Teaching methodology 2

Teaching Methodology
by
Associate Professor Dr.Rozinah Jamaludin
Centre for Development and Academic Excellence
Universiti Sains Malaysia
24 July 2015
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LOGOIntroduction
• Teaching Methodology can be defined as principles and methods
used in classroom for effective teaching and learning
• It is a systematic measure to achieve the learning objectives
• It is where teachers adopt and adapt various teaching strategies to
transmit contents to the students
• It is the combination of techniques and activities

LOGOTypes of Teaching Methods
Traditional vs Modern Teaching
Traditional Modern
Lecture Problem solving
Dictation Experiential learning
Drilling Demonstration
Practice Field Trip
Immersive environment

LOGOSelection Process on Teaching Methods
A few indicators to review before selection of teaching methods
•Objectives to achieve
•Students’ levels
•Knowledge and ability of teacher
•Class size
•Resources available (equipment, tools and materials)
•Context of teaching situation
•Time available

LOGOTeaching Pedagogies
• It is the art or science of teaching
• It is how to best teach a subject or the skills to effectively transfer
knowledge to students
• It can be general (whole development of a person) or specific
education (vocational training)
• Pedagogy of the Oppressed was written by Paulo Freire in
Portuguese in 1968
• He explored between the “colonizer” and the “colonized” and
liberate the underclass to the privilege of education
• He suggested the “banking model” where students as an empty
vessel to fill with knowledge
Education either functions as an instrument which is used to facilitate integration of the
younger generation into the logic of the present system and bring about conformity or
it becomes the practice of freedom, the means by which men and women deal
critically and creatively with reality and discover how to participate in the
transformation of their world.”
― Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed

LOGOPedagogy of the Oppressed
“Leaders who do not act dialogically, but insist on imposing their
decisions, do not organize the people--they manipulate them. They do
not liberate, nor are they liberated: they oppress.”
[T]he more radical the person is, the more fully he or she enters into
reality so that, knowing it better, he or she can transform it. This
individual is not afraid to confront, to listen, to see the world unveiled.
This person is not afraid to meet the people or to enter into a dialogue
with them. This person does not consider himself or herself the
proprietor of history or of all people, or the liberator of the oppressed;
but he or she does commit himself or herself, within history, to fight at
their side.”

LOGOTypes of Pedagogies
1. Discovery learning
2. Open-ended Instruction
3. Interdisciplinary learning
4. Experiential learning
5. Co-operative learning
6. Case Studies
7. Blended learning
8. Problem based learning
9. Project based learning
10. Game based learning

LOGOEffective Pedagogies
1. Promote student centered learning
2. Create a conducive and supportive learning environment
3. Encourage reflective thought and action
4. Explaining the relevancy of learning
5. Facilitate collaborative learning
6. Connect prior knowledge with real life learning
7. Practise inquiry learning
8. Offer opportunity to learn

LOGOLearning Theories
What is a theory?
•A theory provides a general explanation for observations made over
time.
•A theory explains and predicts behavior.
•A theory can never be established beyond all doubt.
•A theory may be modified.
•Theories seldom have to be thrown out completely if thoroughly tested
but sometimes a theory may be widely accepted for a long time and
later disproved.
What is a model?
•A model is a mental picture that helps us understand something we
cannot see or experience directly.
(Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990)
•A learning theory is the conceptual framework describing how
information is absorbed, process and retained in learning.

LOGO
Pedagogy
Education has traditionally been seen as a pedagogic relationship between
the teacher and the learner.
Pedagogy, the art of science and teaching the child, embodies a teacher-
focused education.
Pedagogical learning was based on the acquisition of skills and
knowledge through transmittal techniques, such as lectures, text book
reading, audio visual presentations and examinations.
Students are motivated to learn what the teacher says they ought to learn
due to external pressures such as competition for higher grades or the fear
of failure and at times punishment.
Learning is organised into a standardised and précised curriculum for all
students so that it can easily be monitored and assessed.
UBC Pedagogy Wiki Page:
http://etec.ctlt.ubc.ca/510wiki/Pedagogy

LOGOAndragogy
Andragogy on the other hand, is the study of self-determined learning, has
been viewed as a natural progression from pedagogical educational
methodologies and the optimal approach to learning in the twenty-first
century.
It is in sharp contrast with pedagogical teaching which focuses on transmitting
the content while in andragogical education facilitates the process of the
acquisition of the content.
In order for education to be most effective, content must be presented in a way
that allows the student to relate the information to prior experiences.
A goal of contemporary andragogical education is to transform learners into
self-directed and proactive learners.

