Modern leadership requires integrative thinking to address complex problems with uncertain solutions. Integrative thinking involves a four-step process: 1) determining salience by embracing complexity rather than reducing variables, 2) mapping causal relationships between variables, 3) sequencing consideration of variables while maintaining awareness of interrelationships, and 4) managing tensions creatively rather than seeing trade-offs as unavoidable compromises. This heuristic process allows leaders to make robust choices amid ambiguity and change.
The document discusses decision making processes at various levels of organizations. It describes decision making as a conscious process aimed at choosing a course of action to achieve goals. Decisions can be made at the individual, group, or organizational level. Key aspects of decision making include intelligence gathering, design of alternatives, and choosing among options. Effective decision making balances rational analysis with intuition. While no single style is best, participative decision making is often effective. The document also discusses using utility analysis to evaluate the costs and benefits of human resources decisions.
This document discusses various aspects of decision making including definitions, characteristics, types, factors affecting decision making, decision making styles, and tools. It defines decision making as the rational process of identifying alternatives and choosing a course of action. Some key points covered include that decision making involves evaluating alternatives to select the best option, and can be programmed, non-programmed, strategic, tactical, individual or group. Factors like certainty, risk and uncertainty are also discussed.
Notes on reader introducing systems approaches prt 5 ssmJames Cracknell
Part 5 - Soft Systems Methodology (SSM). What it is, how we use it and why we need it. The quality of management thinking is generally poor, decisions made on the hoof, under pressure and without thought for real ramifications. SSM is a human centered, action orientated tool that, unlike many pieces of analysis brings with it the essential element of worldviews, bias and a way of seeing the situation.
Notes on reader introducing systems approaches prt 6 cshJames Cracknell
The final part of Notes on Systems Approaches to Managing Change: A Practical Guide. Edited by Martin Reynolds and Sue Holwell. This section cover Critical Systems Heuristics - it is part of OU Module TU811 and is a part of a Master in Systems Thinking
I designed this Tool Box Talk to hopefully help people understand more about asset criticality and why it needs to be developed a specific way in order to manage asset health effectively. Let's make the right decision at the right time on the right asset.
1. The document discusses various empowerment processes such as delegation, decentralization, job enrichment, leadership styles, management by objectives, and team building.
2. It explains the differences between delegation and decentralization, with delegation retaining responsibility with the superior while decentralization transfers responsibility to subordinates.
3. Leadership styles discussed include Likert's four systems of management, the Tannenbaum and Schmidt leadership continuum, and Blake and Mouton's managerial grid model. Management by objectives is introduced as a five-step process of setting goals and evaluating progress.
This document compares theoretical models of decision-making to how senior managers make decisions in practice. It summarizes interviews with six prominent decision-makers.
The interviews found significant variation in personal decision-making styles. However, some common themes emerged, such as the importance of sensitivity to context, attention to information presentation, and the use of intuition. In terms of technology use, self-help office software was favored over more formal decision support systems.
One decision-maker noted that powerful people often make intuitive decisions to further their own interests rather than rational processes. Attempts to introduce structured decision-making tools in government failed because stakeholders were not interested in processes that reduced their power. Decision-making involves dealing with uncertainties,
There are two main types of business decisions - programmed decisions which follow set rules, and non-programmed decisions which require creativity. Making decisions involves recognizing the problem, gathering information, developing alternatives, choosing a solution, implementing it, and evaluating. Models for decision-making include rational, bounded rationality, garbage can, decision theory using decision trees, and game theory for decisions involving multiple parties. Strategy involves integrating goals and policies into a cohesive plan through formulation, implementation, and adaptation.
The document discusses decision making processes at various levels of organizations. It describes decision making as a conscious process aimed at choosing a course of action to achieve goals. Decisions can be made at the individual, group, or organizational level. Key aspects of decision making include intelligence gathering, design of alternatives, and choosing among options. Effective decision making balances rational analysis with intuition. While no single style is best, participative decision making is often effective. The document also discusses using utility analysis to evaluate the costs and benefits of human resources decisions.
This document discusses various aspects of decision making including definitions, characteristics, types, factors affecting decision making, decision making styles, and tools. It defines decision making as the rational process of identifying alternatives and choosing a course of action. Some key points covered include that decision making involves evaluating alternatives to select the best option, and can be programmed, non-programmed, strategic, tactical, individual or group. Factors like certainty, risk and uncertainty are also discussed.
Notes on reader introducing systems approaches prt 5 ssmJames Cracknell
Part 5 - Soft Systems Methodology (SSM). What it is, how we use it and why we need it. The quality of management thinking is generally poor, decisions made on the hoof, under pressure and without thought for real ramifications. SSM is a human centered, action orientated tool that, unlike many pieces of analysis brings with it the essential element of worldviews, bias and a way of seeing the situation.
Notes on reader introducing systems approaches prt 6 cshJames Cracknell
The final part of Notes on Systems Approaches to Managing Change: A Practical Guide. Edited by Martin Reynolds and Sue Holwell. This section cover Critical Systems Heuristics - it is part of OU Module TU811 and is a part of a Master in Systems Thinking
I designed this Tool Box Talk to hopefully help people understand more about asset criticality and why it needs to be developed a specific way in order to manage asset health effectively. Let's make the right decision at the right time on the right asset.
1. The document discusses various empowerment processes such as delegation, decentralization, job enrichment, leadership styles, management by objectives, and team building.
2. It explains the differences between delegation and decentralization, with delegation retaining responsibility with the superior while decentralization transfers responsibility to subordinates.
3. Leadership styles discussed include Likert's four systems of management, the Tannenbaum and Schmidt leadership continuum, and Blake and Mouton's managerial grid model. Management by objectives is introduced as a five-step process of setting goals and evaluating progress.
This document compares theoretical models of decision-making to how senior managers make decisions in practice. It summarizes interviews with six prominent decision-makers.
The interviews found significant variation in personal decision-making styles. However, some common themes emerged, such as the importance of sensitivity to context, attention to information presentation, and the use of intuition. In terms of technology use, self-help office software was favored over more formal decision support systems.
One decision-maker noted that powerful people often make intuitive decisions to further their own interests rather than rational processes. Attempts to introduce structured decision-making tools in government failed because stakeholders were not interested in processes that reduced their power. Decision-making involves dealing with uncertainties,
There are two main types of business decisions - programmed decisions which follow set rules, and non-programmed decisions which require creativity. Making decisions involves recognizing the problem, gathering information, developing alternatives, choosing a solution, implementing it, and evaluating. Models for decision-making include rational, bounded rationality, garbage can, decision theory using decision trees, and game theory for decisions involving multiple parties. Strategy involves integrating goals and policies into a cohesive plan through formulation, implementation, and adaptation.
