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Stones 
Bahram Nawabi 
2012UCE1790 
2nd Year 1st Sem 
Construction Materials
Contents: 
• Stones 
• - Rocks 
• - Quarrying of stones 
• - Uses of stones (1-2) 
• - Characteristic of good building 
stones 
• Tests of stones 
• - Different types of stones tests 
• - Why should we test and … 
• Preservation of stones
STONES 
Stone has been defined as the 
natural, hard substance formed 
from minerals and earth material 
which are present in rocks.
Rocks 
Rock may be defined as the portion of 
the earth’s crust having no definite 
shape and structure.
Quarrying of stones 
The only operation involved in the 
production of natural stone is the 
quarrying process. 
The open part of the natural rock 
from which useful stone is 
obtained is known as quarry.
Uses of stones-1 
Use of stone as building material 
depends upon the: 
 Nature of the work 
 Type of the structural element 
 Quality 
 Availability 
 Transportation cost
Uses of stones-2 
For structural purposes: 
 Granite 
 Gneiss 
 Trap 
 Sandstone 
 Limestone 
 Marble 
 Quartzite 
 Slate 
are most useful.
Valley National Bank building, Arizona
B.L. Stone Building, Portland
Characteristics of good building stones 
A good building stone should have: 
 Appearance 
 Structure strength 
 Weight 
 Hardness 
 Toughness 
 Seasoning 
 Weathering 
 Workability 
 Fire resistance 
 Specific gravity 
 Thermal movement
Testing of stones 
To choose and utilize stones and for 
their satisfactory performance, it is 
necessary to test them for its strength 
properties, durability and quality.
Different types of test 
• Acid test 
• Attrition test 
• Absorption test 
• Brad’s test 
• Crushing strength test 
• Crystallization test 
• Freezing and thawing test 
• Hardness test 
• Impact test 
• Microscopic test 
• Smith’s test 
• Specific gravity test 
• Durability test
• Acid test: 
This test is carried out on stone to 
check the weathering resistance.
• Attrition test: 
The aim of this test is to determine the resistance 
of the stone to abrasion, specially for those 
stones which are to be used for path ways, pavements 
and roads subjected to the grinding action of the 
traffic. 
percent wear=(M1-M2)/M1*100 
Where; 
M1= Initial mass of stone ballast. 
M2= Final mass of stone ballast 
Deval’s Attriton Machine;
• Water absorption test: 
The water absorption test is carried 
out to determine the quality of stone. 
% Absorption= (M1- 
M2)/M1*100
• Brad’s test: 
This test is conducted for frost 
resistance.
• Crushing strength test: 
This test is conducted on a compression testing 
machine. 
The test samples are dressed from all sides. 
The diameter of the test pieces known as specimen, 
is not less than 40 mm.
• Hardness test: 
The hardness test is conducted on 
Dory's testing machine. 
Coefficient of hardness= 20-loss of mass in 
gm/3 
Alternatively the hardness test may be performed by scratching 
the stone with a knife on Mohr’s scale.
• Impact test: 
Is carried out on an impact machine to 
determine the toughness of stone.
• Microscopic examination: 
This is basically a geologists test. Thin 
sections of stone are taken and placed under a 
microscope to study the following properties: 
i. Average grain size 
ii. Texture of the stone 
iii. Mineral constituents 
iv. Type of cementing material 
v. Presence of pores, fissures, veins, shakes etc. 
vi. Presence of harmful constituents 
vii. Condition of fractured surfaces.
• Smith’s test: 
This test is conducted to find out the 
presence of water soluble matter present in 
the stone. It is only a qualitative test.
• Weathering resistance (Crystallization)test: 
This test is conducted as per Indian Standard 
Specific 
a1= 100*(M3-M1)/M1 
V1= (M3-M2)/μ 
a2= 100*(M4-M1)/M1 
V2= (M4-M5)/μ 
Where; 
a1= original absorption of the specimen at the end of 24 
hr immersion 
a2= final absorption of the specimen after 30 cycles 
V1= original volume of the specimen at the end of 24 hr 
immersion 
V2= final volume of the specimen after 30 cycles of 
test 
μ= density of water
a1= 100*(M3-M1)/M1 
V1= (M3-M2)/μ 
a2= 100*(M4-M1)/M1 
V2= (M4-M5)/μ 
Where; 
a1= original absorption of the specimen at the end of 
24 hr immersion 
a2= final absorption of the specimen after 30 cycles 
V1= original volume of the specimen at the end of 24 hr 
immersion 
V2= final volume of the specimen after 30 cycles of 
test 
μ= density of water 
Increase in absorption due to weathering= 100*(a2- 
a1)/a1
• Specific gravity test: 
This procedure is adopted for 
determination of specific gravity of stone, as 
per IS : 1121-1974 
Gt=(M2-M1)/((M4-M2)-M3-M2)
• Durability test: 
The durability (soundness) test is 
performed to find out the capacity of stone 
to resist disintegration and decomposition. 