LOGOAndragogy
It encourages the spirit of co-operation among students and between the
students and the teacher.
While students interact with people of diverse ethno-linguistic, social and
religious backgrounds, there is a great sense of unity and reciprocal
respect as they learn to be patient, tolerant and helpful, trustworthy and
capable of participating in adult thinking and leadership.
The role of the teacher is to influence rather than to dictate the learning
process.
Teachers teach from a problem based approach which brings meaning
to learning, enhances creativity and stimulates reflection among
learners.

LOGOAndragogy
The five crucial assumptions about the characteristics of adult learners are
listed below: 1. Self-concept: As a person matures his self concept moves
from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being a self-
directed human being 2. Experience: As a person matures he accumulates a
growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for
learning. 3. Readiness to learn. As a person matures his readiness to learn
becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of his social roles.
4. Orientation to learning. As a person matures his time perspective changes
from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application,
and accordingly his orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject-
centeredness to one of problem centredness. 5. Motivation to learn: As a
person matures the motivation to learn is internal

LOGO
14
The Learner
• The learner is dependent
upon the instructor for all
learning
• The teacher/instructor
assumes full responsibility
for what is taught and how it
is learned.
• The teacher/instructor
evaluates learning
• The learner is self-directed
• The learner is responsible
for his/her own learning
• Self-evaluation is
characteristic of this
approach
Pedagogical Andragogical

LOGO
15
Role of the Learner’s Experience
• The learner comes to the
activity with little
experience that could be
tapped as a resource for
learning
• The experience of the
instructor is most influential
• Learner brings a greater
volume and quality of
experience
• Adults are a rich resource
for one another
• Different experiences assure
diversity in groups of adults
• Experience becomes the
source of self-identify

LOGO
16
Orientation to Learning
• Learning is a process of
acquiring prescribed subject
matter
• Content units are sequenced
according to the logic of the
subject matter
• Learners want to perform a
task, solve a problem, live in
a more satisfying way
• Learning must have
relevance to real-life tasks
• Learning is organized
around life/work situations
rather than subject matter
units

LOGO
17
Motivation for Learning
• Primarily motivated by
external pressures,
competition for grades, and
the consequences of failure
• Internal motivators:
selfesteem, recognition,
better quality of life, self-
confidence, self-
actualization

LOGOBest Teaching Method
There are variety types of learners, therefore, it is important for a teacher to
incorporate different teaching methods and learning styles.
Although it is difficult to address everyone’s needs, it is important to meet
as many needs as possible.
To accomplish this, the teachers must identify the learning styles of each of
their learners, matching teaching style to learning style for difficult tasks,
strengthening weaker learning styles through easier tasks and drill, and apply
learning style selection strategies.

LOGO
19
From Pedagogy to Heutagogy
It is thirty years since Knowles introduced us to the concept of andragogy as a
new way of approaching adult education.
Much in the world has changed since that time, and we all know that the rate
of change seems to increase every year.
Heutagogy, the study of self-determined learning, may be viewed as a natural
progression from earlier educational methodologies – in particular from
capability development.
The concept of truly self-determined learning, called heutagogy, builds on
humanistic theory and approaches to learning described in the 1950s.
It is suggested that heutagogy is appropriate to the needs of learners in the
workplace in the twenty-first century, particularly in the development of
individual capability.