Material ciff negotiation presentation guadalupeGaia Program
The 7 principles of cooperative negotiation presented in the document are interests, options, alternatives, criteria, communication, relationship, and commitments. The document discusses preparing for negotiation by identifying interests, brainstorming options, knowing your best alternative to a negotiated agreement, establishing objective criteria, practicing good communication skills, considering the negotiation relationship, and getting clear commitments. It emphasizes separating people from problems, focusing on interests over positions, inventing options for mutual gain, and using an interest-based cooperative approach to negotiation.
Notes on reader introducing systems approaches prt 3 vsmJames Cracknell
The document discusses the Viable Systems Model (VSM), a conceptual model for analyzing organizational viability and design. It is based on principles of cybernetics and the idea that an organization needs a layered, recursive structure to absorb environmental variety.
The VSM proposes that a viable organization consists of 5 interlinked systems: System 1 performs the primary operations; System 2 coordinates between operations; System 3 manages resource delivery; System 4 manages relationships with the external environment and plans for the future; System 5 ensures balanced relationships between the other systems.
For change efforts to succeed, they must be broken into discrete chunks that can be implemented at different levels and speeds to accommodate the organization's heterogeneous nature across boundaries. Coordination is also
The document describes different models of administrative decision making including the classical model, administrative model, incrementalism, mixed scanning approach, and garbage can theory. It contrasts the classical and administrative models, noting how the administrative model recognizes limitations in rationality due to bounded rationality and imperfect information. Incrementalism and mixed scanning are presented as alternatives that combine rational and incremental approaches. The role of intuition and various heuristics in decision making are also discussed.
The document discusses decision making as the essence of a manager's job. It outlines the 8 step decision making process that managers should follow, including identifying problems, criteria, alternatives, and evaluating outcomes. Decision making involves both rational and bounded rational approaches. Intuition also plays a role by complementing rational analysis. Managers must make both programmed and non-programmed decisions depending on how structured the problem is. Decisions can occur under conditions of certainty, risk or uncertainty.
Teambuilding-A Decision/Action Model for Soccer – Pt 2 Larry Paul
The document outlines several key elements necessary for effective teambuilding in soccer:
1. Fingerspitzengefühl and the individual qualities of players, which must be understood to maximize their contribution within the team.
2. Einheit or mutual trust, which loosely binds the team together in the absence of an explicit goal.
3. Schwerpunkt, the immediate in-game goal that provides focus and can build or destroy trust based on success or failure in achieving it.
4. Auftragstaktik, the long-term behaviors and patterns that allow the team to deal with new problems through an ingrained understanding between players and coaches. These basic prerequisites are needed for optimal
The document discusses the Harvard Negotiation Project and its six principles of cooperative negotiation. It begins with an overview of the Harvard Negotiation Project, which was established in 1983 to study negotiation as both an art and a science. The document then outlines the six principles of cooperative negotiation developed by the Harvard Negotiation Project: interests, options, alternatives, criteria, communication, and relationship/commitment. For each principle, it provides a brief explanation and examples. It focuses in more depth on the first principle of separating interests from positions in negotiation.
Chapter 09 conflict,communication,and coordinationPatel Jay
1. The document discusses conflict, communication, and coordination in organizations. It defines conflict as occurring when two or more individuals pursue incompatible goals.
2. Communication is defined as the act of making one's ideas and opinions known to others through words, letters, or messages. The communication process involves a sender encoding a message and a receiver decoding and providing feedback.
3. Coordination is defined as the orderly synchronization of employee efforts to efficiently achieve organizational objectives. Coordination involves developing unity of purpose and harmonizing implementation plans.
This document discusses four popular change management models used by organizations for IT projects: Lewin's three-stage model of unfreezing, changing, and refreezing; the McKinsey 7-S model which examines seven organizational facets; Kotter's eight-step model comprised of three phases; and the Kubler-Ross change curve which models the emotional reactions of employees to change. The models provide different approaches but generally emphasize the importance of preparing employees for changes and supporting them through the change process to ensure project success.
Decision making is a key management function that involves choosing between alternatives. There are different types of decisions like mechanistic, analytical, and judgmental. Effective decision making follows principles like considering alternatives and limitations. Decisions can be strategic, administrative, or operational. Decentralization distributes authority so managers can make job-related decisions, while balancing centralized controls and measurements. This allows top management to focus on goals and strategies, while developing managers' abilities through responsibility.
Conflict occurs when there are disagreements over issues or emotional tensions between individuals or groups. There are different types and levels of conflict including interpersonal, intrapersonal, intergroup, and inter-organizational. Conflict can be functional when constructive, but dysfunctional when destructive. Effective conflict management involves both assertiveness and cooperation to find win-win solutions through collaboration, problem-solving, and negotiation.
In the age of speed, making decisions quickly is critical to project success. This presentation considers the decision making process, decision making styles, and how to focus and tailor discussions to arrive at meaningful decisions quickly.
This document discusses key aspects of managerial decision making including:
- The rational and bounded rationality models of decision making
- The decision making process and common errors/biases that can occur
- The role of intuition in decision making
- Different types of decisions managers face like programmed vs nonprogrammed and certainty vs risk vs uncertainty
- Group decision making advantages and disadvantages
- Contemporary issues like forecasting, creativity, and ringisei decision making in Japanese companies.
The document discusses managing organizations in complex environments. It introduces the concept of complexity and how it differs from mere complication in having many intertwined dimensions beyond our understanding. This manifests in businesses through changes like new management models, values, and relationships. The document then provides tools for addressing complexity, including using different logics, meaning-based communication, collective intelligence, and innovation at multiple levels. It concludes with 10 tips for leaders, such as questioning structures, integrating uncertainty, and destroying "idols" in our heads.
Managers interact in different ways. This presentation is extracted from a real case study in which different managerial-impacting factors are analyzed. Performing risk-type analysis reshuffles the performance clusters and the results point to areas that warrant attention
According to the document, decision making is defined as a manager choosing a course of action from among multiple alternatives to address a given situation. It is a managerial function that involves rational thinking and planning by considering alternatives. There are different types of decisions that can be made, including basic or routine, organizational or personal, programmed or non-programmed, planned or off-the-cuff, policy or operative, tactical or strategic, and individual or group decisions. The decision making process involves multiple steps leading to the selection of the best solution.
This document discusses conflict management and negotiation. It defines conflict and conflict management, and explores the evolution of views on organizational conflict. It identifies common sources of conflict including scarce resources, ambiguous roles, personality clashes, power differences, and communication breakdowns. The document then examines various conflict management methodologies like the Thomas-Kilmann model's five styles of avoiding, competing, accommodating, compromising, and collaborating. It also outlines the "five A's" process of assessment, acknowledgement, attitude, action, and analysis. Finally, it discusses the "quantum skills" of seeing, thinking, feeling, knowing, acting, trusting, and being that are useful for effective conflict resolution.
