Building Materials & Construction Module-1 Building Materials

BUILDING MATERIALS & CONSTRUCTION - 18CV34
ABHILASH B.L. M.Tech, IGBC-AP.
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of Civil Engineering,
VidyaVardhaka College of Engineering,
Mysuru – 570002.
Building Materials & Construction
(18CV34)

Module-1
Building Materials
Stone as building material; Requirement of good building stones, Dressing of stones,
Deterioration and Preservation of stone work.
Bricks; Classification, Manufacturing of clay bricks, Requirement of good bricks. Field and
laboratory tests on bricks; compressive strength, water absorption, efflorescence, dimension
and warpage.
Cement Concrete blocks, Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Blocks, Sizes, requirement of good
blocks.
Timber as construction material.
Fine aggregate: Natural and manufactured: Sieve analysis, zoning, specify gravity, bulking,
moisture content, deleterious materials.
Coarse aggregate: Natural and manufactured: Importance of size, shape and texture. Grading
of aggregates, Sieve analysis, specific gravity, Flakiness and elongation index, crushing,
impact and abrasion tests.

STONE AS BUILDING MATERIAL
• A stone is a solid non-metallic mineral matter.
• Unlike a rock that is a large piece, a stone is a small piece.
• One of the key differences between a rock and a stone is that while rocks can be both soft
and hard, stones can only be hard
Stone materials are often used for construction because they are
 Strong
 Durable and
 Resistant to weather conditions.
Stone is extracted from natural deposits called quarrying.

1. GeologicalClassification
Igneous rocks
2. Physical Classification
Stratified rocks
3. Chemical Classification
Siliceous rocks
Argillaceous rocks
Calcareous rocks
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCK
Sedimentary rocks
Metamorphic rocks
Non-stratified rocks
Foliated rocks

REQUIREMENT OF GOOD BUILDING STONES
A good building stone should have the following qualities.
• Crushing strength:- For a good structural stone, the crushing strength should
be greater than 100N/mm2.
• Appearance:- For face work it should have fine, compact texture;
light-colored stone is preferred as dark colors are likely to fade out in due
course of time.
• Structure:- A broken stone should not be dull in appearance and should have
uniform texture free from cavities, cracks, and patches of loose or soft
material. Stratifications should not be visible to naked eye.

• Strength:- A stone should be strong and durable to withstand the
disintegrating action of weather. Compressive strength of building stones in
practice range between 60 to 200 N/mm2.
• Weight:- It is an indication of the porosity and density. For stability of
structures such as dams. Retaining walls, etc. heavier stones are required,
whereas for arches, vaults, domes, etc. light stones may be the choice.
• Hardness:- This property is important for floors, pavements, aprons of
bridges, etc. The hardness is determined by the Mohs scale (Section 3.2).
• Toughness:- The measure of impact that a stone can withstand is defined as
toughness. The stone used should be tough when vibratory or moving loads
are anticipated.

• Porosity & Absorption:- Porosity depends on the mineral constituents, cooling
time and structural formation.
A porous stone disintegrates as the absorbed rain water freezes, expands, and
causes cracking.
Permissible water absorption for some of the stones is given in below Table.
24-Hours water absorption of stones by volume

• Weathering:- The resistance of stone against the wear and tear due to natural
agencies should be high.
• Workability:- Stone should be workable so that cutting, dressing and bringing
it out in the required shape and size may not be uneconomical.
• Fire Resistance:- Stones should be free from calcium carbonate, oxides of
iron, and minerals having different coefficients of thermal expansion.

• Specific Gravity:- The specific gravity of most of the stones lies between
2.3 to 2.5.
• Thermal Movement:- Thermal movements alone are usually not trouble-
some. However, joints in coping and parapets open-out inletting the rain
water causing trouble. Marble slabs show a distinct distortion when
subjected to heat. An exposure of one side of marble slab to heat may
cause that side to expand and the slab warps. On cooling, the slab does not
go back to its original shape.