LOGO
20
The need for Heutagogy
This revolution recognizes the changed world in which we live.
A world in which:
•information is readily and easily accessible;
•change is so rapid that traditional methods of training and
education are totally inadequate;
•discipline-based knowledge is inappropriate to prepare for living
in modern communities and workplaces;
•learning is increasingly aligned with what we do;
•modern organizational structures require flexible learning
practices
•There is a need for immediacy of learning.

LOGO
21
• A heutagogical approach recognizes the need to be flexible in the learning,
• where the teacher provides resources but the learner designs the actual
course he or she might take by negotiating the learning.
• Thus learners might read around critical issues or questions and determine
what is of interest and relevance to them and then negotiate further reading
and assessment tasks.
• With respect to the latter, assessment becomes more of a learning
experience rather than a means to measure attainment.

LOGO
22
• As teachers we should concern ourselves with
developing the learner’s capability, not just
embedding discipline-based skills and knowledge.
• We should relinquish any power we deem ourselves
to have.

LOGO
Topic Traditional
Pedagogy
Andragogy Heutagogy
Degree of control of
Learner
Dependent on the
teacher/instructor
Independent with a
limited reliance on
teacher
Independent self-
determined
Content Determined by the
teacher
Determined by the
teacher and learner
Determined by
the learner
Process Teacher- centric Learner - centric Learner-centric
Mode of
Instruction
Teacher- led ,
transmission of
knowledge through
lectures and face-to
face contact, hand
outs, task performance
Learner-led, by means
of self-study and
reflection and
practice, Teacher acts
as a Facilitator
Student reflects
own learning and
Self transformation.
Limited teacher’s
involvement
Motivation
to learn
Extrinsic, dictated by
external pressures,
competition for
grades, fear of
punishment and the
consequences of
Failure
Intrinsic, response to
personal/career needs
Self-Actualisation
and Self Fulfilment

LOGO
Topic Traditional
Pedagogy
Andragogy Heutagogy
Learner’s
Expectations
Needs guidance Dependent on self
direction
Self-Determined
and Self Development
Driven
Learning Focus Subject-centred,
clinical style of
learning
Life /Career-centred
Process centred,
exploratory, learning
through trial and error
Career-centred,
task
performance and
knowledge
Driven
Outcome
Objectives
Measure of
attainment and
teacher’s praise
Career Progression,
self-development and
transformation
Self-Betterment
and
Transformation
Ownership
of Learning
Teacher Learner Learner

LOGOPedagogy/ Andragogy/ Heutagogy
Pedagogy, andragogy, and heutagogy are not opposites.
A balanced strategy of pedagogical, andragogical, and heutagogical learning is
required to suit diverse learners preferences and intelligences.
People differ along a wide continuum as to how they learn and how they
prefer to learn.
Many educational theorists and researchers consider that any learning method
whether pedagogical or andraogical or heutagogical, should have the VAK
Learning Style model embedded: Visual, Auditory and Kinaesthetic.

LOGOLearning Theories Paradigms
1. Behaviorism
2. Cognitivism
3. Constructivism
4. Humanism
5. Design Based

LOGOBehaviorism
• It is learning through behavior which caused by external
stimulus
• The behavior will ultimately being created and performed
without the need for internal mental states and consciousness
• Behavior changes through “stimulus-response” process
• Types of Behaviorist Theories:
1. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
2. Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

LOGOClassical Conditioning
1. Ivan Pavlov, in 1927, began working with learning through "classical
conditioning."
2. Initially the dog only salivated when it was eating. Later Pavlov noticed the
dog salivated when he carried the food into the room.
3. He become curious as to why this change had taken place.
4. He thought there were both learned and unlearned components to the
dog's behavior.
5. He began experimenting with different stimuli, and if he rang a bell
immediately before giving food to the dog, eventually the dog would
salivate merely in response to the sound of the bell.
6. He generated terminology to describe his observations.
7. An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) such as food, generates and instinctual
reflexive, unlearned behavior, such as salivation when eating.
8. The salivation was called an unconditioned response (UCR) because it
was not learned. The bell, formerly a neutral sound to the dog, become
a conditioned learned stimulus (CLS) and the salivation a conditioned
response (CR).