This is a presentation on Roger Martin and his theory of Integrative Thinking. It addresses the key concepts and gives a brief explanation of the process and framework.
Sources used and cited: Harvard Business Review and The Opposable Mind (by Roger Martin).
An introduction to integrative thinking bit14 shareHeidi Siwak
This document provides an introduction to integrative thinking and the tools used to teach it. It discusses using inquiry, knowledge building, design thinking, and teacher-directed learning. It presents models of mental models and the ladder of inference. It describes system 1 and system 2 thinking and finding value in different ideas. The goal is to help students think more integratively about complex issues.
1) The Rotman Integrative Thinking Seminar Series has featured leading integrative thinkers to engage the community in building a model for integrative thinking and learning.
2) Dean Roger Martin believes highly successful businesspeople employ a distinctive pattern of thinking that leads across boundaries, and a model can be developed to teach this approach.
3) The initial model for integrative thinking considers more problem features and multi-directional causality, seeks creative resolutions, and visualizes the whole while working on parts.
Material ciff negotiation presentation guadalupeGaia Program
The 7 principles of cooperative negotiation presented in the document are interests, options, alternatives, criteria, communication, relationship, and commitments. The document discusses preparing for negotiation by identifying interests, brainstorming options, knowing your best alternative to a negotiated agreement, establishing objective criteria, practicing good communication skills, considering the negotiation relationship, and getting clear commitments. It emphasizes separating people from problems, focusing on interests over positions, inventing options for mutual gain, and using an interest-based cooperative approach to negotiation.
Notes on reader introducing systems approaches prt 3 vsmJames Cracknell
The document discusses the Viable Systems Model (VSM), a conceptual model for analyzing organizational viability and design. It is based on principles of cybernetics and the idea that an organization needs a layered, recursive structure to absorb environmental variety.
The VSM proposes that a viable organization consists of 5 interlinked systems: System 1 performs the primary operations; System 2 coordinates between operations; System 3 manages resource delivery; System 4 manages relationships with the external environment and plans for the future; System 5 ensures balanced relationships between the other systems.
For change efforts to succeed, they must be broken into discrete chunks that can be implemented at different levels and speeds to accommodate the organization's heterogeneous nature across boundaries. Coordination is also
The document describes different models of administrative decision making including the classical model, administrative model, incrementalism, mixed scanning approach, and garbage can theory. It contrasts the classical and administrative models, noting how the administrative model recognizes limitations in rationality due to bounded rationality and imperfect information. Incrementalism and mixed scanning are presented as alternatives that combine rational and incremental approaches. The role of intuition and various heuristics in decision making are also discussed.
The document discusses decision making as the essence of a manager's job. It outlines the 8 step decision making process that managers should follow, including identifying problems, criteria, alternatives, and evaluating outcomes. Decision making involves both rational and bounded rational approaches. Intuition also plays a role by complementing rational analysis. Managers must make both programmed and non-programmed decisions depending on how structured the problem is. Decisions can occur under conditions of certainty, risk or uncertainty.
Teambuilding-A Decision/Action Model for Soccer – Pt 2 Larry Paul
The document outlines several key elements necessary for effective teambuilding in soccer:
1. Fingerspitzengefühl and the individual qualities of players, which must be understood to maximize their contribution within the team.
2. Einheit or mutual trust, which loosely binds the team together in the absence of an explicit goal.
3. Schwerpunkt, the immediate in-game goal that provides focus and can build or destroy trust based on success or failure in achieving it.
4. Auftragstaktik, the long-term behaviors and patterns that allow the team to deal with new problems through an ingrained understanding between players and coaches. These basic prerequisites are needed for optimal
The document discusses the Harvard Negotiation Project and its six principles of cooperative negotiation. It begins with an overview of the Harvard Negotiation Project, which was established in 1983 to study negotiation as both an art and a science. The document then outlines the six principles of cooperative negotiation developed by the Harvard Negotiation Project: interests, options, alternatives, criteria, communication, and relationship/commitment. For each principle, it provides a brief explanation and examples. It focuses in more depth on the first principle of separating interests from positions in negotiation.
Chapter 09 conflict,communication,and coordinationPatel Jay
1. The document discusses conflict, communication, and coordination in organizations. It defines conflict as occurring when two or more individuals pursue incompatible goals.
2. Communication is defined as the act of making one's ideas and opinions known to others through words, letters, or messages. The communication process involves a sender encoding a message and a receiver decoding and providing feedback.
3. Coordination is defined as the orderly synchronization of employee efforts to efficiently achieve organizational objectives. Coordination involves developing unity of purpose and harmonizing implementation plans.
This document discusses four popular change management models used by organizations for IT projects: Lewin's three-stage model of unfreezing, changing, and refreezing; the McKinsey 7-S model which examines seven organizational facets; Kotter's eight-step model comprised of three phases; and the Kubler-Ross change curve which models the emotional reactions of employees to change. The models provide different approaches but generally emphasize the importance of preparing employees for changes and supporting them through the change process to ensure project success.
Decision making is a key management function that involves choosing between alternatives. There are different types of decisions like mechanistic, analytical, and judgmental. Effective decision making follows principles like considering alternatives and limitations. Decisions can be strategic, administrative, or operational. Decentralization distributes authority so managers can make job-related decisions, while balancing centralized controls and measurements. This allows top management to focus on goals and strategies, while developing managers' abilities through responsibility.
Conflict occurs when there are disagreements over issues or emotional tensions between individuals or groups. There are different types and levels of conflict including interpersonal, intrapersonal, intergroup, and inter-organizational. Conflict can be functional when constructive, but dysfunctional when destructive. Effective conflict management involves both assertiveness and cooperation to find win-win solutions through collaboration, problem-solving, and negotiation.
In the age of speed, making decisions quickly is critical to project success. This presentation considers the decision making process, decision making styles, and how to focus and tailor discussions to arrive at meaningful decisions quickly.
This document discusses key aspects of managerial decision making including:
- The rational and bounded rationality models of decision making
- The decision making process and common errors/biases that can occur
- The role of intuition in decision making
- Different types of decisions managers face like programmed vs nonprogrammed and certainty vs risk vs uncertainty
- Group decision making advantages and disadvantages
- Contemporary issues like forecasting, creativity, and ringisei decision making in Japanese companies.
