Syntax suuliinh

SYNTAX
Õýëíèé îíîë – 3
Lecturer : Ts.DAGIIMAA, PH.D

Õè ýýëèéí èíäåêñ: ENGL 203
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Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa, Ph.D

2

Ëåêöèéí àãóóëãà
1. Sentence & Forms of the Subject
2. Complete Subject & Forms of the Predicate
3. Complements & Direct, Indirect Objects
4. Objective, Subject Complements & Adverbials
5. Adjunct, Conjunct, Disjunct & Structure of the
sentence
6. Sentence patterns & Simple sentence
7. Compound sentence & Coordinating conjunction
8. Complex sentence, Clauses & Noun clause
9. Relative clauses & Adverbial clause of time


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10. Adverbial clause of place, manner, reason,
condition & concession
11. Adverbial clause of purpose, result & Adjective
clauses
12. Connectors & Conjunctions
13. Phrase, Appositive, Prepositional, Verbal &
Participle phrases
14. Infinitives & Absolute phrase
15. Gerund & Passive Voice
16. Conditional sentences & Forms of Conditions


4

LECTURE 1
SENTENCE
&
FORMS OF THE SUBJECT


5

SYNTAX
The term “Syntax” is from the Ancient Greek
syntax, is a verbal noun which literally means
“arrangement” or “setting out together“. Syn–
together, taxis–sequence, order. Traditionally, it
refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the
ways in which words, with or without appropriate
inflections, are arranged to show connections of
meaning within the sentence.


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The expressions of a language involve a
relationship between a sequence of sounds and
a meaning, and this relationship is mediated by
grammar, a core component of which is syntax.
The study of sentence structure is syntax.
It concerns how different words which are
categorized as nouns, adjectives, verbs etc. Are
combined into clauses which in turn combine into
sentences. It means “Syntax” is concerned with
the way words combine to form sentences.


7

Syntax investigate into 5 levels :
sentences,
clauses,
phrases,
words,
morphemes.
Sentence are analyzed into clauses , clauses
are analyzed into phrases. Phrases are analyzed
into words, words are analyzed into morphemes. In
other words, morphemes are used to build words.
Words are used to build phrases. Phrases are used
to build clauses. Clauses are used to build
sentences.

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Kinds of Sentence
Sentences can be classified in several different
ways.
• Simple, compound, complex, and complex –
compound sentences are classifications according
to the kinds of clause in them.
• Loose, balanced and periodic sentences are
classifications according the position of the subject
and verb.
• An embedded sentence is a grammatical structure
that must be attached to an independent.
• Declarative,
interrogative,
imperative
and
exclamatory sentences are classifications to the way
the sentence communicates an idea.

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1. A declarative sentence makes a statement and
ends with a period. Most sentences that explain or
persuade are declarative: They are coming.
2. An interrogative sentence asks a question and
ends with a question mark.
3. An imperative sentence is a command and ends
with a period: Come here.
4. An exclamatory sentence expresses strong
feeling and ends with an exclamatory mark.
They must come now!
An exclamatory sentence has the same
grammatical structure as a declarative sentence.

10

Sentence
The sentence is the largest unit of syntax.
The sentence is the basic unit of communication in
English. A sentence is a group of words that
expresses and conveys a complete thought from a
speaker or writer to a listener or reader. Clauses and
phrases are the sub-units of a sentence.
The five possible elements of clause structure are
subject,
predicate,
object,
complement,
adverbial.

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Parts of the Sentence
A simple sentence is a group of words having a
subject and predicate and expressing complete
thought. All sentences consist of two basic parts :
subject ( S ) and predicate ( P ).
The simple subject (SS) is the key noun or
pronoun (word or group of words acting as a noun)
that tells what a sentence is a about. Simple subject
is always a noun or a pronoun.
SS

For example : The purity of revolution usually lasts
about 2 weeks.
SS

Historical books that contain no lies are extremely
tedious.

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Forms of the Subject
The subject of the sentence has several formsThe
most frequent forms are nouns, proper nouns and
pronouns.
We shall overcome. [personal pronoun functioning
as the subject]

Who is on third base? [interrogative pronoun
functioning as the subject]

Marcus Garvey was a charismatic leader. [proper
noun functioning as the subject]

Those comments annoyed Jack. [noun functioning
as the subject]


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Occasionally, larger structures, such as noun
clauses, gerund, phrases and infinitive phrases, can
function as the subject of a sentence.
For convenience, nouns, pronouns and these
larger structures are called nominals.
What he did annoyed Jill. [noun clause functioning as
the subject]

Playing chess amused Jack. [gerund phrase functioning
as the subject]

To collect every stamp issued by Mexico was
Juanita‟s ambition. [infinitive phrase functioning as the
subject]


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Simple and Complete Subjects
The noun or pronoun by itself is the simple
subject. This subject is important to identify
because it controls the form of the verb. (The
simple subject and the verb form it controls are in
boldface type in these examples:) One of the
ships is sinking. The mayor, as well as the
councilmen, has been implicated.
The noun phrase – that is, the noun and all its
modifiers – is the complete subject. The complete
subject (except for the boldface simple subject) is
italicized in the examples above and below.
The furniture that they had bought on Monday was
delivered on Friday.

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The Compound Subject
Sometimes more than one nominal can be used
as the subject of the sentence. The combination of
several nominals to express the topic of the
sentence is called a compound subject .
A compound subject is made up of two or more
simple subjects that are joined by a conjunction and
have the same verb.
E.g.: Foxes, wolves and dogs eat only meat .The
drivers and the loaders have threatened to strike.
Not only the price but also the quality of their
products fluctuates wildly.
What he did and what he said were not the same.

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Complete Subject and Complete Predicate
The complete subject (CS) consists of the simple
subject and all the words that modify it or complete
its meaning. The complete predicate (CP) consists
of the simple predicate and all the words that modify
it or complete its meaning.
Complete Subject

Complete Predicate

The penguins of Antarctica dive into ice-cold water.
The light rain
will stop within an hour.
The gifted Maya Angelou
was featured in a newspaper article about
contemporary authors.

17

LECTURE 2
Predicate
&
Forms of the Predicate


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Forms of the Predicate
The predicate, what is being said about the
topic of the sentence, always has a verb. The verb
usually has a verb completion called an object or a
complement. Like the noun or the pronoun, the
verb often has modifiers. The predicate of the
sentence is, in effect, made up of a verb, a verb
comletion and some verb modifiers. The various
forms of the predicate depend on the kind of verb
and the kind of verb completion involved.


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The simple predicate (SP) is a verb or
verb phrase that expresses the essential
thought about the subject of the sentence.
SP

For example: Snow will stop.
Simple Subject

Snow
Mary
Ice
Who

Simple Predicate

will stop.
is playing.
melts.
flies?


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To find the simple subject, ask Who? or What ?
about the verb.
For example: In the sentence “Mary is playing.”
The noun Mary answers the question who
played.
The addition of other words and phrases to the
simple subject and the simple predicate expands or
modifies the meaning of a sentence.


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Predicate with a Transitive Verb
The most frequent form of the predicate is one
where the verb expresses some kind of action and is
followed by a nominal. This nominal is called the
object; the verb is called a transitive verb.
In the following sentences the verbs brought,
tuned and said are transitive verbs.
They brought their guitars with them.
Betty tuned the piano.
After the party Jim said that they would have to
clean the place.


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Most transitive verbs must be completed
by their objects.
The following examples are not complete
English sentence.

They brought with them.
Betty tuned.
After the party, Jim said.


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Some transitive verbs use two verb completions: a
direct object and another structure called an
indirect object or a complement, to refer to the
object and complete the meaning of the verb. Both
structures are needed to complete the thought.
Compare :
Incomplete

Complete

He gave his teacher.

He gave his teacher the book.
[indirect object and direct object]

The problem made Jack.

The problem made Jack sweat.
[infinitive phrase (to) sweat as the
complement]


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Nouns, pronouns and prepositional phrases
starting with to or for can function as indirect
objects.
Eliseo gave twenty pesos to his brother.
Eliseo gave his brother twenty pesos.
Luis cooked a meal for his sister.
Luis cooked his sister a meal.
He called her a taxi.


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Nouns,
pronouns,
prepositional
phrases,
adjectives and verbal phrases can function as
complements.
He called her a star. [The complement a star refers to the
object her; they identify the same person. This can easily be confused
with the two-object form above: He called her a taxi. ( You‟re a taxi is not
what is meant here!)]

He thought the whole thing a bad joke.
[The noun joke and its modifiers function as the complement.]

I made him sick. [adjective as the complement]
They heard their father leaving the house.
[participle phrase as the complement]

He put the book on the table.
[The prepositional phrase on the table functions as the complement]

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Predicate with a Linking Verb
When the verb expresses being, seeming or
becoming, the verb is called a linking verb. These
verbs are followed by a nominal, an adjective or an
adverbial. (An adverbial is anything that works like an
adverb). Not many verbs function as linking verbs, but
those are used frequently: be, seem, become,
remain, appear, look, feel, sound, taste, smell, grow.
E.g.: Puerto Rico became a commonwealth in 1952.
[noun as complement] Her point was that Michael Jordan
was the greatest basketball player of all time. [noun
clause as complement ] Rita will be at her music teacher‟s
house. [the prepositional phrase is the complement. It is an adverbial
telling where]

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Predicate with an Intransitive Verb
Some verbs do not need an object to complete them.
These verbs can stand by themselves, or they are
completed by an adverbial that indicates location or
direction. The adverbial is called the complement.
The verb with or without the complement is called an
intransitive verb.
E.g.: The situation deteriorated. [Nothing completes the verb]
The clouds vanished. [Nothing completes the verb]
He lay down. [the adverbial down completes the verb. One cannot
say He lay. This verb needs a complement to indicate where he lay.]

He sat on the desk. [the adverbial on the desk is the complement]

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Compound Predicate
A compound predicate (or compound verb) is
made up of two or more verbs or verb phrases that
are joined by a conjunction and have the same
subject.For example: Everyone stood and
cheered. The silver dollar fell from his pocket and
rolled away. Roy will do the dishes, wash the floor
and cook dinner.
Some sentences have both a compound subject
and a compound predicate.
S

S

P

P

E.g.: Mitsuo and Carrie sat down and ate
lunch.

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Ordering of Subject and Predicate
In most sentences in English, the subject
precedes the verb. The following are some
exceptions to this normal word order.
1. In the case of commands or request „you‟ is
understood rather than expressed.
E.g.: [You] stop! [You] Stand up. [You] please try
again.
2. To add emphasis, a sentence can be written in
inverted order, with the predicate coming before the
subject.
Predicate

Subject

On the plain are
Beyond the river lay

two frightened ostriches.
freedom.


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3. The predicate usually comes before the subject
when the words there or here begins a sentence
and is followed by a form of the verb To be.
Predicate

Subject

Here is
my opinion.
There are
many reasons to go.
Depending on the meaning of the sentence, the
same word may be intransitive verb.
intransitive

The car ran well.
transitive

Ben

ran

direct object

his car

into a telephone pole.


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LECTURE 3
Complements
&
Direct and Indirect
Objects

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Complements
A complement is a word that is necessary to
complete the meaning of a verb. The four kinds of
complements are direct object, indirect object, object
complements and subject complements.
linking verb predicate adjective

Barbara

is

friendly.

transitive verb indirect object

Barbara

gave

Charles

direct object

the ball.

transitive verb

direct object

objective complement adjective

Barbara found

the work

difficult.

transitive verb direct object

objective complement noun

The committee elected Barbara chairperson.

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A linking verb must be followed by a predicate
adjective and a predicate noun, a pronoun or an
adverbial complement. A transitive verb in its active
form must be followed by a direct object. Some
transitive verbs can also be followed by indirect
objects and some can be followed by objectives
complement.
direct object

George found a Kite.
indirect object

Goerge found

us

direct object

a Kite.

direct object

George found

Henry

objective complement

difficult.


