Maxwells equation and Electromagnetic WavesA K Mishra
These slide contains Scalar,Vector fields ,gradients,Divergence,and Curl,Gauss divergence theorem,Stoks theorem,Maxwell electromagnetic equations ,Pointing theorem,Depth of penetration (Skin depth) for graduate and Engineering students and teachers.
Maxwells equation and Electromagnetic WavesA K Mishra
These slide contains Scalar,Vector fields ,gradients,Divergence,and Curl,Gauss divergence theorem,Stoks theorem,Maxwell electromagnetic equations ,Pointing theorem,Depth of penetration (Skin depth) for graduate and Engineering students and teachers.
scanning electron microscope for analysisM Ali Mohsin
SEM stands for scanning electron microscope. The SEM is a microscope that uses electrons instead of light to form an image. Since their development in the early 1950's, scanning electron microscopes have developed new areas of study in the medical and physical science communities.
scanning electron microscope for analysisM Ali Mohsin
SEM stands for scanning electron microscope. The SEM is a microscope that uses electrons instead of light to form an image. Since their development in the early 1950's, scanning electron microscopes have developed new areas of study in the medical and physical science communities.
Quantum Theory. Wave Particle Duality. Particle in a Box. Schrodinger wave equation. Quantum Numbers and Electron Orbitals. Principal Shells and Subshells. A Fourth Quantum Number. Effective nuclear charge
Forklift Classes Overview by Intella PartsIntella Parts
Discover the different forklift classes and their specific applications. Learn how to choose the right forklift for your needs to ensure safety, efficiency, and compliance in your operations.
For more technical information, visit our website https://intellaparts.com
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024)ClaraZara1
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024) will provide an excellent international forum for sharing knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of on Machine Learning & Applications.
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Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
We have compiled the most important slides from each speaker's presentation. This year’s compilation, available for free, captures the key insights and contributions shared during the DfMAy 2024 conference.
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER IN CONDENSING HEAT EXCHANGERS...ssuser7dcef0
Power plants release a large amount of water vapor into the
atmosphere through the stack. The flue gas can be a potential
source for obtaining much needed cooling water for a power
plant. If a power plant could recover and reuse a portion of this
moisture, it could reduce its total cooling water intake
requirement. One of the most practical way to recover water
from flue gas is to use a condensing heat exchanger. The power
plant could also recover latent heat due to condensation as well
as sensible heat due to lowering the flue gas exit temperature.
Additionally, harmful acids released from the stack can be
reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation. reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation.
Condensation of vapors in flue gas is a complicated
phenomenon since heat and mass transfer of water vapor and
various acids simultaneously occur in the presence of noncondensable
gases such as nitrogen and oxygen. Design of a
condenser depends on the knowledge and understanding of the
heat and mass transfer processes. A computer program for
numerical simulations of water (H2O) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
condensation in a flue gas condensing heat exchanger was
developed using MATLAB. Governing equations based on
mass and energy balances for the system were derived to
predict variables such as flue gas exit temperature, cooling
water outlet temperature, mole fraction and condensation rates
of water and sulfuric acid vapors. The equations were solved
using an iterative solution technique with calculations of heat
and mass transfer coefficients and physical properties.
NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER IN CONDENSING HEAT EXCHANGERS...
The Hall Effect
1. Hall Effect in Semiconductors ( S.O. Kasap, 1990 - 2001)
An e-Booklet
1
HALL EFFECT IN SEMICONDUCTORS
Safa Kasap
Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Saskatchewan
Canada
“One day in the year of 1820, walking to his lecture at the University
of Copenhagen, Oersted got an idea. If static electricity did not affect
magnets in any way, maybe things would be different if one tried
electricity moving through the wire connecting the two poles of the
Volta pile. Arriving at the classroom filled with a crowd of young
students, Oersted placed on the lecture table his Volta pile,
connected the two opposite ends of it by a platinum wire, and placed
a compass needle close to it. The needle, which was supposed to
orient itself always in the north-south direction, turned around and
came to rest in the direction perpendicular to the wire. The audience
was not impressed but Oersted was.”
George Gamow
Biography of Physics (Harper Brothers, 1961)
Magnetically operated Hall effect switches are based on the Hall
effect in semiconductors. This magnetically operated position sensor
is commercially available from Micro Switch (Honeywell).