The document discusses managing organizations in complex environments. It introduces the concept of complexity and how it differs from mere complication in having many intertwined dimensions beyond our understanding. This manifests in businesses through changes like new management models, values, and relationships. The document then provides tools for addressing complexity, including using different logics, meaning-based communication, collective intelligence, and innovation at multiple levels. It concludes with 10 tips for leaders, such as questioning structures, integrating uncertainty, and destroying "idols" in our heads.
Managers interact in different ways. This presentation is extracted from a real case study in which different managerial-impacting factors are analyzed. Performing risk-type analysis reshuffles the performance clusters and the results point to areas that warrant attention
According to the document, decision making is defined as a manager choosing a course of action from among multiple alternatives to address a given situation. It is a managerial function that involves rational thinking and planning by considering alternatives. There are different types of decisions that can be made, including basic or routine, organizational or personal, programmed or non-programmed, planned or off-the-cuff, policy or operative, tactical or strategic, and individual or group decisions. The decision making process involves multiple steps leading to the selection of the best solution.
This document discusses conflict management and negotiation. It defines conflict and conflict management, and explores the evolution of views on organizational conflict. It identifies common sources of conflict including scarce resources, ambiguous roles, personality clashes, power differences, and communication breakdowns. The document then examines various conflict management methodologies like the Thomas-Kilmann model's five styles of avoiding, competing, accommodating, compromising, and collaborating. It also outlines the "five A's" process of assessment, acknowledgement, attitude, action, and analysis. Finally, it discusses the "quantum skills" of seeing, thinking, feeling, knowing, acting, trusting, and being that are useful for effective conflict resolution.
This is a presentation on Roger Martin and his theory of Integrative Thinking. It addresses the key concepts and gives a brief explanation of the process and framework.
Sources used and cited: Harvard Business Review and The Opposable Mind (by Roger Martin).
An introduction to integrative thinking bit14 shareHeidi Siwak
This document provides an introduction to integrative thinking and the tools used to teach it. It discusses using inquiry, knowledge building, design thinking, and teacher-directed learning. It presents models of mental models and the ladder of inference. It describes system 1 and system 2 thinking and finding value in different ideas. The goal is to help students think more integratively about complex issues.
1) The Rotman Integrative Thinking Seminar Series has featured leading integrative thinkers to engage the community in building a model for integrative thinking and learning.
2) Dean Roger Martin believes highly successful businesspeople employ a distinctive pattern of thinking that leads across boundaries, and a model can be developed to teach this approach.
3) The initial model for integrative thinking considers more problem features and multi-directional causality, seeks creative resolutions, and visualizes the whole while working on parts.
This document introduces the Analysis by Competing Hypotheses (ACH) method for decision making. ACH was developed by the CIA to analyze intelligence but can also be applied to business decisions. The key steps are to identify all possible hypotheses, compile all relevant evidence in a matrix, evaluate each hypothesis by attempting to disprove it rather than prove it, and identify the most diagnostic evidence. An example is provided where ACH is applied to choosing a safety vest, identifying the most important criteria of visibility. The document argues current decision making approaches are flawed and that ACH provides a more rigorous scientific method.
This document discusses integrative thinking and the Scientrix approach. Integrative thinking is defined as a discipline for solving complex problems. Scientrix provides a digital solution for strategy execution using an XYZ matrix concept. The Scientrix approach is considered powerful for integrative thinking as it allows for consideration of multiple problem dimensions, multi-directional causality, and a framework to visualize relationships while resolving tensions creatively. Scientrix is presented as ideal for problems with more than two dimensions, such as designing and implementing strategy, creating IT architectures, and integrating different spheres of government.
The document discusses critical thinking and decision making in clinical contexts. It introduces dual process theory and how clinicians rely more on intuitive System 1 thinking which can lead to cognitive biases. Some biases discussed include availability bias, anchoring bias, confirmation bias, and search satisficing bias where clinicians fixate on initial diagnoses and do not fully consider alternatives. The document emphasizes the importance of balancing intuitive and analytical thinking to make well-informed decisions.
New 13 strategy-maps bsc integrative-thinkingZiya-B
This document discusses the use of strategy maps and the balanced scorecard (BSC) to implement organizational vision and strategy. It provides an overview of how strategy maps can link strategic objectives and their drivers through cause-and-effect relationships. It also explains the four perspectives of the BSC - financial, customer, internal processes, and innovation/growth - and how goals and measures can be defined for each perspective. Examples are given of objectives, measures, and how to develop a strategy map and BSC for an organization.
Hello Everyone,
A big thank you for all the interest in this study guide. It was originally created as a fun introduction that took the Cognitive Bias wiki and tried to make it easier to memorize.
However, the authors of the wiki article have expressed some concern over the accuracy of certain entries. The document was taken down until that could be corrected.
But, people started asking that I release a new version with a warning. In response, a new "Beta version" of the document has been uploaded with a very strong warning label up front and improved citations. I make it clear that all the text is based on an evolving wiki page and that some of the cognitive biases in there might be incorrect wiki entries. My hope is that this will continue to get people interested in pitching in to help fix the Cognitive Bias wiki pages. :) When the wiki is in a good place, I will take the document out of Beta, and will remove the warning label.
If you are a cognitive expert, join “Operation Fix The Cognitive Bias Wiki!” Add your suggestion to the conversation here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:List_of_cognitive_biases
Thanks for your interest!
Eric
P.S. . The images have been updated for better remixing and sharing rights. Rather than using permission based images, now all the images are public domain or free non-commercial use by anyone.
How to make strategy work in a complex and unpredictable world. In its essence, strategy is simple. It is about answering two fundamental and interrelated questions: where to play and how to win.
Almost 200 Scandinavian top managers, managers and strategists participated in an intensive day at Implement Consulting Group focusing on how to develop a winning strategy in a world that is increasingly unpredictable.
Strategist and author of the bestseller Playing to Win, Roger Martin was challeging the typical strategy processes where we try to control the risk and uncertainty through elaborate and detailed planning. In his opinion these processes often seem to end up being long-winded, abstract and complex. Sometimes even without any clear choices being made.
The document discusses various aspects of decision making. It defines decision making as choosing one alternative from among options. It describes the decision making process as recognizing the need for a decision, identifying alternatives, choosing the best option, and implementing it. Decision making can occur under certainty, risk, or uncertainty. Rational models of decision making propose a logical, step-by-step process while behavioral models recognize limitations and biases that influence decisions. Political forces, intuition, escalation of commitment, risk tolerance, and ethics also shape organizational decision making.
The document discusses concepts related to decision making. It defines decision making as choosing among options to achieve objectives in a given situation. Decisions are complex due to risks and tradeoffs. Rational decisions effectively achieve goals while considering constraints. Methods for evaluating decisions include optimization techniques, payoff analysis, and decision tree analysis. Sensitivity analysis assesses how sensitive outcomes are to changes in variables. Goal seeking analysis determines what variable values achieve a specified goal. Personal behaviors also influence decision making outcomes.