DRESSING OF STONES
Purpose:
1.To get desired appearance.
2.To make the transport from quarry easy and economical.
3.To suit the requirements of stone masonry.
4.To take the advantage of local people who are trained to such type of work.
Classification
1. Quarry dressing
2. Site dressing
Finishes used
• Axed finish.
• Boasted or drove finish.
• Chisel finish.
• Dragged or combed
finish.
• Furrowed finish.
• Moulded finish.
• Hammer dressed finish.
• Plain finish.
• Polished finished.
• Punched machine.
• Reticulated finish.
• Rubbed finish.
• Scabbling finish.
• Tooled finish.
• Self-faced or rock- faced
or quarry faced finish.
• Sunk finish.
• Vermiculated finish.
• Circular finish.

STONE DRESSING TOOLS
 Wedge
 Pitching Tool
 Scabbing Hammer
 Mash Hammer
 Separated Pick
 Punch
 Scabbing Pick
 Crow Bar
 Axe Punch
 Dressing Knife
 Splitting Chisel.

DETERIORATION OF STONE WORK.
1. Alternate wetness and drying.
2. Frost.
3. Impurities in atmosphere.
4. Living organisms.
5. Movement of chemicals.
6. Nature of mortar.
7. Rain water.
8. Temperature variations.
9. Vegetable growth.
10. Wind.

DETERIORATION OF STONE WORK.
Rain - Rain water acts both physically and chemically on stones. The physical action is due
to the erosive and transportation powers and the latter due to the decomposition, oxidation
and hydration of the minerals present in the stones.
Physical Action - Alternate wetting by rain and drying by sun causes internal stresses in the
stones and consequent disintegration.
Chemical Action - In industrial areas the acidic rain water reacts with the constituents of
stones leading to its deterioration.
Chemical agents - Smokes, fumes, acids and acid fumes present in the atmosphere
deteriorate the stones. Stones containing CaCO3, MgCO3 are affected badly.

Temperature changes
Expansion and contraction due to frequent temperature changes cause stone to deteriorate
especially if a rock is composed of several minerals with different coefficients of linear
expansion.
Frost
In cold places frost pierces the pores of the stones where it freezes, expands and creates
cracks.
Wind
Since wind carries dust particles, the abrasion caused by these deteriorates the stones.
Mutual decay
When different types of stones are used together mutual decay takes place. For example
when sandstone is used under limestone, the chemicals brought down from limestone by
rain water to the sandstone will deteriorate it.

PRESERVATION OF STONE WORK.
Preservation of stone is essential to prevent its decay.
Different types of stones require different treatments.
1. Coal tar.
2. Linseed oil.
3. Paint.
4. Paraffin.
5. Solution of alum and soap.
6. Solution of Baryta - Ba(OH)2- Barium hydrate.

BRICKS
Size of a standard brick (also known as modular brick) - 19 × 9 × 9 cm and 19 × 9 × 4 cm.
Brick may be made of burnt clay or mixture of sand and lime or of Portland cement
concrete. Clay bricks are commonly used since these are economical and easily available.
frog

MANUFACTURING OF CLAY BRICKS
Preparation of Earth
Moulding
Drying
Burning
Bricks

FIELD TESTS ON BRICKS
3.Scratch Test
2.Drop Test
1.Dimension Test

LABORATORY TESTS ON BRICKS
1.Absorption test on bricks
2.compressive strength test on bricks
3.shape and size test on bricks
4.color test of bricks
5.Efflorescence test on bricks.

WATER ABSORPTION TEST
• To find the moisture content absorbed by bricks.
• Dry sample bricks are taken and then weighted
• They are immersed in a water for a period of 24 hours.
• After 24 hours, wet bricks are taken out and then weighted.
• Difference between dry and wet brick gives the amount of water
Good quality bricks should not exceed 20% of its dry weight.