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Depending on the meaning of the sentence, the
same word may be transitive or linking verb.
transitive

Arthur

grew

roses.

linking verb

Arthur

direct object
predicate objective

grew

fat.


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Direct Object
A direct object answers the question What? or
Whom? after an action verb. The subject of a
sentence performs the action indicated by the verb.
That action may be directed toward or received by
someone or something - the direct object.
Direct objects are nouns, pronouns or words
acting as nouns. Only transitive verbs have direct
objects.
E.g.: Raymond needs money. [Raymond needs what?]
Inez saw us at the game. [Inez saw whom?]
Jerry explained what you meant.
[Jerry exsplained what?]

Lian invited Jamal and Paula to the party.
[Lian invited whom?]

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A direct object follows an active verb. Somebody or
something ( subject ) acts in some way ( verb ) on
somebody or something ( direct object )
Subject

Verb

Direct object

Mary
threw
the ball.
Mary
bought
some ice-cream.
The direct object is something or somebody different
from the subject except for the rare direct object that
is a reflexive pronoun.
Subject

Verb

John
hit
John
hit
elbow.

Direct object

a ball
himself

(it) over the fence.
(reflexivepronoun) on the


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The direct object can be a noun, a noun phrase, an
object pronoun, a noun clause, an –ing form, or an
infinitive.
Subject

Verb

Mary
Mary
Mary
Mary
Mary
Mary

threw
bought
bought
bought
likes
likes

Direct object

the ball. (noun)
some ice-cream. (noun phrase)
it. (pronoun)
whatever we wanted. (noun clause)
eating ice-cream. (-ing form)
to eat ice-cream. (infinitive)


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Indirect Object
An indirect object answers the question to
whom? for whom? to what? for what? after an
action verb. In most cases a sentence must have
a direct object in order to have an indirect object.
The indirect object always appears between the
verb and the direct object.
E.g.: That noise gives me a headache.
[that noise gives a headache to whom?]

Michael brought Mary a gift.
[Michael brought a gift for whom?]


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An indirect object is always part of a clause in
which the main verb is an active verb. The indirect
object is almost always the person to whom or for
whom something is done.
Active verb

Indirect object

Direct object

Mary
threw
John
the ball.
In the sentence above the indirect object comes
before direct object. It can also come after the direct
object, following to or for. Most verbs can have the
indirect object in either place.
Active verb

Indirect object

the ball

to John.

Indirect object

Mary threw

Direct object

Direct object

Mary brought Fred
Direct object

a sandwich.
Indirect object

Mary brought a sandwich Ph.D for Fred.
Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa,

40

An object pronoun can be an indirect object.
Indirect object

Mary threw him the ball. (more common word
order)
Indirect object

Mary threw the ball to him. (possible word order)
A non personal indirect object is possible with
verbs such as give, owe, pay, and send.
Indirect object

Direct object

Frank paid the bank the amount that he owed.


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Word order of Indirect Objects
1. With most verbs, if the direct object is a noun, the
indirect object can be put either before it or after it.
Subject

Paul
Paul
Paul

Active verb

gave
gave
gave

Indirect object

Jane
her

Direct object

the book.
the book.
the book


Indirect object

to her.

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2. If the direct object is a pronoun, the indirect
object usually comes after the direct object.
Direct object / pronoun/

Paul gave
it
to her.
Wilma bought
them
for John.
3. If either the direct object or the indirect object
is long or has many modifiers, it usually comes last.
Put an indirect object that is modified by a clause
or a long phrase after the direct object.
Direct object

Indirect object

Paul gave the book to the girl who was waiting for it.
Terry cooked dinner for the Boy Scout troop.


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4. Certain verbs must have to or for with the indirect
object. The to or for phrase usually comes after the
direct object. Some of the most common of these
verbs are:
admit: She admitted her mistakes to her mother.
communicate: The dean communicated the decision to the
student.
announce: The judges announced the winner to the crowd.
dedicate: The football team dedicated the game to their
injured teammate.
describe: The tourist described the beautiful view to (for) us.
entrust: They entrusted their money to their best friend.
explain : The professor explained the problem to ( for ) him.
indicate : The guide indicated the way to me.

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introduce : Albert will introduce you to his friends.
mention : Charlotte forgot to mention her accident to her
husband.
outline : The director outlined the work to ( for ) us.
prescribe : The doctor prescribed medicine for the patient.
propose : The chairman proposed a new plan to the
committee.
prove : The lecturer proved his theory to the audience.
recommend : My friends have recommended this restaurant
to me.
repeated : I will repeat the problem to ( for ) you one more
time.
report : The new members of the team reported to the coach
today.
return : My brother returned the book to me.
suggest : The doctor suggested a vacation to him.

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5. If a WH-word is the indirect object in a clause,
the sentence will be a question. In that case, follow
the word order for questions.
Indirect object

Direct object

Informal: Who(m) did Terry cook dinner for?
Formal: For whom did Terry cook dinner?
6. With some verbs, the indirect object can
become the subject of a passive sentence.
direct object

Direct object

Active: Paul gave Jane the book.
Wilma asked them what the question was.
Subject

Passive: Jane was given the book ( by Paul )OR
The book was given to Jane ( by Paul )
They were asked what the question was.

46

LECTURE 4
Objective, Subject
Complements
Adverbials
&
Adjunct, Conjunct, Disjunct

47

Objective Complement
An objective complement modifies or gives
additional information about a direct object. An
objective complement always follows a direct object.
Only a few transitive verbs can take objective
complements.
Subject

verb

direct object objective complement

Active: The club elected Helen treasurer. (noun)
Passive: Helen was elected treasurer. (noun)
Active: We found the baby crying. (adjective)
Passive: The baby was found crying. (adjective)
Active only: Charles made his mother happy.
(adjective)
Active only: The training made the team a winner.
(noun)

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Only sentences with direct objects can have
object complements. Only those sentences with
these or similar verbs that have the meaning of
“make” or “consider” can have object complements.
appoint consider make render
call
elect
name
think choose
find
An object complement may be an adjective, a
noun or a pronoun. It usually appears in a sentence
after the direct object. For example:
The jury found the defendant innocent of all
charges. [adjective]
Some pet owners consider their dogs children.
[noun] The school board made the problem theirs.
[pronoun]

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Subject Complement
A subject complement follows a subject and
linking verb identifies or describes the subject.
The two kinds of subject complements are
predicate nominatives and predicate adjectives.
A predicate nominative is a noun or pronoun
that follows a linking verb and points back to the
subject to identify it further.
E.g.: Many doctors are specialists.
The surgeon for this operation was she.


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The general predicate nominatives appear in
sentences with forms of the linking verb be.
Predicate nominatives may follow a few other linking
verbs. ( For example: remain and become ).
E.g.: Ethiopia is an African country.
Allergies remain a problem.
Elizabeth Blackwell, the first woman to
graduate a medical school in the United
States, became a doctor and a teacher.


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A predicate adjective follows a linking verb and
points back to the subject and further describes it.
E.g.: Pandas are unique.
Airline pilots should be healthy.
Predicate adjectives may follow any linking verb.
E.g.: The journey will be tiring.
The nation grew more hopeful.
The dinner is delicious and nutritious.
The baby seems sick.


52

Adverbials
An adverbial is a construction that modifies or
describes verbs.
An adverbial is any word, phrase or clause used
like an adverb, whether functioning as an element
in clause structure or at some other level.
E.g.: She speaks English fluently. (word)
Hang your coat on a hanger. (phrase)
He speaks just like his father did. (clause)


53

When an adverbial modifies a verb, it changes
the meaning of that verb. Traditionally adverbs are
divided into various meaning related categories,
such as manner (which includes many typical – ly
adverbs. E.g.: sensibly, sadly), place (here, there,
upstairs, downstairs), time (sometimes, yesterday,
soon), degree (too, very, only).
In modern grammar adverbs are sometimes
analyzed in much greater detail.
The terms adverb and adverbial are distinct.
Adverb is the name of a word class ( or part of
speech). An adverb phrase is a phrase headed by
and adverb so an adverb can be a head of an
adverb phrase. E.g.: Very carefully is an adverb
phrase. Carefully is a head of this phrase.

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Adverbial is the name of constituent of a sentence
or clause. An adverb phrase may function as an
adverbial:
I met my husband here. – an adverbial
In every sentence pattarn, the adverbial tells
where, when, why, how etc.
Adverbials can answer the questions How? How
often? When? Where? Why or to What extent?


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How: The embers glowed softly.
How often: This flower blooms infrequently.
When: The exam will be taken tomorrow.
Where: The children are playing outside.
Why: I could not come to the meeting because of
illness.
To What extent: Our emergency supplies were
nearly gone.
Study these examples of adverbials and the
questions they answer:
How?
hurriedly, in a hurry
When? finally, at the weekend
Where? nearby, in the garden
To what extent? very, often

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How to identify an adverbial clause? Compare:
I try hard, but I can never remember people‟s names.
However hard I try, I can never remember people‟s
names.
Hard is an adverb; however hard I try is an adverbial
(or adverb) clause: it is telling us something about (or
modifying) can never remember. Adverbs can often be
identified by asking and answering the question
When? Where? How? Why? and adverbial clauses
can be identified in the same way:
Time: Tell him as soon as he arrives. (When?)
Place: You can sit where you like. (Where?)
Manner: He spoke as if he meant business. (How?)
Reason: He went to bed because he felt ill. (Why?)

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Types of adverbials: there are 3 types of
adverbials.
- adjuncts
- conjuncts
- disjuncts
Adjunct
An adjunct is a type of adverbial illustrating the
circumstances of the action expressed by the
sentence it appears in. It expresses such relations
as time, manner, place, frequency, reason and
degree etc. Answers the questions : where, when,
how and why.
E.g.: I saw her yesterday. (time adjunct).

58

Almost every semantic type of adjunct can be realized
by a phrase with either an adverb or a preposition as
head (adverb or prepositional phrase). In the following,
the first underlined word in each clause is an adverb, the
second a preposition:
1. She did it carefully/with great care. [manner]
2. They live locally/in the vicinity. [special location]
3. I haven‟t seen her recently/since August. [temporal
location]
4. She is working with us temporarily/for a short time.
[duration]
5. They check regularly/at regular intervals.
[frequency]
6. I loved her immensely/with all my heart. [degree]
7. It failed consequently/for this reason. [reason]

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Conjunct
A conjunct is an adverbial that adds information to
the sentence, but which connects the sentence with
previous parts of the discourse. They indicate the
connection between what is being said and was said
before. For example:
The work should be finished sooner. It is therefore
necessary to encourage the operators.
You may pick three times. However, should
you prefer just two, you still have a 25% discount.
On the other hand she made an attempt to
help the victim.

60

Here are examples of conjuncts, listed
semantically:
First, second.... ; firstly, secondly....; next,
then, finally, last (ly), in the first place, ...; first of all,
last of all, to begin with, to start with, likewise,
similarly, in the same way, in conclusion, to
conclude, to summarize, on the contrary, in
contrast, in comparison, on the other hand,
anyhow, anyway, besides, however, nevethless,
still, though, yet; in any case, at any rate, after all,
at the same time, all the same time, incidentally, by
the way


61

Disjunct
A disjunct is a type of adverbial that expresses
information that is not considered essential to the
sentence it appears in, but which is considered to
be the speaker‟s or writer‟s attitude towards the
propositional content of the sentence. Semantically
disjuncts express an evaluation.
For instance: Honestly, I didn‟t do it. Fortunately for
you I have it right here.
In my opinion, the green one is better.
To my surprise, the doctor phoned.
There are two major types of disjuncts:
style disjuncts and content disjuncts.

62

Disjunctives either express the speaker‟s or
writer‟s attitude to the content of the sentence
(content disjunctives).
Style disjuncts can be paraphrased by a clause
with a verb of speaking. For example, the style
disjunct frankly functions as a manner adverb “ in
a frank manner”.
Frankly: I say to you frankly.....