The decision making and problem solving modelsKaren S.
The document discusses decision making models and approaches. It covers:
1. The definition of decision making as the process of selecting between alternatives. Decision making can involve different methods.
2. Types of decisions including personal vs organizational, basic vs routine, and programmed vs non-programmed.
3. Decision making approaches used at different levels including intuition, rational analysis, strategic planning, think tanks, devil's advocate, and focus groups.
School administrators make many types of decisions that impact students, faculty, and the overall organization. While the rational model of decision-making involves identifying problems, generating alternatives, evaluating options, choosing a solution, implementing it, and evaluating outcomes, administrators often use bounded rationality due to constraints. They may satisfice by choosing acceptable rather than optimal options. Heuristics like availability, representativeness, and anchoring biases also influence decisions. Contextual rationality and procedural rationality further shape the decision process, and intuition plays a role alongside rational approaches.
The document describes various aspects of the managerial decision-making process, including the rational-economic and behavioral models of decision making. It discusses the seven steps in the decision-making process, concepts related to bounded rationality and escalation of commitment. Group decision making techniques like brainstorming and nominal group technique are described, as well as tools for strategic decision making like the growth-share matrix.
Decision making involves weighing ever-changing factors, unclear information, and conflicting views. The document discusses various decision making models and characteristics including programmed versus nonprogrammed decisions, certainty versus risk/uncertainty/ambiguity, and classical, administrative, and political models. It also covers steps in the decision making process, styles of decision making, and techniques for improving decision making such as decision trees and influence diagrams.
This document discusses key aspects of management decision making. It begins by explaining that management decision making involves a complex mix of knowledge, experience, creative thinking, and risk taking. It is often a rapid process. The document then discusses various types of managerial decisions, including programmed vs non-programmed decisions and proactive vs reactive decisions. It also outlines the typical steps in the decision making process, which include clarifying the problem, developing alternatives, evaluating options, implementing a decision, and assessing the results. Finally, it discusses factors that influence individual decision making such as the importance of the decision and a manager's tolerance for risk.
The document discusses decision making processes and models. It covers:
1. Steps in systematic decision making including defining the problem, identifying alternatives, choosing a preferred course of action, and evaluating results.
2. Phases and stages of decision making processes including intelligence, design, choice activities, and identification, development, and selection phases.
3. Models of decision making including rational, behavioral, social, and Simon's normative models.
4. Techniques for group decision making and problem solving such as nominal group technique and Delphi technique.
The document outlines learning objectives for a chapter on decision making. It discusses the eight steps in the decision-making process, factors that influence decision making like bounded rationality and intuition. It also describes different types of decisions, biases that can affect decision making, and strategies for effective decision making in complex environments.
This document provides an overview of decision making and how it relates to the management function of planning. It discusses the origins of management science and different approaches to decision making, including routine vs nonroutine decisions, objective vs bounded rationality, and decisions made under certainty, risk and uncertainty. The key points covered are:
- Decision making is an essential part of planning and is required in all management functions.
- Management science began during World War II to help solve complex problems.
- Decisions range from routine to nonroutine and managers must use bounded rationality due to limited time/resources.
- Decisions can be classified based on the level of certainty in their outcomes.
Decision making is one of the most important managerial activities. There are several approaches to decision making, including the classical model which assumes rationality and perfect information, and the administrative model which recognizes limitations like bounded rationality. Effective decision making involves defining the problem, identifying alternatives, evaluating alternatives based on feasibility, satisfaction and affordability, selecting the best alternative, implementing it, and following up on results. Behavioral aspects like intuition, politics and risk preferences also influence decisions.
There are different types of decision, they include programmed decision and a non-programmed decision. There are different models for decision making such as classical economic model,administrative model and Herbert Simons model of decision making.
For more such innovative content on management studies, join WeSchool PGDM-DLP Program: http://bit.ly/ZEcPAc
This document discusses individual decision making and problem solving. It covers key concepts such as the decision making process, types of decisions, and approaches to problem solving. The decision making process involves identifying a problem, searching for alternatives, evaluating alternatives, choosing an alternative, and providing feedback. Decisions can be programmed (routine) or non-programmed (non-routine), and strategic decisions are usually non-programmed while tactical decisions are often programmed. Problem solving approaches include routine, scientific, quantitative, and creative approaches.
Decision-making is a core function of management and involves choosing between alternatives to address problems. It is a continuous process that pervades all managerial actions. Effective decision-making requires following steps like defining the problem, analyzing alternatives, selecting the best solution, implementing it, and getting feedback. While rational decisions are ideal, they may not always be possible due to limitations like inadequate information, time pressure, human biases, and uncertainty.
The document summarizes different aspects of decision making including rational models, how decisions are actually made, organizational constraints, and ethics. It discusses how rational models assume complete information and optimization but real decisions involve bounded rationality where people satisfice. Decisions are influenced by heuristics, biases, and the need to appear competent. Organizations further constrain decisions through evaluation and reward systems, time pressures, and historical precedents. Ethics in decision making can focus on utilitarianism, rights, or justice but each approach has tradeoffs for productivity and individual interests.
The document outlines four models of decision making:
The rational-economic model assumes decision makers are completely rational and seek to maximize payoffs by considering all information and alternatives.
The administrative model recognizes limitations in rationality and information, so decision makers use heuristics and satisfice rather than optimize.
The implicit favorite model finds decision makers have implicit favorites before evaluating alternatives, then bias criteria to justify pre-existing choices.
The political model views decision making as negotiation among stakeholders with different agendas, using bargaining, persuasion and information control to sway outcomes.
The document discusses key aspects of decision making as the essence of a manager's job. It outlines the typical decision making process which involves defining the problem, identifying criteria, developing alternatives, analyzing alternatives, selecting an alternative, and evaluating the decision. It also discusses different decision making models and styles. Group decision making is discussed as well, outlining advantages like acceptance and more information, and disadvantages like taking longer and potential compromise. Situational factors for individual versus group decision making are also presented.
The document discusses various techniques for decision making and problem solving. It begins by stating that decision making and problem solving are key ingredients of leadership. It then provides definitions and characteristics of good decisions, including that they are whole, coherent, and transparent. The document goes on to describe 12 specific techniques for decision making, including group decision making, brainstorming, fishbone diagrams, analytical hierarchy matrices, Pareto analysis, and decision grids. It emphasizes that the human element is important and leaders must be able to reason and decide quickly under critical conditions.