LOGOOperant Conditioning (Skinner)
• Skinner developed the theory of "operant conditioning," the idea that
we behave the way we do because this kind of behavior has had
certain consequences in the past.
• Presuppositions of behaviorism:
1. Behaviorism is naturalistic. This means that the material world is the ultimate reality, and
everything can be explained in terms of natural laws. Man has no soul and no mind, only a brain
that responds to external stimuli.
2. A central tenet of behaviorism is that thoughts, feelings, intentions, and mental processes, do
not determine what we do. Behaviorism views behavior as the product of conditioning. Humans
are biological machines and do not consciously act; rather they react to stimuli.
3. Consistently, behaviorism teaches that we are not responsible for our actions. If we are mere
machines, without minds or souls, reacting to stimuli and operating on our environment to attain
certain ends, then anything we do is inevitable.
4. Behaviorism is manipulative. It seeks not merely to understand human behavior, but to predict
and control it. From his theories, Skinner developed the idea of "shaping." By controlling rewards
and punishments, you can shape the behavior of another person.
DeMar, G. (n.d.). Behaviorism.Retrieved September 19, 2003, from
http://www.forerunner.com/forerunner/X0497_DeMar_-_Behaviorism.html

LOGOCognitivism
1.Cognitivst was formed to response to behaviorist who neglected
cognition
2.It is how human use their brain to conceptualise learning in the form
of developing hypotheses and intellectually
3.It focuses on opening the black box to understand how people learn
4.It focuses on internal mind learning

LOGO
1. Piaget stressed that the development of knowledge representation and manipulation
is not genetically programmed into the brain.
2. Piaget (1973) believed that the child plays an active role in the growth of intelligence
and learns by doing.
Four Stages of Cognitive Development (Piaget)
Source:http://www.cliffsnotes.com/sciences/sociology/socialization/piagets-model-of-
cognitive-development

LOGOConstructivism
• One construct own learning through experience
• Learner deemed as an active seeker of meaning
• Learner formed their understanding of the world through linkage of
prior knowledge
• It can be a social form where constant collaboration with teacher to
create new meaning
Types of Constructivist Theories:
1. Social Constructivism
2. Discovery Learning
3. Problem Based Learning

LOGOSocial Constructivism (Vygotsky)
• Social Constructivism was coined by Vygotsky after he
disagree with Piaget’s view that learning was not simply
assimilation and accommodation of new knowledge
• He states that learning is where teacher and older children
play their roles by contributing ideas and experiences to the
learning process
• The Zone Proximal of Development which is where the
students started out without being able to do the task
• Then with the help and guidance of the adult or older children,
they will finally able to do by themselves without assistance.

LOGOSocial Constructivism (Vygotsky)
• While there can be wide variation of activities and content in a
Vygotskian classroom, four principles always apply:
1. Learning and development is a social, collaborative activity
2. The Zone of Proximal Development can serve as a guide for
curricular and lesson planning
3. Classroom activity should be reality-based and applicable to the real
world
4. Learning extends to the home and other out-of-school environments
and activities and all learning situations should be related.

LOGODiscovery Learning (Bruner)
• Discovery learning is inquiry based learning method where students
based upon concepts of existing knowledge to make sense of the
new knowledge
• This learning is an active process where students constant selective
of information, making decisions and predictions and finally derive
meaning from information experience
• Five principles of discovery learning:
1. Problem Solving
2. Learner Management
3. Integrating and Connecting
4. Information Analysis and Interpretation
5. Failure and Feedback

LOGOProblem Based Learning (PBL) (Howard Barrows)
• It is where students learn to solve real world problems through
providing open-ended problems
• It was originated from medical school of thought (Mcmaster
University Medical School, Canada)
• Its aim is to promote:
- Self directed learning
- Communication skills
- Thinking skills
- Collaboration skills
- Time management skills
- Research and information handling skills
• The characteristics of PBL:
- It is student centered learning
- Problem simulation is ill-structured, relevant and contextual
- There is no one solution to the problem, constant changes
- Teacher act as facilitator