Durability value= change in the mass= (M1- 
M2)*100
Why should we test and which 
tests are appropriate? 
• • Failure mode effect analysis 
• – What can go wrong? 
• – What can we test for this? 
• – How can we manage the risk? 
• • Is it safe? 
• • Will it last? 
• • Is it strong enough?
Different types of test -flexural
Different types of test -flexural
Different types of test - compressive
Different types of test – porosity
Different types of test – slip
Different types of test – salt
Preservation of stones 
The various natural agents, 
Like: 
• Rain 
• - Physical action 
• - Chemical action 
• Frost 
• Wind 
• Temperature changes 
• Vegetable growth 
• Mutual decay 
• Chemical agents 
• Lichens 
are deteriorate the stones with time. 
Due to preventing from these deteriorations on stones there 
are some preservations.
1) Coal tar: 
If coal tar is applied on stone surface, it 
preserves stone. 
But the colour of coal tar produces objectionable 
appearance and surface coated with coal tar 
absorbs heat of the sun. Hence this preservative is 
not generally adopted because it spoils the beauty of 
stones.
2) Linseed oil: 
This preservative may be used either as raw 
linseed oil or boiled linseed oil. The raw linseed oil 
does not disturb the original shade of stone. But it 
requires frequent renewal usually one in a year. The 
boiled linseed oil lasts for along period, but it makes 
the stone surface dark.
3) Paint: 
An application of paint on stone surface 
serves as a preservative. The paint changes the 
original colour of stone. It is applied under pressure, 
if deep penetration is required.
4) Paraffin: 
This preservative may be used alone or it may be 
dissolved and naphtha and then applied on stone 
surface. It changes the original colour of stone.
5) Solution of alum and soap: 
The alum and soft soap are taken in 
proportion of about 0.75N and 0.50N respectively 
and they are dissolved in a liter of water. This 
solution, when applied on stone surface, acts as 
preservative.
6) Solution of baryta: 
A solution of barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2, when 
applied on stone surface, acts as a preservative. 
This preservative is used when the decay of stone is 
mainly due to calcium sulphate, CaSO4. Following 
chemical reaction takes place: 
Ba(OH)2+CaSO4 = BaSO4+Ca(OH)2 
The barium sulphate is insoluble and it is least 
affected by atmospheric agencies. The calcium 
hydroxide absorbs Carbon-di-Oxide from atmosphere 
and forms Calcium Carbonate CaCO3 which adds to 
the strength of stone.
Sources 
1. ) Engineering materials, By Rangwala. 
2. ) Basic Civil Engineering, By Dr.B.C. 
Punmia 
3. ) Internet, (Wikipedia.com, Google 
image)
Testing of stones

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Testing of stones

  • 1. Stones Bahram Nawabi 2012UCE1790 2nd Year 1st Sem Construction Materials
  • 2. Contents: • Stones • - Rocks • - Quarrying of stones • - Uses of stones (1-2) • - Characteristic of good building stones • Tests of stones • - Different types of stones tests • - Why should we test and … • Preservation of stones
  • 3. STONES Stone has been defined as the natural, hard substance formed from minerals and earth material which are present in rocks.
  • 4. Rocks Rock may be defined as the portion of the earth’s crust having no definite shape and structure.
  • 5. Quarrying of stones The only operation involved in the production of natural stone is the quarrying process. The open part of the natural rock from which useful stone is obtained is known as quarry.
  • 6. Uses of stones-1 Use of stone as building material depends upon the:  Nature of the work  Type of the structural element  Quality  Availability  Transportation cost
  • 7. Uses of stones-2 For structural purposes:  Granite  Gneiss  Trap  Sandstone  Limestone  Marble  Quartzite  Slate are most useful.
  • 8. Valley National Bank building, Arizona
  • 10. Characteristics of good building stones A good building stone should have:  Appearance  Structure strength  Weight  Hardness  Toughness  Seasoning  Weathering  Workability  Fire resistance  Specific gravity  Thermal movement
  • 11. Testing of stones To choose and utilize stones and for their satisfactory performance, it is necessary to test them for its strength properties, durability and quality.
  • 12. Different types of test • Acid test • Attrition test • Absorption test • Brad’s test • Crushing strength test • Crystallization test • Freezing and thawing test • Hardness test • Impact test • Microscopic test • Smith’s test • Specific gravity test • Durability test
  • 13. • Acid test: This test is carried out on stone to check the weathering resistance.
  • 14. • Attrition test: The aim of this test is to determine the resistance of the stone to abrasion, specially for those stones which are to be used for path ways, pavements and roads subjected to the grinding action of the traffic. percent wear=(M1-M2)/M1*100 Where; M1= Initial mass of stone ballast. M2= Final mass of stone ballast Deval’s Attriton Machine;
  • 15. • Water absorption test: The water absorption test is carried out to determine the quality of stone. % Absorption= (M1- M2)/M1*100
  • 16. • Brad’s test: This test is conducted for frost resistance.