63

Here are examples of style disjuncts, listed
semantically:
Approximately, briefly, broadly, crudely,
generally, roughly, simply, bluntly,confidentially,
frankly, honestly, privately, strictly, truly, truthfully,
literally, metaphorically, personally.
Content disjuncts may be modal or evaluative:
This is probably a women‟s size.
Moreover, Irish votes have wisely never given
him an overall parliamentary majority.
Wisely makes a value judgement on the subject
of the sentence.

64

Here are examples of content disjuncts (a) modal,
(b) evaluative:
a/ admittedly, certainly, clearly, evidently, indeed,
obviously, plainly, surely, undoubtedly, apparently,
arguably, likely, maybe, perhaps, possibly,
presumably, probably, supposedly, actually, basically,
essentially, ideally, nominally, officially, stensibly,really,
superficially, technically, theoretically
b/ fortunately, happily, luckily, regrettably, sadly,
tragically, unhappily, unfortunately, amazingly,
curiously, funnily, incredibly, ironically, oddly,
remarkably, strangely, unusually, appropriately,
inevitably, naturally, predictably, understandably,
amusingly, hopefully, interestingly, significantly,
thankfully
65

LECTURE 5
Structure
of the sentence


66

Structure of the Sentence
Sentence structure can be simple, compound,
complex or compound-complex according to the
kinds of clauses in the sentences.
1. A simple sentence has one independent or
main clause (one subject – main verb combination ).
E.g.: We were sorry. The car stopped.
A simple sentence can be expanded into a very
long sentence, but adding modifiers does not
change its basic structure.
E.g.: Feeling the disappointment of our friends at
our early departure, we were sorry to leave before
meeting all the guests.

67

In the sentence above, feeling and meeting are
verbals, not finite or main verbs. Although the
sentence is long, it still has the structure of simple
sentence: one subject and one main verb or verb
phrase. A simple sentence can have a compound
subject (two or more subjects joined by
coordinating conjunction).
E.g.: Francis and Chris were sorry.
Francis, Chris and Joe were sorry.
A simple sentence can have a compound verb
(two or more verb forms joined by a coordinating
conjunction).
E.g.: Francis ate peanuts and drank coffee.

68

A simple sentence can have a compound subject and
a compound verb.
E.g.: Francis and Chris ate peanuts and drank coffee.
The verb in one clause (a simple sentence) can be a
verb phrase ( more than one word). Verb phrases form
most English tenses.
Present Tense: Francis eats peanuts often.
Verb phrase

Future Tense: Francis will eat peanuts tomorrow.
Verb phrase

Perfect Tense: Francis has been eating peanuts
today.

69

2. A compound sentence has two or more independent
clause without any dependent or subordinate clause.
Francis has been happy today, and he will be
happier still tomorrow.
The clause of a compound sentence may be joined
either by a semicolon or by a comma and coordinating
conjunction ( and, but, or, for, nor, yet, so )
Independent clause

+ semicolon

The bus was crowded

;

+ independent clause

I had to stand all the way.

Independent clause + coordinating conjunction + independent clause

The bus was crowded and/so I had to stand all the day.
Independent clause

+

coordinating conjunction + independent clause

We had to stand all the way, but/yet we were not very
tired.

70

3. A complex sentence has one independent
clause and one or more dependent clauses.
Independent clause + dependent clause (adverb )

We were sorry

when we left early.

Independent clause + dependent clause (noun )

James said

that he was very pleased.


71

4. A compound – complex sentence has two or
more independent clauses and at least dependent
clause. A compound sentence becomes a
compound-complex sentence when one or more
dependent clauses are added to it.
Independent clause

Many men and women today are being trained
Independent clause

on their jobs, and some of them later study at
colleges and technical schools where they
dependent clause

improve their skills.


72

Sentence patterns
A written English sentence is a group of words that
says something in a fixed structure of grammar and
punctuation. Every written declarative sentence must
have a subject and predicate.
Sentence pattern means the different grammatical
constructions a clause that are possible with different
kinds of verbs. Patterns with Intransitive Verbs
Subject

S+V:

Verb

The man
The students
S+V+Adv: The children
Paul

Adverb (optional )

coughed.
laughed.
walked down the street.
hurried away from the door.


73

Patterns with Linking Verbs
Subject

Verb

Predicate noun or adverb, adjective

S+V+PN
or Adj:

The baby is
fat. (adj)
Maureen seems unhappy. (adj)
This building is
the library. (noun)
Jonathan has become a student. (noun)
S+V+Adv: My house is
on River Road.
The groceries are in the kitchen.
Patterns with Active Transitive Verb
Subject

Verb Predicate

S+V+DO: The baby
Dogs
S+V+DO+Adv: Jerry
Phyllis

likes
chase
put
treated

Direct object

Adverb

bananas.
cats.
the key
in the door.
the old man politely.


74

The Simple Sentence
The smallest sentence unit is the simple sentence.
A simple sentence normally has one finite verb. It has a
subject and a predicate :
subject group

verb group (predicate )

I
„ve eaten.
One of our aircraft
is missing.
The old building opposite our school is being pulled
down.


75

Five Simple Sentence Patterns
There are five simple sentence patterns. Within
each of the five groups there are different sub
patterns. The five patterns differ from each other
according to what (if anything ) follows the verb:
1. subject+verb:
My head aches.
2. subject+verb+complement:
Frank
is clever. / an architect.
3. subject+verb+direct object:
My sister enjoyed the play.


76

4. Subject+verb+indirect object+direct object:
The firm
gave Sam
watch.
5. subject+verb+object+direct object:
They
made Sam redundant. / chair man.
The examples listed above are reduced to a bare
minimum. To this minimum we can add adjectives
and adverbs:
His old firm gave Sam a beautiful gold watch on
his retirement.


77

Sentence patterns: definitions of key terms
Any discussion of sentence patterns depends on
a clear understanding of the terms object (direct or
indirect, complement), transitive verb and
intransitive verb.
A direct object refers to the person or thing
affected by the action of the verb. It comes
immediately after a transitive verb :
Please don‟t annoy me.
Veronica threw the ball over the wall.


78

An indirect object usually refers to the person who
„benefits‟ from the action expressed in the verb:
someone you give something to, or buy something
for. It comes immediately after a verb:
Throw me the ball.
Buy your father a present.
A complement follows the verb be and verbs related
to be, such as seem, which cannot be followed by an
object. A complement (adjective, noun, pronoun)
completes the sense of an utterance by telling us
something about the subject. For example, the words
following is tell us something about Frank :
Frank is clever. Frank is an architect.

79

A transitive verb is not followed by an object. A
simple test is to put Who(m)? or What before the
question form of the verb. If we get an answer, the
verb is transitive:
Whquestion form
Object
I met Jim this morning. Who(m) did you meet? Jim.
I‟m reading a book. What are you reading? A book.
Most transitive verbs can be used in the passive.
Some transitive verbs consist of more than one part:
E.g.: listen to.
An intransitive verb is not followed by an object and
can never be used in the passive. Some intransitive
verbs consist of more than one part: E.g.: touch down
My head aches. The plane touched down.

80

LECTURE 6
Sentence patterns
&
Simple sentence


81

Some verbs, like enjoy, can only be used transitively
and must always be followed by an object, others,
like ache, always are intransitive.
Verbs like open can be used transitively or
intransitively:
Verb+object (transitive): Someone opened the door.
Verb without object (intransitive): The door opened.
Pattern 1 : subject + verb
My head + aches
Intransitive verbs: ache, appear, arrive, come,
cough, disappear, fall, go.
Quick! The train‟s arrived. It‟s arrived early.

82

Some intransitive verbs are often followed by an
adverb particle (come in, get up, run away, sit
down, etc) or adverbial phrase:
Verb + particle:
He came in. He sat down. He stood up.
Verb + adverbial phrase:
A crowd of people came into the room.


83

Verbs which are sometimes intransitive
Many verbs can be used transitively with a object
(answering question, like What did you do?) and
intransitively without an object (answering the
question, like What happened? ) break, burn, close,
drop, fly, hurt, move, open, ring, shake, shut,
understand:
- with an object:
I rang the bell. I rang it repeatedly.
- without an object:
The phone rang. It rang repeatedly.


84

Pattern 2: subject + verb + complement
Frank + is + clever. / an architect.
The verb in this pattern is always be or a verb related
to be, such as appear, become, look, seem, sound
and taste.
Subject+be+complement:The complement may be
- an adjective:
Frank is clever.
- a noun:
Frank is an architect.
- an adjective+noun:
Frank is a clever architect.
- a pronoun:
It‟s mine.
- an adverb of place or time:
The meeting is here. /at 2.30
- a prepositional phrase: Alice is like her father.

85

Pattern 3: subject + verb + direct object
My sister + answered + the phone.
Most verbs in the language can be used in this
pattern. The direct object may take a variety of forms,
some of which are:
- a noun:
We parked the car in the car park.
- a pronoun:
We fetched her from the station.
- reflaxive pronoun:
We enjoyed ourselves at the party.
- an infinitive: I want to go home now.
-ing form:
I enjoy sitting in the sun.
The passive is formed as follows:
The guests were introduced to Jane.
The situation was explained to me.

86

To + noun or pronoun normally precedes a that –
clause or an indirect question when the object is very
long: Catherine explained to me what the situation
was.
Pattern 4: subject + verb + indirect object +
direct object
They + gave + him + a watch.
Verbs like bring, buy and give can have two objects.
The indirect object always follows the verb and
usually refers to a person:
The firm gave Sam a gold watch.
Sam is an indirect object. However, the direct object
can come after the verb if we wish to emphasize it.

87

When this is the case, the indirect object is replaced
by a prepositional phrase beginning with to or for:
The firm gave a watch with a beautiful
inscription on it to Sam.
They bought a beautiful gold watch for Sam.
The indirect object does not have to be a person :
I gave the car a wash.
If the direct object is a pronoun (very often it or
them ) it normally comes after the verb. The indirect
object is replaced by a prepositional phrase: They
gave it to Sam. They gave it to him.


88

However, if both direct and indirect objects are
pronouns, some verbs, such as bring, buy, fetch,
give, hand, pass, end, show and teach can be used
as follows, particularly in everyday speech:
Give me it.
Show me it.
Give it me.
Show it me.
Give me it is more common than Give it me.
The pattern Give it me does not often occur with
verbs other than give. The use of the object
pronoun them.
( Give them me ) is very rare.


89

The verbs in Pattern 4 can fall into three
categories:
Pattern 4: Category 1: Verbs that can be followed
by “ to ”
Subject + verb + indirect object + direct object
He showed
me
the photo.
Subject + verb + direct object + to + noun or pronoun
He showed the photo
to
me.
In the passive, the subject can be the person to
whom something is „given‟ or the thing which is
„given‟, depending on emphasis :
I was shown the photo.
The photo was shown to me.

90

Here is a selection of verbs that can be used in this
way: bring, give, grant, hand, leave, lend, offer,
owe, pass, pay, play, post, promise, read,
recommend, sell, send, serve, show, sing, take,
teach, tell, throw, and write.
Pattern 4: Category 2: Verbs that can be
followed by “ for ”
He bought
Jane
a present .
Subject + verb + direct object + for + noun
He bought a present
for Jane.


91

These sentences can be put into the passive in two
ways:
Jane was bought a present.
A present was bought for Jane.
Here is a selection of verbs that can be used in this
pattern. Normally only bring and buy, can have a
person as a subject in the passive: bring, buy, build,
call, catch, change, choose, cook, cut, do, fetch,
find, fix, get, keep, leave, make, order, prepare,
reach, reserve, save, sing.