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
Brick is placed in compression testing machine
Load is applied in brick until it breaks.
At a point it breaks, the value of failure load is noted and
the crushing strength of brick is calculated.
The minimum compressive strength of brick is 3.5 N/mm2

EFFLORESCENCE
1. Nil — When the deposit of efflorescence is imperceptible.
2. Slight — When the deposit of efflorescence does not cover more than 10 per cent of
the exposed area of the brick.
3. Moderate — When the deposit of efflorescence is more than 10 per cent but less than
50% of the exposed area of the brick.
4. Heavy — When the deposit of efflorescence is more than 50 per cent but the deposits
do not powder or flake away the brick surface.
5. Serious — When the deposits are heavy and powder or flake away the brick surface.

Classification Of Bricks Are Done Based On Following Properties
1st class Bricks
These are thoroughly burnt and are of deep red, cherry or copper color.
The surface should be smooth and rectangular, with parallel, sharp and straight edges and square corners.
These should be free from flaws, cracks and stones.
These should have uniform texture.
No impression should be left on the brick when a scratch is made by a finger nail.
Water absorption should be 12–15% of its dry weight when immersed in cold water for 24 hours.
The crushing strength of the brick should not be less than 10 N/mm2.
 Uses: First class bricks are recommended for pointing, exposed face work in masonry
structures, flooring and reinforced brick work.

2nd class Bricks
Small cracks and distortions.
A little higher water absorption of about 16–20% of its dry weight
No impression should be left on the brick when a scratch is made by a finger nail.
The crushing strength should not be less than 7.0 N/mm2
Uses: Second class bricks are recommended for all important or unimportant hidden masonry works and
centering of reinforced brick and reinforced cement concrete (RCC) structures.

3rd class Bricks are under burnt. They are soft and light-colored producing a dull sound when struck against
each other. Water absorption is about 25 per cent of dry weight.
Uses : It is used for building temporary structures.
4th class Bricks are over burnt and badly distorted in shape and size and are brittle in nature.
Uses: The ballast of such bricks is used for foundation and floors in lime concrete and road metal.

Based On strength The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has classified the bricks on the basis of
compressive strength and is as given in Table
Classification of bricks based on compressive strength (IS: 1077)

REQUIREMENT OF GOOD BRICKS.
Size and Shape:- Uniform size and plane, rectangular surfaces with parallel sides and sharp straight edges.
Color:- Uniform deep red or cherry color as indicative of uniformity in chemical composition.
Texture & Compactness:- Should not be too smooth.
Hardness & Sound:- The brick should be so hard that when scratched by a finger nail no impression is made. When two
bricks are struck together, a metallic sound should be produced.
Water Absorption:- should not exceed 20 per cent of its dry weight when kept immersed in water for 24 hours.
Crushing Strength:- should not be less than 10 N/mm2.
Brick earth:- should be free from stones, organic matter, etc

INGREDIENTS OF GOOD BRICK EARTH
The clay used for brick making consists mainly of silica and alumina mixed in such a proportion that the clay becomes plastic
when water is added to it. It also consists of small proportions of lime, iron, manganese, Sulphur, etc. The proportions of
various ingredients are as follows:

FUNCTIONS OF VARIOUS INGREDIENTS
Silica:-
Retain its shape and imparts durability, prevents shrinkage and warping.
Excess of silica makes the brick brittle and weak on burning.
Alumina:-
Absorbs water and renders the clay plastic.
If alumina is present in excess of the specified quantity, it produces cracks in brick on drying.
Lime:- Normally constitutes less than 10 per cent of clay.
Lime in brick clay has the following effects:
1. Reduces the shrinkage on drying.
2. Causes silica in clay to melt on burning and thus helps to bind it.
3. In carbonated form, lime lowers the fusion point.
4. Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and the brick looses its shape.
5. Red bricks are obtained on burning at considerably high temperature (more than 800°C).

Magnesia:-
Rarely exceeding 1 per cent, affects the color and makes the brick yellow.
Iron:-
Iron oxide constituting less than 7 per cent of clay, imparts the following properties:
1. Gives red color on burning when excess of oxygen is available and dark brown or even
black color when oxygen available is insufficient, however, excess of ferric oxide makes the
brick dark blue.
2. Improves impermeability and durability.
3. Tends to lower the fusion point of the clay, especially if present as ferrous oxide.
4. Gives strength and hardness.