This document discusses the decision making process in organizations and its importance. It describes decision making as identifying problems, gathering relevant information, developing alternative solutions, analyzing alternatives, selecting the best option, implementing the decision, and reviewing the decision. The summary discusses the types of decisions as programmed/non-programmed, operational/strategic, organizational/personal, and individual/group decisions. It also outlines the seven step decision making process as identifying the problem, collecting information, identifying alternatives, developing solutions, implementing the decision, taking action, and reviewing the decision.
Adriana Guzmán es una diseñadora con diez años de experiencia en el desarrollo de estrategias creativas. Se especializa en gestión de la innovación, diseño centrado en el usuario, procesos creativos y pensamiento de diseño. Ofrece servicios como consultora en innovación y diseño.
Este documento propone el uso del Diseño Centrado en el Usuario para crear un plan de comunicación innovador para una empresa. El DCU involucra a los usuarios en cada etapa del proceso de diseño para obtener una perspectiva más amplia del problema. Se describen varios métodos del DCU como estudios de casos, personas, escenarios, mapas de experiencia del usuario y diagramas de modelo mental que pueden usarse para desarrollar las comunicaciones estratégicas de la empresa. El documento también incluye un cronograma de trabajo propuesto de dos veces por semana.
This document summarizes a study on collaboration among geographically dispersed teams (GDT) in developing countries. The study aims to improve the quality and effectiveness of collaboration for people and organizations in developing regions with limited technology access. Initial interviews found that language barriers, technology problems, lack of training, and expensive collaboration tools challenge GDT collaboration. The researcher plans to further evaluate software, conduct cultural probes and interviews, test prototypes, and read more literature to address how design strategies and models can enable better virtual collaboration among distributed teams in developing areas.
The document contrasts a traditional 1960s classroom focused on memorization and passive learning with today's classroom that emphasizes active, collaborative, and project-based learning focused on what students know and can do. It also lists seven survival skills needed for the future like collaboration, communication, critical thinking, and accessing information. Finally, it discusses the benefits and drawbacks of online education and provides sources on the history and future of online learning.
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The document discusses the benefits of meditation for reducing stress and anxiety. Regular meditation practice can help calm the mind and body by lowering heart rate and blood pressure. Studies have shown that meditating for just 10-20 minutes per day can have significant positive impacts on both mental and physical health.
The document proposes solutions to improve a power company's customer-facing strategy to reduce home energy use. It suggests raising consumer awareness through free home energy assessments, tailored incentives, and giving users feedback and control over their energy usage through a mobile app. The benefits would be improved customer relationships for the company, decreased energy strain, and increased environmental stewardship.
The document provides information to a user named Jane about her average monthly bill of $80 according to the information retrieved. It then prompts her to enter her goal monthly bill amount, to which she responds with $65.
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Modern leadership requires integrative thinking to make complex choices. Integrative thinkers embrace complexity, tolerate uncertainty, and manage tensions to find creative solutions. Choices involve many interrelated elements and consequences, making them difficult to predict and resolve through a simple sequential process. True integrative thinking involves considering all relevant variables, understanding their interconnections, and dynamically revising choices to maintain internal consistency as conditions change. This heuristic process of integrative choice making cascades from higher-order choices that set the context for lower-order choices in an iterative and flexible manner.
The document discusses applying design thinking to help students at Universidad Jorge Tadeo Lozano solve unexpected problems. It outlines understanding the problem by having students represent their design process and identifying key variables affecting learning. It will evaluate the representations and brainstorm solutions. Random thoughts further discuss design thinking's human-centric viewpoint, exploring and experimenting to connect past and present to solve problems for the future. Context-based design understands user relationships in their environment. Design and prototyping builds to think through continuous feedback. Reliability and validity in design thinking explores new ideas intuitively and analyzes what is happening analytically.
The document proposes a smart home device called the "Genie" that would provide homeowners with information and tools to better manage their home's energy usage. The Genie would have a touchscreen interface and sensors around the home. It would show users where energy is being used, compare usage to goals and past months, and offer tips to reduce consumption. Users could control appliances and temperatures from the Genie or their phones. The goals are to educate homeowners on their energy habits, give a holistic view of home usage, help understand bills and costs, and motivate behavioral changes to reduce energy use.
The document discusses changing human behavior and decision making using the Brains, Behavior & Design toolkit. It provides an overview of concepts related to decision making factors like intertemporal choices, attentional collapse, and actor-observer bias. It also suggests using strategy cards to organize and prioritize reference cards on irrational situations like status quo bias and ambiguity effect. Finally, it proposes establishing a new routine of saving energy and outlines the routine, process to start and sustain it, and systems to support the routine like hourly energy reporting and remote home energy managers.
The document discusses different types of home energy users - Conscientious, Comfort/Common Sense, and Well-intentioned But Inactive - and requirements and behaviors for each. It aims to increase energy management awareness without requiring extensive user activity by providing solutions that fit different levels of involvement.
This document discusses energy consumption habits of several households. It finds that people want to conserve energy but lack knowledge on how to do so effectively. Households compare their energy usage to neighbors and make efforts to appear environmentally-friendly. Younger generations may be influenced more by friends than parents. The document recommends further engaging with users to understand how to increase energy conservation knowledge in fun and rewarding ways that leverage social behaviors and comparisons.
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The art of integrative thinking
1. Rotman Mgmt Fall 99 - FINAL 28.10.99 12:17 Page 4
The Art of Integrative Thinking
Modern leadership needs integrative thinking. Integrative thinkers
embrace complexity, tolerate uncertainty, and manage tension in searching for
creative solutions to problems.
By Roger Martin and Hilary Austen they involve a vast array of interrelated elements and conse-
quences. Addressing one piece of the choice puzzle means many
In today’s climate of constant change and relentless competition, others are affected, making it impossible to break the puzzle
the key job of a leader is to make robust choices. In an idealized down into small parts and solving each sequentially. Outcomes
world, leaders are efficient choice factories — processing infor- of initiatives are often difficult to predict, and conditions often
mation, options, and consequences — and rolling decisions off change before solutions can be implemented.
their personal assembly lines every day. However, daily operations Further, such choices typically cannot be made from within
rarely run as smoothly as expected, because choices are varied, narrowly defined functional, regional, or operational bound-
complex, and demanding. For example, leaders must decide aries. Different areas of an organization see the issues and the
where and on whom they will focus their attention; on what choices that face them from different perspectives.This suggests
initiatives they will spend resources; how, with whom, and the need for managers who can attend simultaneously to a vast
where they will compete; what capabilities they will build upon; array of interconnected variables and related choices to deal
what activities they will stop or start doing; and how they will effectively with enigmatic choices. In short, modern leadership
motivate their charges. necessitates integrative thinking.