  • 17. • Crushing strength test: This test is conducted on a compression testing machine. The test samples are dressed from all sides. The diameter of the test pieces known as specimen, is not less than 40 mm.
  • 18. • Hardness test: The hardness test is conducted on Dory's testing machine. Coefficient of hardness= 20-loss of mass in gm/3 Alternatively the hardness test may be performed by scratching the stone with a knife on Mohr’s scale.
  • 19. • Impact test: Is carried out on an impact machine to determine the toughness of stone.
  • 20. • Microscopic examination: This is basically a geologists test. Thin sections of stone are taken and placed under a microscope to study the following properties: i. Average grain size ii. Texture of the stone iii. Mineral constituents iv. Type of cementing material v. Presence of pores, fissures, veins, shakes etc. vi. Presence of harmful constituents vii. Condition of fractured surfaces.
  • 21. • Smith’s test: This test is conducted to find out the presence of water soluble matter present in the stone. It is only a qualitative test.
  • 22. • Weathering resistance (Crystallization)test: This test is conducted as per Indian Standard Specific a1= 100*(M3-M1)/M1 V1= (M3-M2)/μ a2= 100*(M4-M1)/M1 V2= (M4-M5)/μ Where; a1= original absorption of the specimen at the end of 24 hr immersion a2= final absorption of the specimen after 30 cycles V1= original volume of the specimen at the end of 24 hr immersion V2= final volume of the specimen after 30 cycles of test μ= density of water
  • 23. a1= 100*(M3-M1)/M1 V1= (M3-M2)/μ a2= 100*(M4-M1)/M1 V2= (M4-M5)/μ Where; a1= original absorption of the specimen at the end of 24 hr immersion a2= final absorption of the specimen after 30 cycles V1= original volume of the specimen at the end of 24 hr immersion V2= final volume of the specimen after 30 cycles of test μ= density of water Increase in absorption due to weathering= 100*(a2- a1)/a1
  • 24. • Specific gravity test: This procedure is adopted for determination of specific gravity of stone, as per IS : 1121-1974 Gt=(M2-M1)/((M4-M2)-M3-M2)
  • 25. • Durability test: The durability (soundness) test is performed to find out the capacity of stone to resist disintegration and decomposition. Durability value= change in the mass= (M1- M2)*100
  • 26. Why should we test and which tests are appropriate? • • Failure mode effect analysis • – What can go wrong? • – What can we test for this? • – How can we manage the risk? • • Is it safe? • • Will it last? • • Is it strong enough?
  • 27. Different types of test -flexural
  • 28. Different types of test -flexural
  • 29. Different types of test - compressive
  • 30. Different types of test – porosity
  • 31. Different types of test – slip
  • 32. Different types of test – salt
  • 33. Preservation of stones The various natural agents, Like: • Rain • - Physical action • - Chemical action • Frost • Wind • Temperature changes • Vegetable growth • Mutual decay • Chemical agents • Lichens are deteriorate the stones with time. Due to preventing from these deteriorations on stones there are some preservations.
  • 34. 1) Coal tar: If coal tar is applied on stone surface, it preserves stone. But the colour of coal tar produces objectionable appearance and surface coated with coal tar absorbs heat of the sun. Hence this preservative is not generally adopted because it spoils the beauty of stones.
  • 35. 2) Linseed oil: This preservative may be used either as raw linseed oil or boiled linseed oil. The raw linseed oil does not disturb the original shade of stone. But it requires frequent renewal usually one in a year. The boiled linseed oil lasts for along period, but it makes the stone surface dark.
  • 36. 3) Paint: An application of paint on stone surface serves as a preservative. The paint changes the original colour of stone. It is applied under pressure, if deep penetration is required.
  • 37. 4) Paraffin: This preservative may be used alone or it may be dissolved and naphtha and then applied on stone surface. It changes the original colour of stone.
  • 38. 5) Solution of alum and soap: The alum and soft soap are taken in proportion of about 0.75N and 0.50N respectively and they are dissolved in a liter of water. This solution, when applied on stone surface, acts as preservative.
  • 39. 6) Solution of baryta: A solution of barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2, when applied on stone surface, acts as a preservative. This preservative is used when the decay of stone is mainly due to calcium sulphate, CaSO4. Following chemical reaction takes place: Ba(OH)2+CaSO4 = BaSO4+Ca(OH)2 The barium sulphate is insoluble and it is least affected by atmospheric agencies. The calcium hydroxide absorbs Carbon-di-Oxide from atmosphere and forms Calcium Carbonate CaCO3 which adds to the strength of stone.
  • 40. Sources 1. ) Engineering materials, By Rangwala. 2. ) Basic Civil Engineering, By Dr.B.C. Punmia 3. ) Internet, (Wikipedia.com, Google image)