CEMENT BLOCKS

CEMENT CONCRETE BLOCKS
SOLID BLOCKS
 According to application requirements of blocks, it is classified as
follows.
 Load bearing
 Non load bearing

RAW MATERIAL
• Cement
• Aggregate
• Cement-Aggregate Ratio: Common ratios are 1:6, 1:8
• Water-Cement Ratio: Only drinking quality water should be used to mix
the concrete.

CEMENT CONCRETE BLOCKS / SOLID BLOCKS
Aggregates commonly used for the manufacture of blocks are river sand & mineral waste
(Quarry dust) Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is used as the binder
Mixing to
correct
propotions
Adjusting the
proper
consistancy of
mix
Placing
into
moulds
Compacting
(ramming/vibration)curing
Add water
Preparing raw
materials(cement
aggregates)

CEMENT CONCRETE BLOCKS / SOLID BLOCKS
Measures to be taken to ensure the manufacture of quality cement blocks
• Grading of Sand
• Proportioning
• Avoiding the usage of finer fraction
• Thorough mixing
• Proper curing

AUTOCLAVED AERATED CONCRETE BLOCKS
• AAC block is made of Portland cement, fine aggregates (fly ash or sand),
water and an expansion agent.
• The autoclaving process results in the production of air voids in the
material, making it less dense, easy to cut/ mould and better insulating.
• Autoclave is a strong, pressurized, steam-heated vessel

A multi-storey building made with AAC blocks

Advantage of AAC Blocks
 Using AAC Blocks reduces the load on the foundation and other structural components
in a structure due to its lower self-weight.
 About 55% reduction in weight of walls can be obtained when compared to that of
walls made with clay bricks.
Environmental impact
 AAC blocks uses fly ash (70% of its weight), thus provides the most constructive
solution to the nation’s fly-ash utilization problem.
 Fly ash is an industrial waste product and use of fly ash in the AAC block production
process takes care of the issues concerned with its disposal.

Advantage of AAC Blocks
 Excellent acoustics
 Fire resistance
 Ventilation
 Energy saving
 Accuracy
 Rapid on - site assembly
 Long life
Composition
 Fly-ash - 59%
 Cement (usually OPC grade 53) -33%
 Lime - 8%
 Aluminium powder - 0.07%

USES OF BLOCKS MASONRY IN BUILDING
• 1 Concrete block – 390 x 190 x 190 mm can replace 8 bricks
• Concrete blocks are more environmental friendly.
• AC & Insulation cost reduced because blocks of air columns, hollow blocks offer good
thermal & acoustic insulation
• Dead load are reduced
• Less mortar is consumed

SIZE of Various Concrete
Blocks

REQUIREMENT OF GOOD BLOCKS.
Water Resistance
Fire Resistance
Aesthetic Properties
Insulating Properties
Acoustic Properties

REQUIREMENT OF GOOD BLOCKS.
Grade A: Minimum block density of 1500 kg/m3. Compressive strengths 15.0 N/mm2 at
28 days
Grade B: 1100 kg/m3 and 1500 kg/m3. These shall be manufactured for minimum average
compressive strengths of 3.5 and 5.0 N/mm2 respectively at 28 days
Solid Concrete block is classified as grade C
Grade C: The solid concrete blocks are used as load bearing units and shall have a block
density not less than 1800 kg/m3. These shall be manufactured for minimum average
compressive strength of 4.0 and 5.0 N/mm2 respectively

TIMBER AS CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL.
Endogenous Trees
Exogenous Trees
Conifers are evergreen trees having
pointed needle like leaves,
Distinct annual rings
Straight fibers and are soft with pine as
an
exception, light in color, resinous and
light weight.
Deciduous trees have flat board
leaves, dark in color and heavy weight.

Characteristics of Good Timber
Strength, Durability &Finish
1. Narrow annual rings, closer the rings greater
is the strength.
2. Compact medullary rays.
3. Dark color.
4. Uniform texture.
5. Sweet smell and a shining fresh cut surface.
6. When struck sonorous sound is produced.
7. Free from the defects in timber.
8. Heavy weight.