These choices inevitably involve tensions — what appears to Integrative thinkers work to see the whole problem, embrace
be a trade-off in which the choosing of one option precludes its multi-varied nature, and understand the complexity of its
another attractive option. Or using one resource renders that causal relationships.They work to shape and order what others
resource unavailable to others.Tension, by its very nature, compels see as a chaotic landscape.They search for creative resolutions
leaders to make choices of some kind. Maintaining the status to problems typically seen by others as a simple ‘fork in the
quo, typically, is not an option.To move ahead, there’s no choice road’ or an irresolvable bind brought about by competing orga-
but to choose. nizational interests.
Often these choices are enigmatic, exhibiting a challenging At its core, integrative thinking is an art, not a formula or
combination of qualities including ambiguity, uncertainty, algorithm that can be followed routinely from start to finish.
complexity, instability, uniqueness, and risk. Enigmatic choices Managers who attempt to reduce choice making to an algorithm
with these features demand special consideration. For instance, are quickly overwhelmed by the enigmatic qualities their formu-
la overlooks. As in art, a heuristic, not algorithmic process must
guide the integrative choice maker.
INTEGRATIVE CHOICE MAKING
Although integrative decision making can’t be reduced to an
algorithm, it does typically involve a predictable cascade of four
interrelated steps that constitute a heuristic process.Working
effectively requires a stance and a supporting set of skills that
allows managers to move fluidly through and between the four
steps. As illustrated in the diagram (opposite), choice options
cascade down from higher-order choices. Higher-order choices
both set the context for and constrain lower-order choices.
Choices are interrelated, so that if a lower-order choice can’t be
constructed to fit within the context and constraints of a higher-
order choice, then the higher-order choice must be revisited
and revised until consistent lower-order choices can be made.
When accomplished with insight and intelligence, the revisiting
2 Rotman Management Fall 1999 The Art of Integrative Thinking
2. Rotman Mgmt Fall 99 - FINAL 28.10.99 12:18 Page 5
Salience
Causality
Process of Sequencing
integrative thinking
Choice cascade model Resolution
and revision of choices produce “integrative integrity”. Choices THE CHOICE CASCADE:
are adjusted fluidly to become both consistent with and Salience
reinforcing of other related choices. Conflicts with other choices The first consideration in integrative thinking is salience:Which
are harnessed and each choice improves the effectiveness and information or variables are relevant to the choice? At this stage,
power of the other choices around it. Preserving and enhancing much potential integrative thinking dies. Overwhelmed by the
the quality of choice in rapidly changing business environments number of factors coming to bear on the problem at hand,
demands both close attention to and ongoing reshaping of inte- managers feel a huge temptation to relieve tension by chopping
grative integrity over time. In short, integrative choice making is out complexity and ignoring some of the variables that cause
a creative work in progress. complexity at the outset of the thinking.
For example, when economists attempt to understand the
AN INTEGRATIVE THINKING STANCE behaviour of a particular aspect of the economy, they typically
A heuristic and integrated approach to choice making requires declare a number of factors not to be salient in order to simplify
the cultivation of a somewhat counterintuitive stance.While the modeling and analysis.They perform “partial equilibrium
conventional managerial wisdom often pursues predictable and analysis”. For example, they might model the impact of changes
measurable clarity, the integrative stance embraces an uncom- in tax rates on tax revenues without considering the impact of
monly high tolerance for, even attraction to change, openness, tax rates on incentives to work and invest.This is classic non-
flexibility and disequilibrium. Managers with an integrative integrative thinking. One can only hope to understand the impact
stance expect dynamism in their purposes, attention, capabili- of tax rates on tax revenues by including, not excluding, the
ties, and understanding of the choices they must formulate rather complicated and difficult-to-model impact on incentives.
and pursue. As described earlier, working through the choice Modeling this additional variable causes difficulty, extra work
cascade is a dynamic and iterative process where stability, clarity, and complexity, but the answer is not worth having without
and any current status quo are short-lived. considering more variables to be salient.
Managers with an integrative thinking stance also embrace Similarly, when evaluating the impact of a plant closure, a
complexity and seek to wade into complexity rather than try to manager may fail to consider the public policy impact of the
skirt it.They don’t view imposed simplicity as an unalloyed closure, because it is difficult to predict and integrate the
virtue, but rather as the potential result of narrow thinking.
Finally, the integrative thinking stance places a central value
on learning. It welcomes rather than fears surprise, keeping an
eye keenly attuned to disconfirming data and using surprise to
innovate. It embodies tolerance for the temporary incompe-
tence that comes with the development of new skills.The stance,
however, also values the courage, even pig-headedness, to pursue
emerging beliefs even as they come up against resistance.
Facility within this integrative stance requires a supporting
repertoire of skills, discussed under each step of the choice cascade
pictured above. As managers become more skilled at the dynamics
of integrative thinking, they become more comfortable with an
integrative stance and begin to enjoy discovering the unexpected
opportunities these dynamics often present. In each step of the
choice cascade, both the stance and the skills that support it are
critical when resisting the temptation to lop off the challenging
features that make choices enigmatic.
The Art of Integrative Thinking Rotman Management Fall 1999 3
3. Rotman Mgmt Fall 99 - FINAL 28.10.99 12:18 Page 6
integrative thinker creates a causal map that links together the
variables considered salient in the first step. By taking time to
identify critical relationships, the integrative thinker creates the
opportunity to make a more robust choice than does the less
integrative thinker who relies on an incomplete understanding of
important relationships or overlooks these relationships entirely.
In addition to considering fewer variables when assessing
salience, less integrative thinkers tend to view the causal
relationships between factors to be linear and one-directional,
e.g. Their price-cutting influences ours.The stance of the integra-
tive thinker allows them to seek and explore nonlinear and
multidirectional causal relationships, e.g. Their price-cutting
influences ours, but ours also influences theirs.
The integrative thinker deals with ambiguity by creating
multiple causal models and developing many alternative theories,
e.g. They may have been reacting to our new product launch,
but maybe they were reacting to our other competitor’s new plant
announcement.The integrative thinker will embrace mysterious
elements, rather than exclude them, even though the causal
reactions of politicians, media and the community into the decision. relevance is not easily identified
The manager may fail to consider human factors when making a Flexible purposing is a skill required in this step of the
change to a production process, because people and their feelings choice cascade (and in the subsequent step).This is the skill of
are notoriously hard to model.Yet the answer produced through maintaining a clear purpose, in this case through the difficult
consideration of fewer variables is misleading and typically irrel- step of mapping out the complex causal interrelationships, while
evant at best. At worst, it may sound the death knell of the firm. maintaining the flexibility to revise judgments about patterns
In contrast, the potentially huge number of factors that may of causality, even about salience as the causal map develops.
be considered salient does not daunt the integrative thinker.