Hall effect in a sample where there are both negative and positive charge carriers, e.g. electrons and holes in
a semiconductor, involves not only the concentrations of electrons and holes, n and p respectively, but also
the electron and hole drift mobilities, µe and µh. We first have to reinterpret the relationship between the
drift velocity and the electric field, E.
If µe is the drift mobility and ve the drift velocity of the electrons, then we have already shown that ve
= µeE. This has been derived by considering the net electrostatic force, eE, acting on a single electron and
the imparted acceleration a = eE/me. The drift is therefore due to the net force, Fnet = eE, experienced by a
conduction electron. If we were to keep eE as the net force Fnet acting on a single electron then we would
have found
v
e
Fe
e
net=
µ
(1)
Equation (1) emphasizes the fact that drift is due to a net force, Fnet, acting on an electron. A similar
expression would also apply to the drift of a hole in a semiconductor.
2. Hall Effect in Semiconductors ( S.O. Kasap, 1990 - 2001)
An e-Booklet
2
When both electrons and holes are present as in a semiconductor sample, both charge carriers
experience a Lorentz force in the same direction since they would be drifting in the opposite directions as
illustrated in Figure 1.
Hall effect for ambipolar conduction as in a semiconductor where there are both
electrons and holes. The magnetic field Bz is out from the plane of the paper.
Both electrons and holes are deflected toward the bottom surface of the
conductor and consequently the Hall voltage depends on the relative mobilities
and concentrations of electrons and holes.
Jx
vex
e y
Jy = 0
x
z
y
evexBz
Bz
V
Bz
A
Jx
y
x
e y
vhx
evhxBz
Figure 1
Thus, both holes and electrons tend to pile near the bottom surface. The magnitude of the Lorentz
force, however, will be different since the drift mobilities and hence drift velocities will be different. Once
equilibrium is reached, there should be no current flowing in the y-direction as we have an open circuit. Let
us suppose that more holes have accumulated near the bottom surface so that there is a built-in electric field
Ey along y-direction as shown in Figure 1. Suppose that vey and vhy are the usual electron and hole drift
velocities in the −y and +y directions respectively (as if the electric field Ey existed alone in the +y
direction). In the y-direction there is no net current, therefore
Jy = Jh + Je = epvhy + envey = 0 (2)
It is apparent that either the electron or the hole drift velocity must be reversed with respect to its
usual direction to obtain a zero net current along y. (In Figure 1 this means holes are drifting in the
opposite direction to Ey.) From Equation (2) we obtain
pvhy = −nvey (3)
We note that the net force acting on the charge carriers cannot be zero. This is impossible when two
types of carriers are involved and that both carriers are drifting along y to give a net current Jy that is zero.
This is what Equation (2) represents. We therefore conclude that, along y, both the electron and the hole
must experience a driving force to drift them. The net force experienced by the carriers, as shown in Figure
1, is
Fhy = eEy −evhxBz and −Fey = eEy + evexBz (4)
where vhx and vex are the hole and electron drift velocities along x. We know that, in general, the drift velocity
is determined by the net force acting on a charge carrier, that is, from Equation (1),
Fhy = evhy/µh and −Fey = evey/µe
3. Hall Effect in Semiconductors ( S.O. Kasap, 1990 - 2001)
An e-Booklet
3
so that Equation (4) becomes,
ev
e ev Bhy
h
y hx z
µ
= −E
ev
e ev Bey
e
y ex z
µ
= +E
where vhy and vey are the hole and electron drift velocities along y. Substituting vhx = µhEx and vex = µeEx,
these become
v
Bhy
h
y h x z
µ
µ= −E E
v
Bey
e
y e x z
µ
µ= +E E (5)
From Equation (5) we can substitute for vhy and vey in Equation (3) to obtain
pµhEy − pµh
2
Ex Bz = −nµeEy − nµe
2
ExBz
or Ey(pµh + nµe) = BzEx(pµh
2
− nµe
2
) (6)
We now consider what happens along the x-direction. The total current density is finite and is given
by the usual expression,
Jx = epvhx + envex = (pµh + nµe)eEx (7)
We can use Equation (7) to substitute for Ex in Equation (6), to obtain
eEy(nµe + pµh)2
= BzJx(pµh
2
− nµe
2
)
The Hall coefficient, by definition, is RH = Ey/JxBz so that
R
p n
e p n
H
h e
h e
=
−
+( )
µ µ
µ µ
2 2
2 Hall Effect for ambipolar conduction (8)
or R
p nb
e p nb
H =
−
+( )
2
2 Hall Effect for ambipolar conduction (9)
where b = µe/µh. It is clear that the Hall coefficient depends on both the drift mobility ratio and the
concentrations of holes and electrons. For p > nb2
, RH will be positive and for p < nb2
, it will be negative.