FINE AGGREGATE
Aggregates can be classified as
(i ) Normal weight aggregates
(ii ) Light weight aggregates and
(iii) Heavy weight aggregates.

NATURAL AND MANUFACTURED

SIEVE ANALYSIS

Characteristics of sand:
1. It should be chemically inert
2. It should be clean and coarse. It should be free from organic matter.
3. It should contain sharp, angular and durable grains.
4. It should not contain salts, which attract the moisture from atmosphere.
5. It should be well graded (i.e.) should contain particles of various sizes in suitable
proportions.

ZONING
To describe an aggregate by
its maximum and minimum
size is not sufficient. It has to
be graded from its minimum
to maximum size.
IS-383 recommends the
following grading limit for
fine aggregates.
Grading limits for Fine
Aggregates
Sieve Size
Percentage of Passing For
Grading
Zone-I
Grading
Zone-II
Grading
Zone-III
Grading
Zone-IV
10 mm 100 100 100 100
4.75 mm 90 – 100 90 – 100 90 – 100 95 – 100
2.36 mm 60 – 95 75 – 100 85 – 100 95 – 100
1.18 mm 30 – 70 55 – 90 75 – 100 90 – 100
600 micron 15 – 34 35 – 59 60 – 79 80 – 100
300 micron 5 – 20 8 – 30 12 – 40 15 – 50
150 micron 0 – 10 0 – 10 0 – 10 0 – 15

Grading of Sand:
According to the site of grains, sand is classified as fine, coarse and gravelly
• Sand passing through a screen with clear opening of 5 mm is known as fine sand. It is
generally used for plastering.
• Sand passing through a screen with clear openings of 7.62mm is known as gravely sand.
It is generally used for Concreting works.
• Sand passing through a screen with clear opening of 3.175mm is known as coarse sand. It
is generally used for masonry work..

SPECIFY GRAVITY
Procedure of Test
1.Take about 500g of sample and place it in the pycnometer.
2.Pour distilled water into it until it is full and weigh it (A)
3.Transfer the contents of the pycnometer into a tray
4.Refill the pycnometer with distilled water. Find out the weight (B)
5.Drain water from the sample through a filter paper & weigh it (C).
6.Place the sample in oven in a tray at a temperature of 100ºC to 110º C
for 24±0.5 hours
7.Cool the sample and weigh it (D)
2.65 to 2.67

BULKING
• The moisture present in aggregate forms a film around each particle.
• These exert a force, known as surface tension, on each particle.
• Due to this surface tension each particles gets away from each other.
Bulking of aggregate is dependent upon two factors,
1.Percentage of moisture content
2.Particle size of fine aggregate

BULKING
•Fill a sample of moist fine aggregate (sand) ----- h1.
•Pour water into a measuring cylinder and completely cover the sand with water and shake it.
Note down the level of sand, say h2.
•Subtract the final level h2 from initial level h1 ( h1-h2), which shows the bulking of sand
under test.
•Calculate percentage of bulking using formula given below.
•Percentage of bulking = [(h1-h2)/h2]*100

DELETERIOUS MATERIALS.
1. Organic Impurities
2. Clay
3. Silt and crusher dust
4. Salts
5. Alkali- Aggregate Reactions
Concrete Surface Pop outs due to Deleterious Materials

COARSE AGGREGATE

IMPORTANCE OF SIZE, SHAPE AND TEXTURE.