92

In Categories 1 and 2, to or for + noun or pronoun
can be used when we wish to emphasize the person
who benefits from the action or when the indirect
object is longer than the direct object:
Barbara made a beautiful dress for her daughter.
He bought a gift for his niece who lives in Australia.
For can be ambiguous and its meaning depends on
context. The emphasis can be on „the recipient‟:
Mother cooked a lovely meal for me. (=for my benefit)
or on the person acting on the recipient‟s behalf:
I‟lI cook the dinner for you. (= on your behalf / instead
of you) For can ambiguous when used after most of
the verbs listed in for can refer to the person acting on
the recipient‟s behalf when used after most of the
verbs.
93

Pattern 4: Category 3: Verbs that can be used
without “ to”or “for”
I
„ll tell
you
the truth soon.
Subject + verb + indirect object only
I
„ll tell
you soon.
The passive can formed in two ways:
You will be told the truth soon.
The truth will be told to you soon.
The direct object may often be omitted but is implied
after ask, bet, forgive, grant, owe, pay, promise,
show, teach, tell, write:
I‟ll write you. I bet you. I grant you. I‟ll promise you.

94

Pattern 5: subject + verb + object + complement
They + appointed + him + chairman.
Verbs used in this pattern are often in the passive.
Here is a selection of common ones: appoint,
baptize, call, consider, christen, crown, declare,
elect, label, make, name, proclaim, pronounce, vote:
They appointed him chairman.
He was appointed chairman.
They made Sam redundant.
Sam was made redundant.
The complement is usually a noun, though after call,
consider, declare, make, pronounce, it can be an
adjective or a noun:
They called him foolish / a fool.

95

Here are a few verbs that combine with an object +
adjectival complement:
drive (me) crazy/mad/wild; get (it) clean/dirty,
dry/wet, open/shut; find (it) difficult/easy; hold (it)
open/still; keep (it) cool/fresh/shut; leave (it)
clean/dirty, open/shut; like (it) hot; make (it)
easy/plan/safe; open (it) wide; paint (it) brown/red;
prefer (it) fried; pull (it) shut/tight; push (it) open;
want (it) raw; wipe (it) clean/dry:
Loud music drives me crazy.
I‟m driven crazy by loud music.


96

LECTURE 7
Compound and
Complex sentence
&
Coordinating conjunction

97

The Compound Sentence
We often need to join ideas. One way we can do
this is to link simple sentences to form compound
sentences. This linking is achieved by any of the
following:
- a semi-colon: We fished all day; we didn’t catch
a thing.
- a semi-colon, followed by a connecting
adverb:
We fished all day; however, we didn’t catch a
thing.
- a co-ordinating conjunction (e.g.: and, but,
so, yet) often preceded by a comma:
We fished all day; but (we) didn’t catch a thing.

98

In a compound sentence, there is no single
main clause with subordinate clauses depending
on it :
all the clauses are of equal importance and
can stand on their own, though of course they
follow a logical order as required by the context.
We often refer to clauses in a compound
sentence as co-ordinate main clauses.


99

Word order and co-ordinating
conjunctions
The word order of the simple sentence is
generally retained in the compound sentence:
Subject verb object conjunction

subject verb complement

Jimmy fell off his bike, but (he) was unhurt.
The co-ordinating conjunctions which can be
used to form compound sentences are: and, and
then, but, for, nor, or, so, yet; ither...or;
neither...nor...; not only...; but... (also/as
well/too).

100

These can be used for the purposes of addition
(and), contrast (but, yet), choice (or), reason (for),
continuation (and then) and consequence or result
(so). However, a single conjunction like and can
serve a variety of purposes to express:
- addition: We were talking and laughing. (= in
addition to)
- result: He fell heavily and broke his arm. (= so)
- condition: Weed the garden and I‟ll pay you 5$.
(= if ... then)
- sequence: He finished lunch and went
shopping. (= then)
- contrast: Tom‟s 15 and still sucks his thumb.
(= despite this)

101

Joining sentence patterns to make
compound sentence
The five simple sentence patterns can be joined
by means of co-ordinating conjunctions:
subject

verb

manner (P1) + (subject) verb complement (P2)

Frank worked hard and he became an architect.
subject verb object (P3) + subject verb

I
subject

„ve got a cold, so I
verb

place (P1)

„m going to bed.

object complement(P5)+(subject) verb object (P3)

They made him chairman, but (they) didn‟t increase
his salary.
Subject

verb complement (P2) +

subject

verb object

Her birthday is next Monday, so I must buy her
object(P4)

a present.

102

The Use of Coordinating Conjunctions
When the subject is the same in all parts of the
sentence, it is usual not to repeat it. We do not
usually put a comma in front of and, but we generally
use one in front of other conjunctions:
Addition/sequence: “ and ”, “ both....and “; “ not
only .... but ... (too / as well )”; “ not only .... but
(also) ....”; “ and then ”
He washed the car. He polihsed it.
He washed the car and polihsed it.
He not only washed the car, but polihsed it. (
too/as well).
He washed the car and then polihsed it.

103

When the subjects are different, they must both be
used:
You can wait here and I‟ll get the car.
Jim speaks Spanish, but his wife speaks
French.
Contrast:“ but ”; “ yet ”
He washed the car. He didn‟t polihsed it.
He washed the car but didn‟t polihsed it.
She sold her house. She can‟t help regretting it.
She sold her house, but / yet (she) can‟t help
regretting it.

104

Alternatives: “either ... or ...”; “neither ... nor...”
He speaks French. Or perhaps he understands it.
He either speaks French, or understands it.
He doesn‟t speak French. He doesn‟t understand it.
He neither speaks French, nor understands it.
Result: “so”
He couldn‟t find his pen. He wrote in pencil.
He couldn‟t find his pen, so he wrote in pencil.
(The subject is usually repeated after “so”)


105

Cause: “for ”
We rarely stay in hotels. We can‟t afford it.
We rarely stay in hotels, for we can‟t afford it.
For gives the reason for something that has
already been stated. Unlike because, it cannot
begin a sentence.
The subject must be repeated after for.
This use of for is more usual in the written
language.


106

Linking simple sentence by commas
More than two simple sentence can be joined
by commas with only one conjunction which is
used before the final clause.
The use of a comma before and is optional
here:
found a bucket, put it in the sink (,) and turned
the tap on.
I took off my coat, searched all my pockets, but
couldn‟t find my key.

107

Sometimes subject and verb can be omitted.
In such cases, a sentence is simple, not
compound.
The hotel was cheap but clean. Does the
price include breakfast only, or dinner as well?
A second question can be avoided by the use
of .... or not:
Does the price include breakfast,or not?
(=or doesn‟t it ?)


108

The Complex Sentence
Many sentences, especially in written language,
are complex. They can be formed by linking simple
sentences together, but the elements in a complex
sentence are not of equal importance. There is
always one independent (or „main‟) clause and one
or more dependent elements. If removed from a
sentence, a main clause can often stand on its own.
Complex sentences can be formed in two ways:
1. by joining subordinate clauses to the main
clause with conjunctions: The alarm was raised
(main clause) as soon as the fire was discovered.
(subordinate clause)

109

If you‟re not good at figures, (subordinate
clause) it is pointless to apply for a job in a bank.
(main clause)
2. by using infinitive or participle constructions:
These are non-finite and are phrases rather than
clauses, but they form part of complex ( not simple )
sentences because they can be re-expressed as
clauses which are subordinate to the main clause:
To get into university you have to pass a
number of examinations. (=If you want to get into
university...)
Seeing the door open, the stranger entered the
house. (= When he saw the door open ...)

110

Many different constructions can be present in a
complex sentences :
a) Free trade agreements are always threatened
(main clause)
b) when individual countries protect their own
markets. (subordinate clause defends)
c) by imposing duties on imported goods (participle
construction dependent on (b))
d) to encourage their own industries. (infinitive
construction dependent on (c))


111

The subject of the main clause must be replaced
by a pronoun in a subordinate clause if a reference
is made to it:
The racing car went out of control before it hit the
barrier.
A pronoun can occur in a subordinate clause
before the subject is mentioned. This is not possible
with co-ordinate clauses:
When she got on the train, Mrs Tomkins realized
she had made a dreadful mistake.
Co-ordinate and subordinate clauses can combine in
one sentence:
The racing car went out of control and hit the barrier
several before it came to a stop on a grassy bank.

112

The five simple sentence patterns can be
combined in an endless variety of ways. Subordinate
clauses can be classified under three headings:
noun clauses :
E.g.: He told me that the match had been
cancelled.
- relative or adjectival clauses:
E.g.: Holiday resorts which are very crowded
are not very pleasant.
- adverbial clauses:
E.g.: However hard I try I can‟t remember
people‟s names.

113

LECTURE 8
Clauses , Noun Clause
&
Relative Clause


114

Clauses
A clause is a group of words that has a subjectverb combination in it. The verb must be a main or
finite verb form. The –ing or the infinitive forms
cannot be the main verb.
Incorrect: The girl to run down the street.
(fragment)
Incorrect: The girl running down the street.
(fragment)
Correct: The girl is running down the street.
The girl runs down the street.

115

Independent Clauses
Independent clauses (also called main clauses)
can be punctuated as separate sentences. They
may be long or short. Each independent or main
clause has one subject-verb combination in it.
Running down the street chasing the bus to
school, Greg shouted loudly after it to stop and
pick him up.
There is only one subject-main verb combination
in the sentence above : Greg shouted. Other words
in this sentence that are verb forms are running,
chasing and to stop and pick up.

116

Independent Clause: Greg ran down the street.
Independent Clause:
Greg chased the bus down the street.
Independent Clause:
Greg shouted at the bus driver to stop for him.
Independent Clause: Greg will be late to work.
Independent Clause:
The next bus will stop to pick Greg up.
The sentences above are independent clauses.
They have a subject and a verb. They do not have a
subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun that
would make them dependent.

117

Dependent Clauses
Dependent clauses (also called subordinate
clauses) cannot be punctuated as complete
sentences except in direct quotations in some
transitional uses.
1. A dependent clause must be attached to an
independent clause. More than one dependent
clause can be attached to the same independent
clause.
dependent clause

independent clause

When the alarm clock rang, the boy saw
dependent clause

that it was time to get up.

118

A dependent clause may come in the middle of an
independent clause.
independent clause

dependent clause

The boy got up. The boy who was sleeping got
up.
2. A dependent clause may be marked or
unmarked. If it is marked, the first word in the clause
is a relative pronoun or a subordinating
conjunction. In an unmarked clause, that, which or
who (m) is left out. The only markers that can be left
out are that, which and who(m) and they can be left
out only in certain constructions as explained under
adjective clauses and noun clauses.

119

marker

This is the story that she read.
This is the story she read.
(unmarked: she left out)
marker

They said that they were going.
They said they were going.
(unmarked: they left out)
3. A dependent clause acts in the sentence
like an adjective, an adverb, or a noun.


120

Noun Clauses
1. Noun clause is used as a subject or an object.
a) His story was interesting. (story is a noun)
What he said was interesting. (what he said is a noun
clause)
b) I heard his story. (it‟s used as the object of the verb
heard) I heard what he said.
2. Noun clauses which begin with a question word.
Where does she live? I don‟t know where she lives.
Who is she? I don‟t know who she is.
What happened? Please tell me what happened.
Whose house is that? I wonder whose house that is.
When he will come back is uncertain.

121

3. Noun clauses which begin with whether or if.
Will she come? I don‟t know whether she will come.
Does he need help? I wonder if he needs help.
I wonder if she will come or not.
4. Noun clauses which begin with that.
He is a good actor. I think that he is a good actor.
The world is round. We know that the world is
round.
That the world is round is fact.
It is fact that the world is round.
She doesn‟t understand spoken English.
That she doesn‟t understand spoken English is
obvious.

122

5. Noun clauses with what.
What Bill said pleased the teacher. I‟m not
concerned with what Jack said. I know what Bill
said.
6. The subjunctive form in Noun clauses
a) Verbs that in the subjunctive form: demand,
insist, request, as, recommend, advice, propose
b) It‟s + important, necessary, essential, vital,
imperative, significant, urgent, crucial that
It‟s important that she pass all her exams.
It‟s crucial that the food aid be maintained.