LOGOHumanism
• It is paradigm which focuses on learning is on subjective meaning,
intentionality and value driven.
• It focuses on study of human as a whole and how he develops and
grows oneself.
• It is more on intrinsic motivational and self-actualization to learn
according to a person’s needs
• The Father of Humanism are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
• Types of Humanist Theories:
1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
2. ARCS Model
3. Experiential Learning

LOGOMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs after
they have achieve the basic needs.
Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review50 (4) 370–96. Retrieved
from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm

LOGOARCS (Keller)
• It is a motivational model pioneered by John Keller to maintain
motivational level in learning process
• The four processes are Attention, Relevance, Confidence,
Satisfaction.
• Attention : Using surprise or enquiry to grasp the attention of
students
• Relevance : Relate prior knowledge to introduce new examples and
concepts to students so that they see the relevance
• Confidence : Instill a sense of confidence to assist students to
succeed by setting achievable simple goals
• Satisfaction : Learners are satisfied on attaining new knowledge
skills to apply in real and simulated settings

LOGOExperiential Learning (Kolb)
• In 1984, David Kolb created a learning style model that explained 4
learning style and 4 stage of learning cycles.
• This further explained individual’s learning styles and cycles of
experiential learning for all people.
• The cycle of experiential learning starts learning encountering a new
experience (Concrete Experience) and thereafter conduct reviewing
and reflection (Observation and Reflection)
• After the reflection is done, the learner conceptualise and conclude
from the learning experience (Abstract Conceptualisation)
• The new concept idea will then be tested out in the real world.
(Active Experimentation)
• The four types of learning styles are :
1. Diverging (CE/RO)
2. Assimilating (AC/RO)
3. Converging (AC/AE)
4. Accommodating (CE/AE)

LOGOExperiential Learning (Kolb)

LOGODesign Based
• Instructional design model often used as a model used by instructor
to craft instructional strategies to achieve instructional goals
• It is also a framework or guidelines to organise and structure design
and develop instructional learning activities
• It usually begins with problem and then design and develop content
and delivery system to be tested it out and finally evaluate its
success rate
• One of the most used or generic process is the ADDIE model
• It has five phases Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation
and Evaluation
• The other more prominent once is Dick and Carey Model

LOGOADDIE Model
1. Analysis Phase : It is where problems are defined, instructional
goals are determined based on the learner’s prior knowledge and
learning environment
2. Design Phase : This phase is to outline systematically and in
logically order the planned strategies to attain instructional goals
3. Development Phase : This phase is where development of real
content and technology to be implemented later on
4. Implementation Phase : This phase is where the actual
implementation of the content and media that was developed
5. Evaluation Phase : This phase measures the effectiveness and
efficiency of the content and media

LOGODick and Carey Model
1. Identify Instructional Goals
- Describe what the learners are expected to perform at the end of
the instruction.
- Instructional goals are normally broad statements of what you are
trying to accomplish.
- They should describe what the learners should perform, not what
you are going to do.
2. Conduct Instructional Analysis
- Identify the exact performance gap between the present
performance and the desired performance.
- This informs you what the learners need to learn in order to perform.
- Next, identify the steps the learner must be able to perform in order
to accomplish the tasks that lead to the desired performance.
Dick, W., Carey, L. (2000). The Systematic Design of Instruction. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, and Company. - See more at:
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/history_isd/carey.html#sthash.rTtf2TWK.dpuf

3. Identify Entry Behaviors
- Identify the general characteristics of the learners, including skills,
experience, motivation levels, and basic demographics; which relate to
the skills and topics that will be taught.
- The information should have enough detail to allow you to identify the
correct starting point of the instruction so that they do not waste time
reviewing material they already know and does not omit content they
need to know.
- The goal is to start the learning process at a level they already
understand so you can scaffold the instruction by providing a structure
that they can build upon.
4. Write Performance Objectives
- Performance Objectives consist of a description of the task or skills to
be learned, the standards or criteria, and the conditions that the task
must be performed.