GRADING OFAGGREGATES

FLAKINESS AND ELONGATION INDEX

ELONGATION INDEX
FLAKINESS INDEX

As per IS code Flakiness & Elongation Index tests are not
applicable to aggregate sizes smaller than 6.3mm

CRUSHING
1.A steel cylinder 15 cm diameter with plunger and base plate.
2.A straight metal tamping rod 16mm diameter and 45 to 60cm long rounded at
one end.
3.A balance of capacity 3 kg readable and accurate to one gram.
4.IS sieves of sizes 12.5mm, 10mm and 2.36mm
5.A compression testing machine.
6.Cylindrical metal measure of sufficient rigidity to retain its from under rough
usage and of 11.5cm diameter and 18cm height.
7.Dial gauge

CRUSHING

• Put the cylinder in position on the base plate and weigh it (W).
• Put the sample in 3 layers, each layer being subjected to 25 strokes using the tamping
rod. Care being taken in the case of weak materials not to break the particles and
weigh it (W1).
• Apply load at a uniform rate so that a total load of 40T is applied in 10 minutes.
• Release the load and remove the material from the cylinder.
• Sieve the material with 2.36mm IS sieve, care being taken to avoid loss of fines.
• Weigh the fraction passing through the IS sieve (W2).
Aggregate crushing value = (W2 x 100) / (W1-W)
W2 =Weight of fraction passing through the appropriate sieve
W1-W =Weight of surface dry sample.

Types of Roads / Pavements Aggregate Crushing Value Limit
Flexible Pavements
Soling 50
Water bound macadam (WBM) 40
Bituminous macadam 40
Bituminous surface dressing or thin
premix carpet
30
Dense mix carpet 30
Rigid Pavements
Other than wearing course 45
Surface or Wearing course 30

ABRASION TEST
ASTM C 131: Resistance to Degradation of Small-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and
Impact in the Los Angeles Machine.

The apparatus as per IS: 2386 (Part IV) – 1963 consists of:
1.Los Angeles Machine
2.Abrasive charge: Cast iron or steel balls, approximately 48mm in diameter
and each weighing between 390 to 445 g; six to twelve balls are required.
3.Sieve: 1.70, 2.36, 4.75, 6.3, 10, 12.5, 20, 25, 40, 50, 63, 80 mm IS Sieves.
4.Balance of capacity 5 kg or 10 kg
5.Drying oven
6.Miscellaneous like tray

Observations of Los Angeles Test
Original weight of aggregate sample = W1 g
Weight of aggregate sample retained = W2 g
Weight passing 1.7mm IS sieve = W1 – W2 g
Abrasion Value = (W1 – W2 ) / W1 X 100

IMPACT

IMPACT
Observations Sample 1 Sample 2
Total weight of dry
sample (W1 gm)
Weight of portion
passing 2.36 mm sieve
(W2 gm)
Aggregate Impact Value
(percent) = W2 / W1 X
100
Aggregate Impact Value =

IMPACT
Aggregate Impact Value Classification
<20% Exceptionally Strong
10 – 20% Strong
20-30% Satisfactory for road surfacing
>35% Weak for road surfacing
https://theconstructor.org/building/building-material/determination-of-aggregate-impact-value/1355/Source

Sl No Type of pavement
Aggregate impact value not
more than
1. Wearing Course
30
a) Bituminous surface dressing
b) Penetration macadam
c) Bituminous carpet concrete
d) Cement concrete
2. Bitumen bound macadam base course 35
3. WBM base course with bitumen surfacing 40
4 Cement concrete base course 45

Module -1 – Building Materials Assignment Questions
1. Write requirements/ characteristics of good building stone.
2. Explain the factors causing deterioration of stonework and preservation of stonework.
3. Briefly explain the tests conducted on bricks.
4. Write the requirements of good mortar.
5. Briefly explain the tests conducted on fine aggregates,
i. Sieve analysis
ii. Specific gravity test.
6. Explain the importance of size, shape and texture on coarse aggregate.
7. What do you mean by dressing of stones? Explain the different types of surface finishes with neat sketches.
8. List the qualities of a good brick.
9. List the properties and uses of timber used by the building industry.
10. With neat sketches, explain the defects of timber due to natural causes.
11 .Explain the process involved in the manufacture of brick.
12. What do you mean by seasoning of timber?
13. Enumerate the types of mortar and explain the properties/requirements of a mortar.
14. Describe the test conducted on coarse aggregates.
15. Explain the purpose and advantages of hollow concrete blocks.

Building Materials & Construction Module-1 Building Materials

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