123

In these sentences, the subjunctive verb is used
only its simple form. It doesn„t have present, past or
future form; it is neither singular nor plural.
Negative: simple form of be + Past participle.
I recommended that she not go to the concert.
7. Every words in Noun clauses
Since he is rich, he can buy whatever he wants.
Whoever he is, isn‟t important.
Whenever you want to leave is fine with me.
However you cook it is right with me.


124

Relative clauses ( Defining)
a) Using subject pronouns: who, which, that
who = used for people,
which = used for things,
that = for both people and things
I thanked the woman. She helped me.
I thanked the woman who helped me.(the
adjective clause modifies the noun woman.)
The book is mine. It is on the table.
The book which / that is on the table is mine.


125

b) Using object pronouns: who(m), which, that.
The man was Mr. Jones. I saw him.
The man who(m) that I saw was Mr. Jones.
The movie wasn‟t very good. We saw it last night.
The movie which/that we saw last night wasn‟t
very good.
c) Using Whose: (whose is used to show
possession)
I know the man. His bicycle was stolen.
I know the man whose bicycle was stolen.
The student writes well. I read her composition.
The student whose composition I read writes well.

126

d) Pronoun used as the object of a preposition.
She is the woman. I told you about her.
She is the woman about whom I told you.
The music was good. We listened to it last night.
The music to which we listened last night was
good.
The music which/that we listened to last night was
good.
e) Using Where. (where is used in an adjective
clause to modify a place: city, country, room)
The building is very old. He lives there.
The building where he lives is very old.
The building in which he lives is very old.
The building which he lives in is very old.

127

f) Using When. (when is used in an adjective
clause to modify a time: year, day, time, century)
I‟ll never forget the day. I met you then.
I‟ll never forget the day when / on which / that
met you.


128

Relative clauses ( Non-Defining)
a) Do not use commas if the adjective clause is
necessary to identify the noun it modifies. Use
commas if the adjective clause simply gives
additional information and is not necessary to
identify the noun it modifies.
The professor who teaches chemistry 101 is an
excellent lecturer.
Professor Wilson, who teaches chemistry 101, is
an excellent lecturer.
Hawaii, which consists of eight principal islands, is a
favorite vacation spot.
Mrs. Smith, whom I met yesterday, teaches history.

129

b) An adjective clause may contain an expression of
quantity with of: some of, most of, many of, none
of, two of, half of, both of, neither of, each of, all
of, several of, a few of, little of, a number of…
Expression of quantity precedes the pronoun. Only
whom, which and whose are used.
There are 250 stars in the Milky Way. One of them
is our sun. There are 250 stars in the Milky Way,
one of which is our sun.
We have two typists. Both of them are good. We
have two typists, both of whom are good. Teachers
discussed Jim. One of his problems was poor study
habits. Teachers discussed Jim, one of whose
problems was poor study habits.

130

c) Using which to modify a whole sentence.
Tom was late. That surprised me.
Tom was late, which surprised me.
The elevator is out or order. This is too bad.
The elevator is out of order, which is too bad.


131

LECTURE 9
Adverb clauses


132

Adverb or Adjective
GOOD and WELL. Good is an adjective. It may be
used as a subject complement, but it should not be used
as an adverb to modify an action verb.
Well may be used as either an adjective or adverb. As
an adverb, it is the adverb form of good and means
capably or effectively.
(wrong) Michael spoke quite good on the subject of
conservation. (right) Michael spoke quite well on the
subject of conservation.
As an adjective, well means in good health or having
a good appearance.
right Howard looks well since his vacation.
right Doesn`t Mary Jean look well with her hair done
that way?

133

Adverb clauses
Like a single-word adverb, an adverb clause tells
when (time), where (place), how (manner), why
(cause), and to what extent (degree). An adverb
clause can also show cause, concession, condition,
control and purpose.
independent clause

dependent clause

We had already gone
when Charlotte came.
In normal word order, the adverb clause follows
the independent clause as in the sentence above. If
the adverb clause comes first in the sentence,
however, the adverb clause is followed by a comma.
dependent clause

independent clause

When Charlotte came,

we had already gone.


134

The marker for an adverb clause is sometimes
called a subordinating conjunction or a relative
adverb. If you leave out the marker you change the
adverb clause into an independent clause and
change the basic structure of the sentence.
Adverbial Clauses of Time
These clauses broadly answer the question
When? and can be introduced by the following
conjunctions: when, after, as, as long as, as soon
as, before, by the time (that), directly, during the
time (that), immediately, the moment (that), now
(that)once, since, until / till, whenever, and while.

135

We generally use a comma when the adverbial
clause comes first:
You didn‟t look very well when you got up this
morning. After she got married, Madeleine
changed completely. I pulled a muscle as I was lifting
a heavy suitcase. You can keep these records as
long as you like. Once you‟ve seen one penguin,
you‟ve seen them all. He hasn‟t stopped complaining
since he got back from his holidays. We always
have to wait till / until the last customer has left.


136

Tenses in adverbial clauses of time: “no future
after temporals”
When the time clause refers to the future, we
normally use the simple present after, as soon as,
before, by the time, directly, immediately, the
moment, till, until and when where we might
expect a simple future, or we use the present
perfect where we might expect the future perfect.
These two tenses are often interchangeable after
temporal conjunctions :
The Owens will move to a new flat when their
baby is born. (or has been born)

137

The Present Perfect is often used after once and
now that:
Once (=when) we have decorated the house,
we can move in. Now that we have decorated the
house. (action completed) we can‟t move in. Will,
after, when
Though we do not normally use the future in time
clauses, will can be used after when in noun
clauses: The hotel receptionist wants to know when
we will be checking out tomorrow morning.
When meaning “and then” can be followed by
present or future :
I shall be on holiday till the end of September,
when I return (or when I shall return) to London.

138

Adverbial Clauses of Place
These clauses answer the question Where?
and can be introduced by the conjunctions
where, wherever, anywhere and everywhere.
Adverbial clauses of place normally come after
the
main
clause:
You
can‟t
camp
where/wherever/ anywhere you like these days.
Anywhere, everywhere and wherever can
begin a sentence, depending on the emphasis we
wish to make: Everywhere Jenny goes she‟s
mistaken for Princess Diana.

139

Where generally refers to a definite but
unspecified place
The church was built where there had once
been a Roman temple.
Wherever, anywhere and everywhere suggest
“any place”
With a special train ticket you can travel
wherever/anywhere/everywhere you like in
Europe for just over 100$


140

Adverbial Clauses of Manner

“As” and “in the way(that)” - clauses answer
the question How? and can be introduced by the
conjunction as. Adverbial clauses of manner
normally come after the main clause: Type this
again as I showed you a moment ago. (in the
way I showed you) This fish isn‟t cooked as I like
it. (in the way I like it)
How and in the way can be used colloquially in
place of as: This steak is cooked just how / the
way I like it.


141

Clauses of manner can also express
comparison when they are introduced by
expressions like (in) the way, (in) the way that,
the way in which, (in) the same way, (in) the
same way as: She‟s behaving (in) the same way
her elder sister used to. “As if” and “ as
though“ after “be”, “seem” etc
Adverbial clauses of manner can also be
introduced by the conjunctions as if and as
though after the verbs be, act, appear, behave,
feel, look, seem, smell, sound, taste:
I feel as if / as though I‟m floating on air.


142

Note also constructions with It:
It sounds as if / as though the situation will get
worse. It feels as if / as though it‟s going to rain.
As if / as though can be used after any verbs
describing behavior:
Lillian was trembling as if / as though she
had seen a ghost.
She acted as if she were mad.


143

Adverbial Clausese of Reason
These clauses broadly answer the question
Why? and can be introduced by the following
conjunctions: because, as, seeing (that) and since:
As / Because / Since there was very little
support, the strike was not successful.
I‟m afraid we don‟t stock refills for pens like
yours because there‟s little demand for them.


144

The relative position of clauses of reason
and main clauses
As a general rule, whatever we want to
emphasize (reason or main clause) comes at the
end. We often begin sentences with as or since
because the reasons they refer to may be known to
the person spoken to and therefore do not need to
be emphasized: As / since you can‟t type the
letter yourself, you‟ll have to ask Susan to do it for
you.
Because generally follows the main clause to
emphasize a reason which is probably not known to
the person spoken to: Jim‟s trying to find a place of
his own because he wants to feel independent.

145

Because can always be used in place of as,
since and for to give a reason or reasons, but these
conjunctions cannot always be used in place of
because.
Adverbial Clauses of Condition

These clauses can be introduced by
conjunctions such as assuming (that), if, on
condition (that), provided (that), providing (that), so /
as long as and unless.


146

Adverbial Clauses of Concession
Adverbial clauses of concession introduce an
element of contrast into a sentence and are
sometimes called contrast clauses. They are
introduced by the following conjunctions: although,
considering (that), though, even though, even if,
much as ... while, whereas, however, much/ badly/
good etc..., no matter how much. Even though is
probably more usual than though/although in
speech: Although/Though/Even though I felt
sorry for him, I was secretly pleased that he was
having difficulties. We intend to go to India, even if
air fares go up again between now and the
summer.

147

Much as I‟d like to help, there isn‟t lot I can do.
While I disapprove of what you say, I would
defend to the death your right to say it.
However combines with numerous adjective and
adverbs:
However far it is, I intend to drive there tonight.
No matter can combine with question words (who,
when, where etc.) to introduce clauses of
concession:
No matter where you go, you can‟t escape from
yourself.


148

Compounds with-ever can introduce clauses of
concession in the same way as No matter:
Whatever I say, I seem to say the wrong thing.
(No matter what ...)
We can use may in formal style in place of the
present after all conjunctions introducing clauses of
concession:
However brilliant you are / may be, you can‟t
know everything.
Whatever you think / may think, I‟m going
ahead with my plans.


149

As and though to mean regardless of the degree
to which can be used after some adjectives,
adverbs and verbs to introduce clauses of
concession in formal style:
likely as it sounds / may sound, what I‟m telling
you is true. (though it sounds / may sound
unlikely...)
Beautiful though the necklace was, we thought
it was over-priced so we didn‟t buy it. (though the
necklace was beautiful ...)
Try as he might, he couldn‟t solve the problem.
(though he tried he couldn‟t...)

150

LECTURE 10
Adverbial clauses of
purpose, result
&
Adjective clause

151

Adverbial Clauses of Purpose

These clauses answer the questions What for?
and For what purpose? and can be introduced by
the following conjunctions: so that, in order that, in
case, least and for fear (that)
So as to and in order to also convey the idea of
purpose, but they are variations on the to – infinitive,
not conjunctions. They do not introduce a group of
words containing a finite verb. Constructions with to,
so as to and in order to are much simpler that those
with that and are generally preferred.

152

Sequence of verb forms in adverbial
clauses of Purpose
When the verb in the main clause is in the
present, present perfect or future, so that and in
order that can be followed by may, can or will.
So that is more common than in order that.
I‟ve arrived early so that / in order that ...
I may / can / will get a good view of the
procession.
So that and in order that way also be followed by
the present: Let us spend a few moments in silence
so that / in order that we remember those who
died to preserve our freedom.

153

When the verb in the main clause is in the simple
past, the past, the past progressive, or the past
perfect, so that and in order that are followed by
should, could, might or would:
I arrived early so that / in order that I should /
could / might get a good view of the procession.
Infinitive constructions with not to, so as not to and
in order not to are more natural:
I arrived early so as not to miss anything.
They must have worn gloves in order not to
leave any fingerprints.


154

“In case”, “Lest” and “ for fear”
Should, might or the present must be used after
in case when there is a future reference:
We‟ve installed an extinguisher next to the
cooker in case there is ever ( there should /
might ever be) a fire.
I‟m taking a raincoat with me in case I need it.
Should is optional after (the relatively rare) lest:
We have a memorial service every year lest we
(should) forget our debt to those who died in
battle. (so that / in order that we might not forget ...)

