold 608 tengas and 597 tengas
per season respectively (Table 9). Each tenga was
bought and sold at an average price of Tshs. 11 200 and
Tshs. 25 850 per tenga respectively in the April-June
2010 tomato growing season (Table 10).
The third category of traders is retailers. Retailers are
known for their limited capacity of purchasing and
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10. The role of middlemen in fresh tomato supply chain in Kilolo district, Tanzania
Table 11. Volume of fresh tomatoes handled by retailers in April-June 2010 tomato growing season
Quantity of tomatoes in tengas per retailer per season
Min Max Mean SD
Quantity bought 150 600 265 135
Quantity sold 70 400 167 11
Table 12. Prices paid and received by retailers in April-June 2010 tomato growing season
Prices in Tshs per tenga
Min Max Mean SD
Buying price 7 000 14 000 9 424 1 723
Selling price 21 000 32 000 26 200 2 719
Table 13. Losses among traders category during April-June 2010 tomato growing season
Type of trader % losses among traders
Assemblers 0.3
Wholesalers 2.0
Retailers 37
Table 14. Actor’s share of the price paid by consumers along the longest fresh tomato supply chain in April-June
2010 tomato growing season
Marketing node Price (Tshs) Marketing margin
Farm level 7 515 -
Assembling level 16 611 8 596
Wholesale level 25 850 9 739
Retail level 26 200 350
handling products. At retail level the operators are
differentiated according to their location and/or the
volume of tomatoes they trade. The retailers can be
categorized into two groups, sedentary and hawkers. The
sedentary retailers sell fresh tomatoes at open markets
and along roadsides in small wood made kiosks while
hawkers sell fresh tomatoes along the roadside but do
not have a permanent stand (booth). They move around,
approaching potential customers and advertising to
attract them. They provide the necessary services to their
customers including parking tomatoes in nylon or plastic
bags. The roadside markets are strategically located at
stop over places along trunk roads such as roadside
hotels or restaurants like Kitonga, Bismilahh and Al
Jaazira along the Dar es Salaam-Tunduma highway.
Other roadside markets are located in highway junctions.
On average retailers handled smaller quantities of fresh
tomatoes than assemblers and wholesalers. They bought
an average of 265 tengas at an average price of Tshs
9,424 per tenga and sold an average of about 167 tenga
at an average selling price of Tshs. 26,200 per tenga
(Tables 11 and 12).
The findings presented in Tables 12 and 14 indicate
differences in quantities bought and sold by assemblers,
wholesalers and retailers respectively. The difference
was due to wastage during transportation as a result of
poor storage facilities especially at the retail node of the
supply chain. Table 13 shows losses incurred by the
three categories of traders along the fresh tomato supply
chain. The table shows that approximately 37% of the
fresh tomatoes were wasted at the retail node of the
supply chain due to lack of storage facilities. These
findings support the findings reported by MUVI (2009)
that about 48-50% of the horticultural produce is wasted
at retail level due to lack of markets and lack of storage
facilities.
Apart from losses, quantities handled and prices
paid/received varied greatly among the three categories
Int. J. Agric. Mark. 055
11. The role of middlemen in fresh tomato supply chain in Kilolo district, Tanzania
of traders with retailers handling the smallest quantities of
tomatoes per season but paying/charging the highest
price per tenga of tomatoes, probably due to
transportation costs reflecting spatial differences between
the supply and demand centers. During the field survey,
traders indicated that the major risk in tomato marketing
is oversupply or undersupply of fresh tomatoes caused
by weak market intelligence and inability to forecast. In
order to minimize losses from such fluctuations many
traders have established social networks that provide
indicative supply and demand situation. During focus
group discussions farmers and traders reported that
prices of tomatoes are higher between March and May
when there is low supply of tomatoes while prices are low
from June to September. Again the prices increase in
December because of the end of year festivals when
consumption of fresh tomatoes increases.
The share of the producer of the price paid by the
ultimate consumer depends on the length of the market
channel (number of actors). For example the producer’s
share of the price paid by ultimate consumer of fresh
tomatoes in the longest market channel for fresh
tomatoes in April-June 2010 tomato growing season was
28%. On the other hand, producers who sold their
tomatoes directly to consumers received the largest
share 100% of the price paid by consumers.
The vegetable supply chain in Tanzania is complex and
disorganized. Supply chains are based on the contacts
and knowledge of the people involved in the trading. The
finding indicates that smallholder farmers lack access to
urban market due to naturally poor location and thus rely
on middlemen (traders) to market their tomato produce.
The findings suggest that traders play significant role in
facilitating smallholder farmers’ access to markets. These
results support the findings of Eskola (2005) and MUVI,
(2009) who found that local traders act as facilitators
between many local producers and a few Dar es Salaam
buyers. However, the findings show that the tomato
supply chain is very long and disorganized. Long supply
chains are costly in terms of time and money. In the
Tanzanian context, the use of middlemen is often the
only viable way to trade in absence of enforceable and
foreseeable contracts. The use of middlemen to reduce
transaction costs has also been found in the country
context of Ethiopia (Gabre-Madhin, 2001).
The tomato supply chain has no lead firm at any level of
the chain (i.e. production, marketing, trading and
consumption) that govern and control the system and
instead it is governed and controlled by the supply and
demand conditions in the market that set commodity
prices only (Fig. 2). There is no lead firm that coordinates
the supply chain in relation to markets and other
important information shared among the actors. The
tomato supply chain in Kilolo district is characterized by
lack of formal governance. The governance mechanism
in the tomato supply chain is underdeveloped. Supply
chain actors operate in an un-coordinated manner.
These results support the findings of Banson et al.,
(2014) who found that there is lack of coordination
management plans in the governance structure of
agribusiness in Africa which leads to disjointed
government policies with unintended consequences such
as unstable agri-business and loss of revenue.
Furthermore, the findings revealed that unreliability of
markets for tomato produce was linked with the poor
conditions of feeder roads. This had caused difficulties in
transporting the produce from the farms to the markets.
Due to largely varying condition of the road network, the
ongoing market price for transportation is often higher.
Smallholder farmers can successfully exploit the market
opportunities for fresh tomatoes if measures like
improvement in road infrastructure are taken to reduce
transaction costs.
CONCLUSIONS
The findings of the study have shown that smallholder
tomato farmers in Kilolo District rely on middlemen who
purchase their tomatoes for sale at the terminal market in
Dar es Salaam about 500 km from Kilolo. The distance
of the terminal market from the study area suggests that
selling through middlemen cannot be avoided unless the
smallholder tomato farmers are directly linked with buyers
at the terminal markets. Furthermore the findings have
shown that smallholder farmers sold their produce at
lower prices in order to ease congestion. There is
therefore a need to promote formation of vegetable
farmer’s cooperative groups. Being in strong cooperative
groups will not only increase their bargaining power with
the middlemen but groups can also bulk their vegetables,
organize transport and transport vegetable to Dar-es-
salaam without relying on the middlemen.
The findings of the study have shown that smallholder
farmers in remote vegetable growing villages have limited
access to urban markets due to poor road network
leading to high transportation costs that limit number of
traders going to these villages. In order to realize the full
potential of agricultural trade as a tool in the fight against
poverty, the suggested policy interventions are to
prioritize and increase funding for physical infrastructure.
Mwagike and Mdoe 056