We should note that when only one type of carrier is involved, e.g. electrons only, Jy = 0 requirement means
that Jy = envey = 0, or vey = 0. The drift velocity along y can only be zero, if the net driving force, Fey, along y
is zero. This occurs when the Lorentz force just balances the force due to the built-in field.
1. Example: Hall coefficient of intrinsic silicon
Intrinsic silicon has electron and hole concentrations, n = p = ni =1.5 × 1010
cm-3
, and electron and hole
drift mobilities, µe = 1350 cm2
V-1
s-1
, µh = 450 cm2
V-1
s-1
. Calculate the Hall coefficient and compare it
with a typical metal.
Solution
Given n = p = ni = 1.5 × 1010
cm-3
, µe = 1350 cm2
V-1
s-1
and µh = 450 cm2
V-1
s-1
we have
b = µe/µh = 1350/450 = 3
then, RH =
× − ×
× × + ×[ ]−
( ) ( )( )
( . ) ( ) ( )( )
1 10 1 10 3
1 6 10 1 10 1 10 3
16 16 2
19 16 16 2
m m
C m m
-3 -3
-3 -3
or RH = −208 m3
A-1
s-1
4. Hall Effect in Semiconductors ( S.O. Kasap, 1990 - 2001)
An e-Booklet
4
which is orders of magnitude larger than that for a typical metal. All Hall effect devices use a
semiconductor rather than a metal sample.
2. Example: Zero Hall coefficient in a semiconductor
Given the mass action law, np = ni
2
, find the electron concentration when the Hall coefficient is zero for a
semiconductor. Using ni =1.5 × 1010
cm-3
, and electron and hole drift mobilities, µe = 1350 cm2
V-1
s-1
and
µh = 450 cm2
V-1
s-1
, what are n and p in Si for zero RH?
Solution
Substituting the mass action law p = ni
2
/n into Equation (9) we get
R
p nb
e p nb
n
n
nb
e
n
n
nb
H
i
i
=
−
+( )
=
−
+
=
2
2
2
2
2 2 0
that is
n
n
nbi
2
2
0− =
solving, n = ni/b = 0.33ni = 5 × 109
cm-3
Obviously the corresponding hole concentration, p = bni or 4.5 × 1010
cm-3
.
3. Example: Maximum Hall coefficient in a semiconductor
Given the mass action law, np = ni
2
, find n for maximum RH (negative and positive). Assume that the drift
mobilities remain relatively unaffected as n changes (due to doping). Given the electron and hole drift
mobilities, µe = 1350 cm2
V-1
s-1
, µh = 450 cm2
V-1
s-1
for silicon, determine n for maximum RH in terms of
ni.
Solution
Substituting the mass action law p = ni
2
/n into Equation (9) we get
R
p nb
e p nb
n
n
nb
e
n
n
nb
u
v
H
i
i
=
−
+( )
=
−
+
=
2
2
2
2
2 2
where u and v represent the numerator and denominator as a function of n.
Then
dR
dn
u v uv
v
H
=
′ − ′
=2
0
where primes are derivatives with respect to n. This means that u′v − u v′ = 0, so that,
′ − ′ = − −
+
− −
+
− +
=u v uv
n
n
b e
n
n
nb
n
n
nb e
n
n
nb
n
n
bi i i i i
2
2
2
2 2 2
2
2 2
2
2 0
We can multiply through by n3
and then combine terms and factor to obtain,
b n n b b n ni i
3 4 2 2 4
3 1 0− + + =[ ( )]
5. Hall Effect in Semiconductors ( S.O. Kasap, 1990 - 2001)
An e-Booklet
5
or, b3
x2
+ [−3b(1−b)]x + 1 = 0
where x = (n/ni)2
. This is a quadratic equation in x. Its solution is,
x
n
n
b b b b b
bi
= =
+( ) ± +( ) −2
2
2 2 3
3
3 1 9 1 4
2
For Si, b = 3, and we have two solutions corresponding to n/ni = 1.14 and n/ni = 0.169, or p/ni =
1/0.169 = 5.92.