155

The subjunctive could also be used after lest:
I avoided mentioning the subject lest he be
offended. I asked them to ring first lest we were
out.
For fear is usually followed by might, but the
same idea can be expressed more easily with in
case + past: I bought the car at once for fear (that)
he might change his mind.
I bought the car at once in case he changed his
mind.


156

Adverbial Clauses of Result
These clauses describe consequences. They
can be introduced by that after so + adjective to
answer, e.g. How (quick)...?
His reactions are so quick (that) no one can
match him.
And by that after + adverb to answer, e.g. How
(quickly) ...?
He reacts so quickly (that) no one can match
him.


157

They can also be introduced by that after such
(a) + noun (or adjective + noun) to answer
questions like What‟s (he) like?
He is such a marvelous joker (that) you can‟t
help laughing. They are such wonderful players
(that) no one can beat them.
When that is omitted informally, a comma is
sometimes used:
His reactions are so quick (,) no one can match
him.


158

Such + obligatory that can be used in formal
English as follows:
His reactions are such that no one can match
him.
Result clauses with and without that can also
be used after so + much, many, few, little etc.:
There was so much to lose (that) we couldn‟t
take any risks.
They can also be used after such a lot of :
There was such a lot of rain (that) we
couldn‟t go out.

159

So and such (heavily stressed in speech) can
be used without that, so a that-clause may be
strongly implied:
He was so angry! (i.e. that there were
consequences)
The children made such a mess! (that there
were consequences)
In colloquial English that is sometimes heard in
place of so:
It was that cold, (that) I could hardly get to sleep.
The roads were that icy! (that there were
consequences)

160

Adjective Clauses

Like a single word, an adjective clause modifies
a noun or pronoun.
dependent clause (adjective)

This is the story that she read.
(that she read modifies story – it tells which
story)
dependent clause (adjective)

John is the boy who remembered.
(who remembered modifies boy – it tells which
boy)


161

An adjective clause in English usually comes
after the noun or pronoun it modifies.
The story about the bears that we liked very
much is in this book.
( that we liked very much modifies bears.)
The story that we liked very much about the
bears is in this book.
( that we liked very much modifies story.)


162

Use of the Adjective Clauses
1. Who, Whom and Whose introduce adjective
clauses referring to persons.
a) Use Who when the relative pronoun is the
subject of the adjective clause.
Arthur Wynne, who invented the crossword
puzzle, published the first one in 1913.
b) Use Whom when the relative pronoun is any
kind of object in the adjective clause.
Joe Louis, whom I have seen on television,
held the heavyweight title longer than anyone else.
(whom is the direct object of the verb have seen.)
Jim Braddock, from whom he won the title, had
beaten Max Bear. (whom is the object of the
163
preposition from.) Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa, Ph.D

c) Use Whose to introduce an adjective clause
showing possession.
Lenny, whose voice is loud and clear, makes a
good speaker. Aunt Celia is the one whose house
we visited.
2. Which, That to introduce an adjective clause
when refers to an animal, place, thing, or person.
a) Use Which to introduce an adjective clause
when refers to an animal, place, or thing, but not to
a person.
The old magazine, which I found in our attic,
belonged to my grandfather.
Our musical show, which was given on Friday
night, played to a packed house.

164

b) Use That to introduce an adjective clause
when that refers to a person, animal, place, or
thing.
The road that runs past our farm is rough.
Here are the plans that we made last night.
There is the boy that I talked to yesterday.
c) In many sentences, either which or that may
be used correctly.
Blackie is the horse which followed me.
Blackie is the horse that followed me.


165

Connecting Words That join Clauses
Two independent clauses can be joined in two ways.
1. Two independent clauses can be joined by a
comma and a coordinating conjunction. ( and, but, or,
for, nor, yet, so ).
Coordinating
conjunction

Independent clause

The alarm clock rang,
Mark got up,

Independent clause

and
so
but
yet
for

Mark got up.
Mark got up.
Mark did not get up.
Mark did not get up.
the alarm clock rang.


166

2. Two independent clauses can be joined by a
semicolon. An interrupter may be added to the second
clause to show more clearly the relation between the
ideas in the two clauses. ( Single-word interrupters are
often called conjunctive adverbs.)
Independent clause

bed.

Independent clause

the boy got up.
therefore, the boy got up.
consequently, the boy got up.
as a result, the boy got up.
nevertheless, the boy stayed in
however, the boy stayed in bed.

167

LECTURE 11
Connectors
Conjunctions
&
Phrases


168

The meaning of Connectors
The following connectors show effect or result
in the second clause. Coordinating conjunctions:
It was raining, so I carried an umbrella.
Interrupters:
It was raining,therefore, I carried an umbrella.
It was raining, consequently, I carried an
umbrella.
It was raining, as a result, I carried an
umbrella.
It was raining, thus, I carried an umbrella.
It was raining, accordingly, I carried an
umbrella.

169

The following connectors show contrast in the second
independent clause.
Coordinating conjunctions:
One of her eyes was blue, but her other eye was green.
One of her eyes was blue, yet her other eye was green.
Interrupters:
One of her eyes was blue, however, her other eye was
green.
One of her eyes was blue, on the other hand, her other eye
was green.
One of her eyes was blue, nevertheless, her other eye was
green.
One of her eyes was blue, even so, her other eye was
green.
One of her eyes was blue, by / in contrast, her other eye
was green.

170

The following connectors show addition of
more facts or ideas to the facts or ideas stated in
the first clause.
He was rich, and his brother was rich.
Interrupters :
He was rich, also, his brother was rich.
He was rich, furthermore, his brother was rich.
He was rich, in addition, his brother was rich.
He was rich, moreover, his brother was rich.
He was rich, in fact, his brother was rich.
He was rich, his whole family was rich too.

171

Too usually comes in the middle or at the end of a clause.
Words of four letters or fewer are not usually set off by
commas.
The following connectors can be used to introduce an
illustration or example in the second independent clause.
Interrupters:
He seemed very rich; for example, he owned three cars.
He seemed very rich; to illustrate, he owned three cars.
He seemed very rich; in fact, he owned three cars.
He seemed very rich;for instance, he owned three cars.
He seemed very rich; for one thing, he owned three cars.


172

Other connectors introduce more illustrations
and examples after the first one.
For another thing
Secondly
Thirdly
Finally
At last
He was rich; for one thing, he owned three cars.
For another thing, he always wore the most
expensive clothes.


173

The following connectors can be used to show
choice or alternatives stated in two independent
clauses.
You must pay a fine, or you must go to jail.
He did not pay a fine, nor did he go to jail.
(negative alternative)
Interrupters :
You must pay a fine, otherwise,you must go to
jail.
You must pay a fine, if not, you must go to jail.


174

The following connectors show emphasis.
Interrupters:
She was a beautiful girl, indeed, she was the
most beautiful girl I have ever seen.
She was a beautiful girl, in fact, she was the
most beautiful girl I have ever seen.
The following connectors show repetition and
explanation.
Interrupters:
He seemed very rich to us, in other words, he
appeared very wealthy.
He seemed very rich to us, that is, appeared
very wealthy.

175

Subordinating Conjunctions
The idea in an independent clause may be
modified or further explained by a dependent clause.
An adverb dependent clause can be introduced by a
subordinating conjunctions. A subordinating conjunctions is different in several ways from a coordinating
conjunctions. (Sometimes certain subordinating
conjunctions are called relative adverbs)
1. A clause that begins with a subordinating
conjunctions cannot be punctuated as a separated
sentence. If it is a separate sentence, it is incorrect.
Independent clause

Independent clause

The alarm clock rang.
Mark cooked breakfast.

Mark got up.
Mark ate breakfast.


176

Independent clause

Independent clause

When the alarm clock rang, Mark got up.
After Mark cooked breakfast, he ate it.
Incorrect: When the alarm clock rang. (fragment)
Incorrect: After Mark cooked breakfast. (fragment)
1. Some subordinating conjunctions can also be
prepositions.
Prepositional phrase

Since my arrival here, I have made many friends.
Dependent clause

Since I arrived here, I have made many friends.


177

The preposition form of because is because of.
Do not confuse these forms. A preposition must be
followed by a noun, pronoun, or noun-form such as
the –ing form.
Because the alarm clock rang, Mark got up.
Because of the ringing of the alarm clock, Mark got
up.
Not all subordinating conjunctions can also be
prepositions.
Incorrect: If laks of protein, the body does not
develop well.
Correct: If the body lacks protein, it does not
develop well.

178

Common Subordinating Conjunctions
*after
because
in order that
*till
although *before
once
*until
-er (comparative adjective + than )
as
even though rather than when whenever
as far as except that *since
where, wherever
as if
how
so that
while
as long as if
sooner than
as though in case
though


179

The words preceded by an asterisk (*) can be
prepositions. The other words on the list cannot be
prepositions.
Formal forms: in as much as, whereas, whereby,
hereupon
The following words can be used in similar
sentence patterns as absolutes with or without that.
They usually come at the beginning of the
sentence.
admitting (that)
presuming (that)
assuming (that)
providing (that)
considering (that)
seeing (that)
given (that)
supposing (that)
granted (that)
granting (that)

180

Phrases
Appositive
An appositive is a noun or pronoun or noun
clause that comes directly after noun and gives
more information about it. Set appositives off from
the rest of the sentence by commas if they are not
necessary to identify the noun that they follow. If
they identify the noun that they follow, do not use
commas to set them off from the rest of the
sentence.
Noun

His brother
That dog, a large
Two books, both

appositive

John
left yesterday.
Collie, barked at us.
encyclopedias, are missing.

181

If you use a pronoun as an appositive, use the
subject or object form, depending on how the word
the pronoun stands for is used in the clause.
Subject antecedent

positive-antecedent is subject

Only two students from out team, Beverly and I, have
a chance to win the race.
Object of
preposition

appositive-antecedent
is object of

The news brought hope to the family, my parents,
preposition

my brothers, and me.

Direct appositiveobject antecedent

Mr.Peterson gave the distance runners – Paul, Henry,
is object

and me - clear directions before the start of the race.

182

Appositive phrases
An appositive phrase is an appositive plus any
words that modify the appositive.
My cousin Carol is studying for a degree in
microbiology. (The appositive Carol identifies the
noun cousin.)
Take your application to City Hall, the large red
brick building at 583 San Pablo Avenue.
( The appositive phrase in bold type identifies
City Hall.)


183

Compound Appositives
A compound appositive is two or more
appositives or appositive phrases connected by a
conjunction and used to identify the same noun or
pronoun.
Two cities, Venice and Genoa, were great
rivals at one time.
Any new car, whether a small compact or a
fancy sport model, will be an improvement over
this one.


184

Essential and nonessential appositives.
Appositives and nonessential appositive phrases function
as noun and explain, describe, identify or restate either a
noun or pronoun. If the information provided by an
appositive is not essential to the meaning of the sentence,
use commas to offset it from the rest of the sentence;
however, if the information provided by an appositive is
essential to the meaning of the sentence use commas.
/phrase markers are italicized/
Our company‟s CEO, a hopelessly disorganized man,
depends on his secretary to keep his schedule together.
A hopelessly disorganized man is an appositive phrase
providing nonessential information.
The paintings Mona Lisa and Whistler‟s Mother are
very famous paintings.
Although not phrases, Mona Lisa and Whistler‟s Mother
are appositives providing essential information.