5. Develop Assessment Instruments
-Tests and evaluations are created that will:
1) ensure the learners meet the necessary prerequisites for performing
the new skills
2) identify the learner's progress in meeting the performance
objectives during the learning process
3) evaluate the learning process itself to ensure it is structurally sound.
6. Develop Instructional Strategy
- Create a blueprint of the learning activities that will transfer, develop,
and reinforce the skills and knowledge formulated in the performance
objectives. - - Sequence the items in the blueprint in the order that will
provide the best learning environment.

7. Develop and Select Instructional Materials
- Using the blueprint created in the previous step, fully develop the
instructional content and activities.
- To save time, reuse existing material whenever possible.
8. Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation
- Use iterative design methods, such as prototypes, small field group
trials, and/or interviews with prospective learners so that you can
collect data to identify areas in the instructional material that need
improvement before releasing the instruction for actual use.
9. Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation
- Judge the worthiness of the entire program with the focus being on
the outcome: Did it work as intended?
- Continue the evaluation after each class or training activity to
determine if it can be approved.
10. Revise Instruction: Use the data from the two types of evaluations
to examine the validity of the instructional material and revise as
needed. Dick, W., Carey, L. (2000). The Systematic Design of Instruction. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, and Company. - See more at:

LOGOBSCS 5E Instructional Model
1. Engagement : Teacher
engage prior knowledge and
promote curiosity to introduce
new concept
2. Exploration : Students are to
explore within the current
concept to generate new ideas
3. Explanation : Students
demonstrate their
understanding of the concept
4. Elaboration : Teacher
challenge the extend of
students’ understanding of the
concept
5. Evaluation : Provide
opportunity to evaluate
students’ progress towards
achieving objectives.

LOGOBloom’s Taxanomy
• Benjamin Bloom (1956) created a taxonomy to promote higher order
thinking skills
• The word “taxis”=arrangement and “nomos”= science, thus it is
science of arrangement or a set of classification principle or
structure
• This taxanomy is a way to classify thinking into 6 different levels and
it is under cognitive domain
• The 6 levels can be divided into lower order thinking skills
(knowledge, comprehension, application) and higher order thinking
skills (analysis, synthesis, evaluation)
• Application of this taxanomy is for instructor to design performance
task, write lesson objectives, prepare activities and assessment
based on students’ levels and expected outcome

LOGOComparison of Bloom’s Taxanomy
Munzenmaier, C. and Rubin, N. (2013). PERSPECTIVES BLOOM’S TAXONOMY: What’s Old Is New Again. The eLearning Guild, California, United States.

LOGOBloom’s Cognitive Keyword
Munzenmaier, C. and Rubin, N. (2013). PERSPECTIVES BLOOM’S TAXONOMY: What’s Old Is New Again. The eLearning Guild, California, United States.

LOGOSuggested Activities
Source: ftp://ftp-fc.sc.egov.usda.gov/NEDC/isd/taxonomy.pdf

LOGORevised Bloom’s Taxanomy
• In 2001, Lorin Anderson and David Krathwohl revisited the
taxonomy and made some changes
• Changing Noun to Verb forms
• Reposition the last two domains
• Taxanomy relates to different types of knowledge factual,
conceptual, procedural and metacognitive.
Source : http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html

LOGORestructuring of Bloom’s Taxanomy

LOGOLesson Plan
• Purpose of lesson plan is to give a guideline or direction to execute
instruction for a class
• Lesson plan is a detailed plan for teacher to deliver their course
content
• Lesson plan have the following sections:
I. Learning objectives
II. Set induction
III. Teaching content
IV.Teaching activities
V. Assessment
VI.Summative evaluation

LOGOLesson Plan
• A well developed lesson plan often reflects in achieving the
objectives of the lesson
• Students interest and needs will be fulfilled with the focus on student
centered learning
• It should be in a systematic, logical and present the topic in a simple
manner
• Lesson plan should have teaching aids
• The lesson should have realistic time duration to complete
• Use activities that include learners participation
• Evaluation related to the topic to test on what students gain from the
end of the lesson

LOGOExample of Lesson Plan
Source : http://www.algonquincollege.com/profres/lesson-planning/

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