4. Example: Hall coefficient of a semiconductor
Given the mass action law, np = ni
2
, and the electron and hole drift mobilities, µe = 1350 cm2
V-1
s-1
, µh =
450 cm2
V-1
s-1
for silicon, that is b = 3, sketch schematically how RH changes with electron concentration n,
given those values of n resulting in RH = 0 and maximum RH values in the above examples.
Solution
Substituting the mass action law p = ni
2
/n into Equation (9) and using a normalized electron
concentration x = n/ni, we get,
R
p nb
e p nb
n
n
nb
e
n
n
nb
x
xb
en
x
xb
H
i
i
i
=
−
+( )
=
−
+
=
−
+
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
1
1
or y
R
en
x
xb
x
xb
H
i
=
=
−
+
1
1
1
2
2
RH vs. n obviously follows y vs. x, which is shown in Figure 2 for b = 3. It is left as an exercise to
show that, when n >> ni, RH = −1/en and when n << ni, RH = +1/ep.
Normalized Hall coefficient vs. normalized electron concentration. Values
0.17, 1.14 and 0.33 shown are n/n
i
values when the magnitude of RH
reaches
maxima and zero respectively.
-0.6
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.01 0.1 1 10n/ni
(eni)RH
1.14
0.17
1/3
Figure 2
6. Hall Effect in Semiconductors ( S.O. Kasap, 1990 - 2001)
An e-Booklet
6
NOTATION
a acceleration (m s-2
)
b ratio of electron to hole drift mobility (b = µe / µh)
Bz applied magnetic field along the z direction, transverse to Jx (T)
e electronic charge (1.602 × 10-19
C)
Ex applied electric field along the x-direction, along the direction of current flow, Jx (V m-1
)
Ey electric field along the y-direction (or the Hall field), transverse to Jx and Bz (V m-1
)
Fey external applied force acting on an electron in the conduction band along y (N)
Fhy external applied force acting on a hole in the valence band along y (N)
Fnet net force (N)
Jx current density along x (A m-2
)
Jy current density along y (A m-2
)
KE kinetic energy
me mass of electron in free space (9.10939 × 10-31
kg)
n concentration of electrons (number of electrons per unit volume) in the conduction band (m-3
)
ni intrinsic concentration (m-3
)
p concentration of holes in the valence band (m-3
)
RH Hall coefficient (m3
C-1
)
vex drift velocity of an electron in the x-direction due to an applied external force along x (m s-1
)
vey drift velocity of an electron in the y-direction due to an applied external force along y (m s-1
)
vhx drift velocity of a hole in the x-direction due to an applied external force along x (m s-1
)
vhy drift velocity of a hole in the y-direction due to an applied external force along y (m s-1
)
µe drift mobility of electrons in the conduction band (m2
V-1
s-1
)
µh drift mobility of holes in the valence band (m2
V-1
s-1
)
USEFUL DEFINITIONS
Hall coefficient (RH) is a parameter that gauges the magnitude of the Hall effect. If Ey is the electric field set up in the y-
direction due to a current density, Jx, along x and a magnetic field, Bz, along z, then RH = Ey/JxBz.
Hall effect is a phenomenon that occurs in a conductor carrying a current when it is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular
to the current. The charge carriers in the conductor become deflected by the magnetic field and give rise to an electric
field (Hall field) that is perpendicular to both the current and magnetic field. If the current density, Jx, is along x and
the magnetic field, Bz, is along z, then the Hall field is either along +y or −y depending on the polarity of the charge
carriers in the material.
Drift mobility is the drift velocity per unit applied field. If µd is the mobility then the defining equation is vd=µdE where
vd is the drift velocity and E is the electric field.
Drift velocity is the average velocity, over all the conduction electrons in the conductor, in the direction of an applied
electrical force (F = −eE for electrons). In the absence of an applied field, all the electrons are moving around
randomly and the average velocity, over all the electrons, in any direction is zero. With an applied field, Ex, there is a
net velocity per electron, vdx, in the opposite direction to the field where vdx depends on Ex via vdx=µdEx where µd is
the drift mobility.
Lorentz force is the force experienced by a moving charge in a magnetic field. When a charge q is moving with a velocity
v in a magnetic field B, then it experiences a force, F, that is proportional to the magnitude of its charge, q, its
velocity, v and the field B such that F=qv × B.
Mass action law in semiconductor science refers to the law np = ni
2
which is valid under thermal equilibrium conditions
and in the absence of external biases and illumination.