185

LECTURE 12

Prepositional phrases,
Verbals Verbal phrases,
&
Participial phrases


186

Prepositional phrases
A prepositional phrase is a group of words that
begins with a preposition and usually ends with a
noun or pronoun, called the object the preposition.
The bus goes to the city.
[The city is the object of the preposition to.]
The bus drove through the tunnel.
[Tunnel is the object of the preposition through.]
Adjectives and other modifiers may be placed
between the preposition and its object. A
preposition may also have more than one object.
The bus goes to the distant island city.
[adjective added]. The bus goes to the city and the
airport. [two objects]

187

Several prepositional phrases may occur sequentially in a
sentences.
The bus goes to the city on the island in the bay.
A prepositional phrase normally acts as an adjective or an
adverb. When it acts as an adjective, it modifies a noun or
pronoun. When it acts as an adverb, it modifies a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb.
The bus at the corner is an express. [adjective phrase
modifying the noun bus] Which of these buses will leave first?
[adjective phrase modifying the pronoun which]
During the day you should ride this bus into the
city.[adverb phrases modifying the verb phrase should ride]
The bus will be convenient for you. [adverb phrase
modifying the adjective convenient]
You are driving too fast for your own good. [adverb phrase
modifying the adverb fast]

188

Verbals and Verbal phrases
A verbal is a verb form that functions in a
sentence as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. A
verbal phrase is a verbal plus any complement and
modifiers. All verbal – participles, gerunds and infinitive
– can be expanses into phrases.
Participles and Participial phrases
Participles are often used especially in written
English. The major types of participles are shown in the
table below.
Type
Present
Past
Perfect

Active voice
Writing
having written

Passive voice
being written
Written
having been written


189

1. Present (active) Participle (-ing)
The use of the present participle may be summed
up as follows:
a) As an adjective modifier:
Boiling water, a crying child, a barking dog
Water that is / was / will be / should be boiling;
A child who is / was / will be crying;
A dog that is / was / will be barking;
b) Reduced relative clauses: (with verbs in
progressive tenses)
A man (who was) carrying a large suitcase entered
the hotel. The visitors (who will be) arriving tomorrow
intend to stay over the weekend. The inspector (who
has been) dealing with your complaint has just gone
away on holiday.
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c) Duration of time clauses: (with the same subject in
each clause)
Walking round the museum, I saw two large
skeletons. (While I was walking…)
I saw two large skeletons while / when / as / I was
walking round the museum.
Sitting at a table for one, she felt lonely.
Wearing her new hat in the rain, she spoilt it.
d) When two actions by the same subject happen at
the same time, main clause comes first.
He walked away. He hummed a tune. (He walked
away humming a tune.)
She was sitting in an armchair and she was reading a
book. (She was sitting in an armchair reading a book.)

191

e) Can replace a subordinate clause:
(The present participle can replace as / since /
because + subject + verb)
Feeling tired, I went to bed early. (as I felt tired.)
Not knowing the way to the station, I decided to
ask a man. (because I didn‟t know..)
Being a student he was naturally interested in
museums. (as he was student…)
f) On + ing participle:
On leaving the church, the man put his hat on.
Entering the house, the man took his hat off.


192

g) Present Participle or bare Infinitive: The verbs
feel, hear, notice, observe, perceive see, sense,
smell, watch may all be followed by the bare infinitive.
I heard someone cough outside my door.
h) Followed by a main clause: (The subject, marked
off by a comma, may precede the –ing clause)
Hutch, covering the prisoners with his pistol, moved
towards the telephone.
Mary, putting on her coat, got ready to go out.
i) Noun + ing as adjective: breathtaking, facesaving, life-giving, meat-eating, trouble-making,
baby-sitting, brainwashing, back-scratching, selfjustifying…
breathtaking beauty – it takes your breath,
a face-saving explanation–it saves (someone‟s)
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face.

2. Perfect Participle (Active)
“Having” + past participle
a) The perfect participle emphasizes that the first
action is complete before the second one starts.
Having read the instructions, he snatched up the
fire extinguisher.
b) The perfect participle can be used instead of the
present participle when one action is immediately
followed by another with the same subject.
Tying one end of the rope to his bed, he threw the
other end out of the window.
Having tied one end of the rope to his bed, he threw
the other end out of the window.

194

c) The perfect participle and main clause can
have different subjects.
The rain having stopped, I decided to go out for a
walk. Someone having asked for an aspirin, my wife
went to get one.
d) The joint subject can precede the participial
clause, marked off by commas.
The staff, having finished work for the day, is
going home now. The men, having declared a
strike, will not be here again this week.
e) Time: Having collected sufficient data, Jim
started to write his thesis. (after / when / he had
collected ….) Reason: Having already seen the film,
Mary doesn‟t want to see it again. (as she has
already seen …)

195

3. Present participle Passive
a) Action in the Present:
The large building being built in our street is a new
school-house. (which is being built in our street…)
Yesterday the professor told us about the
experiments now being carried on in his
laboratory.
b) Indicates Reason:
Being packed in strong cases the goods arrived in
good condition. (as the goods were packed…)
c) Indicates Time:
Being asked whether he intended to return soon,
he answered that he would be away for about three
months. (When he was asked…)

196

4. Past Participle Passive. Use:
a) As an adjective:
Stolen money, a written report, broken glass
b) The past participle can replace a subject +
passive verb just as the present participle can
replace subject + active verb:
She enters, accompanied by her mother.
She enters. She is accompanied by her mother.
Aroused by the crash, he leapt to his feet.
(He was aroused by the crash and leapt to his
feet)


197

c) Instead of Relative clauses:
All books taken from the library must be returned
next week. (which were taken from the library….)
They sent us a list of goods imported by that firm.
(which are imported by that firm….)
d) Time: (when)
Asked whether he intended to return soon, he
replied that he would be away for about three
months. (when he was asked…)
e) Reason: (as, because)
Squeezed by ice the steamer could not continue
her way. (as the steamer was squeezed by ice…)

198

5. Perfect Participle Passive
The perfect participle passive (having been + past
participle) is used when it is necessary to emphasize
that the action expressed by the next verb:
Having been bitten twice, the postman refused to
deliver our letters unless we chained our dog up: (He
had been bitten…)
a) Time: (after, when, since….) Having been
dismissed from school, Tom planned to join the army.
After (= When / since he has been dismissed from
school, Tom planned to join the Army.)
In this the same meaning:
Having being sent
Sent
to the wrong address.
Being sent
the letter didn‟t reach him.

199

Differences between Gerund and Present Participle
- Gerund + noun
- Participle + noun
Expresses the purpose of the As an adjective modifier:
Noun:
sleeping child (who is sleeping)
drinking water
(water for running water
drinking)
running shoes
- Possessive pronouns with
- Used as Relative clauses
Gerund
The boy working in the garden
I don‟t mind him (your) coming didn‟t see me come up to him.
home late.
(the boy who is working... )
- Noun in the genitive case:
- Used as Time clauses are
Tom‟s coming was unexpected.
subordinate clauses.
- Used with some
Feeling tired, I went to bed
prepositions:
early. (As I felt…)
There are different ways in solving Wearing her new hat in the rain,
this problem.
she spoilt it. (When, while, as)
I can translate these texts by using she was wearing….)
dictionary.

200

The perfect gerund and perfect participle are
identical in form only, and serve quite different
functions, which should not be confused.
Having paid the bill, I left the restaurants
immediately. (perfect participle)
My having paid the bill left me short of ready
money. (perfect gerund)


201

LECTURE 13

The infinitive,
Infinitive phrases
Absolute phrases
&
Gerund

202

Infinitives and Infinitive phrases
An infinitive is a verb form that is usually preceded
by the word to and is used as a noun, an adjective or
an adverb.
When to precedes the base form of a verb, it is part
of an infinitive, not a preposition.
To succeed is satisfying. [infinitive as subject]
Everyone needs to relax. [infinitive as direct object]
His hope is to travel. [infinitive as predicate
nominatives]
She had the wisdom to cooperate. [infinitive as
adjective]
We were happy to arrive. [infinitive as adverb]

203

An infinitive phrase contains an infinitive plus any
complements and modifiers.
They wanted to eat quickly.
To arrive at the theater on time was their goal.
It was a pleasure to tell her the good news.
When an infinitive has its own subject, it is part of a
construction called an infinitive clause. The subject
of an infinitive clause follows the main verb or the
sentence and immediately precedes the infinitive. An
infinitive clause can appear only after an action verb.
The monitor wanted Lee to sit down. [Lee is the
subject of the infinitive to sit. The infinitive clause
Lee to sit down acts as the direct object of the
sentences.]

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Sometimes the word to dropped before an infinitive.
I saw a sports car / to / race by.
Let me / to / take care of that.
Uses of the Infinitive
a) As the subject of a sentence: To teach is to learn.
b) As the object of a verb: I want to know the answer.
c) As the object of a preposition (about, than,
except…): They are about to leave.
d) As predicative: The report proved to be true.
e) As objective complement: He asked me to come.
I made him go.
f)To modify an adjective. (glad, happy, proud, easer,
afraid, sorry, surprised…): He appeared very glad to
see me. The child is very happy to be with his mother.

205

g) To modify a verb, generally expressing purpose.
You should eat to live, not live to eat.
h) The infinitive without to. (after must, can, could,
would, should, may, might, needn‟t, had better,
would better, make…) You must give your work.
You would better wear a coat. It really made me
laugh.
i) Infinitive constructions: Some verb followed by the
simple form or –ing form. See, notice, watch, look
out, smell, observe, and hear.
I feel my friend run (running) down the street.
I heard the rain fall (falling) in the roof.

206

j) Before the question word. Know, learn, find out,
understand, remember, forget, discuss, decide, ask,
wonder, sure.: I wasn‟t sure who to ask for help.
I didn‟t know what to do.
It‟s + good (bad)
necessary
interesting
pleasant
difficult + to infinitive
strange
important
impossible
easy
It was important to see that before. It‟s difficult to
learn Russian.
207

Time reference in Infinitive
Type of
Infinitive
Present
Present
Progressive
Perfect

Active

Passive

To write
To be writing

To be written
=

To have written To have been
written
Perfect
To have been =
Progressive writing


208

1. Active:
a) Present Infinitive: (to indicate that the two
actions happen at the same time)
I decided to write a story.
I helped him to carry the box.
b) Continuous form shows that the action
expressed by the infinitive takes place at the
same time.
The situation appears to be improving. (the
situation is improving)
The weather seems to be changing.


209

c) The Perfect Infinitive shows that the action
indicated happened before the action expressed by
the main verb.
He seems to have been ill. (It seems that he
has been ill.)
I‟m glad to have met you.
d) The Perfect Continuous Infinitive express an
action which went on for some time before the
action expressed by the main verb.
It‟s known to have been taking medicine for a
long time. (It‟s known that he has been taking
medicine for a long time.)

210

2. Passive:
Present Infinitive (Referring to an action or event
occurring at the same time as that of the main
verb.)
a) I want this assignment to be written in ink.
It‟s good to love and to be loved.
Perfect Infinitive (Referring to an action or event
earlier in time as that of the main verb)
b) A lot of people are reported to have been
injured because of the flood.
The letter is believed to have been written by her.
I am happy to have been invited to your yacht.

211

Absolute Phrase
An absolute phrase consists of a noun or pronoun
that is modified by a participle or a participial phrase.
An absolute phrase has no grammatical relation to the
rest of the sentence.
Belonging neither to the complete subject nor to the
complete predicate an absolute phrase stands
“absolutely” by itself in relation to the rest of the
sentence.
Their throats parched by the searing heat, the
firefighters battled the blaze.
The participle being is understood rather than
stated in some absolute phrases.
The fire [being] out, they coiled their hoses.

212

The Gerund
Gerunds are –ing forms of the verb that are used as
nouns. Gerunds name actions.
Subject: Learning the new bus schedule is easy
Making new friends can be difficult.
Predicate nominative: My student job this year is
working in the library. Paul‟s favorite sport is running.
Direct Object: Paul likes running. Jim enjoys
playing golf.
Object of a Preposition: Paul likes most sports
except fishing. Some people are afraid of speaking in
public.
Objective Complement: The police officer
considered the offense speeding. The teacher called
the children‟s play learning.