Rather than minimizing the number of salient factors, he or Sequencing
she will embrace complexity by seeking out the last important Deciding where and how to cut into the problem is the next
variable at the outset to ensure inclusion. step in integrative thinking. Considering all of the salient variables
It is critical to assess when the sensible bounds of salience at once is extremely difficult, if not impossible. No one can
have been reached — to make a robust guess as to when address all the variables and the relationships between these
enough relevant aspects have been taken into account. At some variables simultaneously; hence, sequencing is critical.
point, considering yet another variable begins to confuse the Less integrative thinkers will often try to reduce sequencing
choice making and adds no value. As an integrative thinker to a manageable process.They do this by ignoring complexity
becomes skilled, he or she begins to sense intuitively when the and tackling one component of the overall problem first, treating
“salience threshold” is reached and can revise this threshold as this component as an isolated element. Having solved one sub-
progress is made. problem, they move on to the next sub-problem, considering
In addition to the consideration of inclusion or exclusion, the a limited set of variables, without the benefit of a rich causal
integrative thinker must consider the relative importance of the map that can guide choices about sequence.
salient variables.This skill requires both sensitivity and discrimi- The weakness of this approach is that it does not consider
nation. Sensitivity — the ability to perceive — and discrimi- the interrelationships between the sub-problems. For example, a
nation — the capacity to compare and contrast — allow managers manager may seek to solve a particular marketing problem, e.g.
to identify and assess salient features. As these capabilities Customers appear to want more variety.Then, when finished, they
develop, managers become capable of discerning the truly critical tackle a manufacturing problem, e.g. Variety equals short and
elements of a choice. Practice at identifying and assessing expensive production runs. Unfortunately the non-integrated tack-
salience helps integrative managers develop a ‘knowledge bank’ ling of the pieces results in the manager not realizing that the
of past experiences.Through this storehouse of knowledge, they solution to the marketing problem — add breadth to the product
gain the ability to make their initial assessment of salience quickly line — inadvertently constrained the possibilities for
by category of choice and to move on to the subsequent steps. the manufacturing solution.
In contrast, the integrative thinker recognizes that many
Causality salient variables and the whole causal map must be kept in mind
The second task for the integrative thinker is to develop an during the entire problem-solving exercise. Although sequencing
understanding of the causal relationships that connect the is still required to manage the complexity of the total causal
variables and choices under consideration. In essence, the map, the integrative thinker cuts into the problem by bringing
4 Rotman Management Fall 1999 The Art of Integrative Thinking
4. Rotman Mgmt Fall 99 - FINAL 28.10.99 12:18 Page 7
some parts of it to the foreground and moving other parts to between the internal and external worlds. He or she might seek
the background (much as an artist would as he or she paints a creative ways to take on a thinner, but higher value-added slice
landscape). Instead of solving an isolated set of sub-problems, of each job in order to maintain integration.The integrative
the integrative thinker keeps the whole causal map in mind as he CEO recognizes that tension will not disappear with this solution.
or she focuses on different parts of it at different times. Rather than deliberate an “either/or” choice, the integrative
A key skill is the ability to select the right cutting-in point. CEO chooses a course of continued fine-tuning, which makes
Not all parts of the map deserve equal attention, not all are the ideal resolution an ongoing process.This is not the same as
equally easy to work with, and some are more pivotal than others. not choosing — it is about ensuring that you are solving the
Which one is most important may not be obvious at first glance. right problem.
The integrative thinker considers various options for the fore- Integrative thinking assumes that all trade-off challenges are
ground focus before cutting in.The anxious, less-integrative tensions to creatively manage, not binds to wrestle with and
thinker will tend to enthusiastically pursue the very first cutting-in agonize over hopelessly.The associated skill is to learn not to be
point that strikes him or her and carry on as emergencies arise. so frightened by challenges that the immediate reaction is to see
In the process of selecting a cutting-in point, the integrative a “this or that” bind in which both options feel like an unaccept-
thinker’s approach closely mirrors that of the working studio able compromise. Integrative thinkers refuse to accept the bind
artist.There are no algorithms for creating a work of art.The and learn to hold tension and fear long enough to continue to
creator must manage a wide range of variables while moving search for the creative solution.This requires a high tolerance
toward a unique creative solution. Bringing small parts of for ambiguity and uncertainty, and an attitude of openness to
the picture into the foreground at different times enables the continuous optimization, rather than a push toward closure.
integrative thinker to manage the complexities of the causal
map without unproductively fragmenting the problem.The CONCLUDING THOUGHTS
choice to treat elements as foreground is guided by prior choices Integrative thinking is an art — a heuristic process, not an
about salience, causality, as well as the integrative thinker’s algorithm.The integrative thinker develops a stance that embraces
immediate interactions with the situation at hand. not fears the essential qualities of enigmatic choices.The
While one important creative skill is the ability to work with integrative thinker is a relentless learner who seeks to develop
selected foreground elements while holding the whole causal the repertoire of skills that enables him or her to engage the
picture in mind, another is the facility integrative thinkers have tensions between opposites long enough to transcend duality
for using their experiences to revisit and possibly revise their and seek out novel solutions. Integrative thinkers understand
earlier assessments of salience and their determinations of that they are engaged in a creative process that avoids easy,
causality.This skill allows them to update their understanding of pat, or formulaic answers. In short, integrative thinking is the
the problem and to reorder their choices about sequencing as management style we need if we are to solve the enigmatic
things change and as they learn. problems that face our organizations in the new millennium.
Resolution Roger Martin is dean of the Rotman School of Management.
The last but most critical integrative step is resolution. At a Hilary Austen is a San Francisco Bay-area consultant whose
certain point after the salient variables are identified, the causal Stanford PhD dissertation examined artistry in business
map is built, action is sequenced, and choices must ultimately and other contexts.
be made.This represents a challenge because it isn’t possible to
do everything desired.There are always a few forks in the road.
At this point attitude is critical.The less integrative thinker
will be inclined to see the challenge as a bind — I can do x or y,
but neither is satisfactory — and will tend to focus on developing
a strategy for coping with the bind. An example is a CEO who
sees himself as too busy to deal with the internal pressures of
managing the firm and the external pressures of managing the
shareholders, capital market, etc., but who understands that the two
worlds are inexorably linked. He sees this as a bind and decides to
cope by splitting the job in two and handing off the external job to
a chairperson.This typical non-integrative solution involves accept-
ing the bind and separating two previously integrated activities.
A more integrative thinker would not see the challenge as an
insurmountable bind, but rather as a tension to be creatively
and flexibly managed. A CEO skilled at integrative thinking
would not resort to disintegrating the causal map, but might
recognize the need, for example, to act as the integrative link
The Art of Integrative Thinking Rotman Management Fall 1999 5