213

Although gerunds are used in a clause as nouns, they
keep the qualities of verbs. Gerunds can be followed by
direct objects, indirect objects, adverb modifiers, and
predicate adjectives if their meaning allows these
constructions. Gerund followed by Direct Object:
Gerund

Direct Object

Learning the new bus schedule is easy.
Making new
friends
can be difficult.
When an article or an adjective modifies the gerund,
the gerund is followed by a prepositional phrase instead
of by a direct object.
Modifier

gerund

prepositional phrase

Constant Learning of new bus schedules is
annoying. The building of a lasting friendship
can take a long time.

214

Gerund followed by Indirect Object:
Indirect object

Buying Paula new shoes is expensive.
Gerund followed by adverb modifier:
Adverb modifier

Learning quickly is easier for Pat than for Steve.
Eating fast is bad for the digestion.
Gerund followed by predicate adjective:
predicate adjective

Feeling happy makes Ray sing.
Being kind can be difficult.


215

Use a possessive pronoun before a gerund.
Using an object form of the pronoun changes the
meaning and emphasis of the sentence.
Use an object pronoun if the –ing form is a
participle that modifies the pronoun.
Object pronoun followed by Participle:
We heard the dog barking.
We heard it barking. (emphasis on it-barking
modifies it)
We saw John sleeping.
We saw him sleeping (emphasis on him sleeping modifies him)

216

Possessive pronoun followed by Gerund:
We heard the dog’s barking.
We heard its barking. (emphasis on barking-its
modifies barking)
We were annoyed by John’s sleeping.
We were annoyed by his sleeping. (emphasis on
sleeping-his modifies sleeping)
Many compound nouns are made from a gerund and
another noun. They usually show the purpose to
which the head noun is put.
a drinking fountain – a fountain for drinking
an ironing board – a board for ironing
a parking lot – a lot for parking
a swimming pool – a pool for swimming

217

LECTURE 14

The use of the Gerund


218

The use of the Gerund
1. Gerund or Verbal noun
The gerund in its function as noun is very often
called the verbal noun.
Noun + gerund in which the activity named in the
– ing component is applied to the preceding noun
component:
brainwashing = (the „washing‟ of brains),
air-conditioning, book-keeping, dressmaking,
housekeeping, letter-writing, sight-seeing,
stocktaking, town planning, watch making

219

2. Gerund + noun
Gerund expresses the purpose of the noun:
drinking water = water for drinking, cooking
apples, eating apples, knitting wool, reading
material, spending money, writing materials
3. The gerund as Object
a) Verbs in the list below followed by gerund and
by (that)… acknowledge, admit, advocate,
anticipate, deny, doubt, fancy, foresee, imagine,
mean, recall, recollect, report, suggest,
understand
The accountant has acknowledge receiving these
payments. The accountant has acknowledged that
he received these payments.

220

b) The Gerund derives past, present, future time
reference from the verb in the main clause.
The
didn‟t appreciate living in such a peaceful
young don‟t village.
couple won‟t fancy being all alone in such a large
house.
mind driving twenty miles to and
from work every day.
4. Gerund with separate subject
The subjects of the clauses are different – we and
you. The subjective element of a gerund a
possessive noun or a possessive adjective. (my,
your, his etc)

221

We propose / your standing for election.
The accountant has recorded / their (Smith and
Company‟s) sending a cheque. Joan mentioned
/ his (Peter‟s) writing to her once, years ago.
When the subjects of the clauses are different,
then the gerund takes either a noun in the
possessive case or possessive adjective.
We appreciate John / John‟s offering to dig the
garden.
Can you imagine me / my driving my own RollsRoyce?
We don‟t foresee the situation‟(s) improving in
the near future.

222

5. Verbs + Gerund
a) Verbs in the following list take only gerunds
after them, as non-finite verbs: avoid, consider,
enjoy, escape, excuse, finish, forgive, keep,
mind, object, miss, postpone, practice,
prevent, prohibit, recent, resist, resume, risk,
suffer, tolerate, can‟t bear, can‟t help, can‟t
stand ….
Father didn‟t mind our staying ashore in such
nasty weather.


223

b) Idiomatic expressions are followed by gerunds.
It‟s no use worrying about me.
This idea is worth supporting.
It‟s no good getting angry with me.
It‟s a pleasure walking in the fresh air.
He is used to getting up early.
There‟s no point in finishing this work today.
There‟s no hope of getting our money back from him.
c) Go + Gerund: Go – boating, dancing, jogging
bowling, fishing, running
camping, hiking, sailing
canoeing, hunting, shopping
climbing, swimming, skiing
skating, sledding, sightseeing

224

6. Gerund or Infinitive
a) Same meaning:
A group of verbs that may take either infinitive or the
gerund after them follows: advice, allows, forbid,
permit, recommend, require, urge, continue, start,
attempt, begin
He is starting writing his novel soon.
He‟s starting to write his novel soon.
b) Different meaning:
1. a) Forget, regret, remember + gerund (= first do
the action and then remember it later)
I remember telling you that she was going to
Moscow.
b) to infinitive = to first + remember and then do the
action.
225

2. a) Try doing this = (make the experiment)
He tried sleeping without pillow for a few weeks
but it didn‟t help.
b) Try to do this = (make an effort)
He tried to please everyone and in this he
succeeded.
3. a) Stop + gerund = (give up, cease)
Can you all stop talking please?
b) Stop + infinitive = (purpose)
The man stopped to take his mid-day meal.
4. Like, hate + gerund
He likes cooking our meals at weekends. (He
often does it.) He likes to cook a meal (occasionally
once a while)

226

7. Preposition + gerund
After some prepositions after, before, besides,
instead of, without, by, for, of, in …
There is no possibility of reaching the island in such
stormy weather.
Ann went to bed instead of finishing her work.
Tony tuned off the tape recorder by pushing the
stop button.
For + gerund + preposition (purpose)
We have a large room for playing music in.
A refrigerator is for keeping perishable food in.
He had a private office for seeing important clients in.

227

8. Time reference in Gerund
Indefinite

Active
Writing

Passive
Being written

Perfect

Having written

Having been written

a) Indefinite: Two actions that occur at the same time.
I like inviting friends to my place (active)
I like being invited by my friends (passive)
b) Perfect: Two actions that occur at different times.
He acknowledged having made a mistake (active)
He was surprised at not having been told about
it (passive)

228

9. Perfect Gerund
The perfect gerund having + past participle refers
to the circumstances and events that had already
taken place at any time before the events in finite
clauses.
Your having won the state
lottery
Their having become so
well-of
Her having been left a large
fortune
His having lost most of his
money

has
changed
changed
has
changed
will change


circumstances
entirely.
the family‟s life
style.
considerably.
everyone‟s
situation.
229

10. Passive Gerund
John‟s being given a private room
to himself
Their being allowed to use the
library during vacations
Our being met by your personal
representative
Your having been trained by
experts

was

appreciated.

is

very helpful.

will be

a great help.

has been an
advantage.

Being + past participle of a transitive verb.
Having been + past participle of a transitive verb.


230

The activity or event denoted by the gerund
accords for timing with the finite verb. Thus in the
table above, each gerund clause can combine with
each finite verb.
As they are shown above, the passive gerund
clauses or phrases are subject of the finite verbs.
We appreciated John‟s being given a private
room (by the management).
I‟m pleased about our being allowed to use
the library (by the college authorities).


231

LECTURE 15
Passive Voice


232

Passive Voice
The Passive Voice is formed by means of the verb
to be with the Past Participle of the verb.
Passive Voice of verb “Destroy”
Tense
Present
Present Perfect
Past
Past Perfect
Future
Future Perfect
Present
Progressive
Past Progressive

noun

The
house(s)

Singular

Plural

is
has been
was
had been
will be
will have been

are
have been
were
had been
will be
will have been

is being

are being

was being

were being


Past Participle
of main verb

destroyed.

233

The Use of the Passive Voice
The Passive Voice is used in English when
It is more convenient or important to stress
the thing done than the doer of it, or when
the doer is unknown.
My article was published.
In a passive sentence the doer of the action is
not mentioned. When the doer is mentioned
it is preceded by the preposition by.
Tom painted this picture. ( Active)
This picture was painted by Tom. ( Passive)

234

A passive verb is a form of transitive verb
and passive verbs have specific uses:
1. When the actor is unknown, unimportant, or
obvious, or wishes to be unknown.
2. In certain styles of specific writing.
3. In writing about disasters and accidents if the
result or the victim is more important than the
cause.


235

Active

Club members adopted the new rules in 1980.
Passive

New club rules were adopted in 1980.
Active

I completed the experiment to show the relation
between nutrition and growth.
Passive

The relation between nutrition and growth was
shown.
Active

A flood destroyed Mr. Jonson‟s house.
Passive

Mr. Johnson‟s house was destroyed by a flood.

236

Advantages of the Passive Voice
1. A passive construction emphasizes the result
in an impersonal style. This use is sometimes
desirable in scientific and technical writing.
Water was produced by mixing two parts of
hydrogen and one part of oxygen.
The effects of confinement in a small space
were repeatedly observed in the experimental
animals.


237

2. A passive verb emphasizes a victim or
the result of a disaster.
Active: The motorcycle injured the child.
Passive: The child was injured.


238

3. Use a passive verb when the agent or actor is so
unimportant or obvious that you do not need to
mention it.
The school auditorium was built in 1912.
(Who did the construction is unimportant.)
The thief was arrested.
(Unless several law enforcement agencies are
working on the same case, you can assume
that the agent is the local police.)


239

4. Use a passive verb if you want to hide the
name of the person who is responsible for an
unpleasant decision or result.
The proposal to raise taxes was approved.
(no agent)
An increase in tuition fees was proposed.
(no agent)


240

LECTURE 16
Conditional Sentence
&
Forms of Conditions


241

Conditional sentences ( If Clauses)
If – clauses are used to talk about a situation
that is hypothetical, or not really the situation
when the statement is made.
The Forms of Conditions
The Present Conditional Tense is formed with
should / would + Infinitive for the 1st person
and would + Infinitive for the other persons.


242

Affirmative

Interrogative

I should / would make.
You would make.
(you‟d make)
He would make
(he‟d make)

Should I guess?
Would you guess?
Would he guess?

Negative
I should not (shouldn‟t) guess.
You would not (wouldn‟t) guess.
He would not (wouldn‟t) guess.


243

The negative-interrogative form is also used.
Should I not (shouldn‟t I) speak?
Would you not (wouldn‟t you) speak?
The Perfect Conditional Tense is formed with should
/ would + Perfect Infinitive.
Affirmative
I should have made.
You would have made.
He would have made.

Interrogative
Should I have guessed?
Would you have guessed?
Would he have guessed?

Negative
I should not (shouldn‟t) have guessed.
You would not (wouldn‟t) have guessed.
He would not (wouldn‟t) have guessed.

244

The negative-interrogative form is also used.
Should I not (shouldn‟t I) have spoken?
Would you not (wouldn‟t you) have spoken?
The use of Conditional Tenses in
Conditional Sentences
English can express three important ideas with “ if ”:
1. He will come if you call him.
(= smith. will happen if a certain condition is fulfilled.)
2. He would come if you called him.
(The action of the “if” clause is not taking place at this
moment, but I can imagine the probable result.)

245

3. He would have come if you had called him.
(= but he didn‟t come! Why? Because he didn‟t
call him.)
Conditional sentences have two parts:
* the “if”-clause
* the main clause
In the sentence:
If it rains I shall stay at home.
“If it rains” is the “if”-clause
“I shall stay at home” is the main clause.


246

Type 1 – Probable Condition
The verb in the “if”-clause is in the Present Tense;
the verb in the main clause in the Future Indefinite
Tense.
If he runs all the way he‟ll get there in time.
Type 2 – Improbable Condition
The verb in the “if”-clause is in the Past Indefinite
Tense; the verb in the main clause in the
Conditional Tense.
If I dropped the cup it would break.

247

Type 3 – Impossible Condition
The verb in the “if”-clause is in the Past Perfect
Tense; the verb in the main clause in the Perfect
Conditional Tense.
If I had known of your arrival I should have
met you. (but I didn‟t know so I didn‟t meet you)


248


249


250


251


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