This document discusses grammatical functions focusing on the roles of subjects and finite verbs in clauses. It explains different types of subjects (psychological, grammatical, logical) and how they interact with verbs to convey meaning. Additionally, it elaborates on other grammatical functions such as objects, complements, adjuncts, and the roles of finites and non-finites in sentence structure.

1. Topic
Grammatical Functions
Presenter
SIMEGNIH TEKLE
Jimma University
1

2. 1. Grammatical Functions
 In order to explore the contribution to meaning of
any unit of grammatical structure, it is necessary to
consider its function in context.
 The word function has been used in a variety of
ways in linguistics and in language teaching.
 In the approach to language teaching functions
usually refer to things such as asking for
directions, describing places and peoples, talking
about the past, and so on.
 In others words, functions refer to different ways of
using language. (Graham Lock, 1990:10)
2

3. Continued…..
 Interpreting the functions of grammatical structures and their
constituents is called grammatical functions.
1.1. Two grammatical functions: Subject and Finite
1.1.1. Subject
It is the clause element that interacts with the finite verb to express mood.
It typically represents the ‘doer’ of the action.
According to M.A.K Halliday(1994:31-32) subject is divided into 3
categories.
I. Psychological subject
II. Grammatical subject
III.Logical subject
3

4. I. Psychological Subject
 meant ‘that which is the concern of the message’.
 It was called ‘psychological’ because it was what the speaker had in his mind to
start with, when embarking on the production of the clause.
II. Grammatical Subject
 meant ‘that of which something is predicated’.
 It was called ‘grammatical’ because at the time the construction of Subject and
Predicate was thought of as a purely formal grammatical relationship.
 It was seen to determine various other grammatical features, such as the case of the
noun or pronoun that was functioning as Subject, and its concord of person and
number with the verb.
III. Logical Subject
 meant ‘doer of the action’.
 It was called ‘logical’ because it focus on relations between things, as
opposed to ‘grammatical’ relations, which were relations between
symbols.
4
Cont…

5. For example:
The prime minister gave my father this award
Psychological Subject
Grammatical Subject
Logical Subject
5
The duke gave my aunt this teapot
Psychological Subject
Grammatical Subject
Logical Subject
In the above examples 1 and 2 , “The prime minister” and “The duke”
can combine all these three functions of subject.
1. The prime minister gave my father this award.
2. The duke gave may aunt this teapot.
Cont…

6. This medal my father was awarded by the prime minister
Psychological
Subject
Grammatical
Subject
Logical Subject
6
This teapot my aunt was given by the duke
Psychological
Subject
Grammatical Subject Logical Subject
In the above examples 3 and 4, psychological subject,
grammatical subject and logical subject are realized by
different items.
3. This medal my father was awarded by the prime minister.
4. This teapot my aunt was given by the duke.
Cont…

7. Theme, Subject and Actor
I. The Theme functions in the structure of the clause as a message.
 It is the element the speaker selects for ‘grounding’ what he is going on to say.
II. The Subject functions in the structure of the clause as exchange.
 A clause has meaning as an exchange, a transaction between speaker and listener; the
Subject is the warranty of the exchange.
 It is the element the speaker makes responsible for the validity of what he is saying.
III. The Actor functions in the structure of the clause as representation.
 A clause has meaning as a representation of some process in ongoing human
experience.
 the Actor is the active participant in that process.
 It is the element the speaker portrays as the one that does the deed.
7
Cont…

8. SO………….
Psychological Subject: Theme
Grammatical Subject: Subject
Logical Subject: Actor
8
Cont…

9. We can re-label the above examples as follows:
9
The prime minister gave my father this award
Theme
Subject
Actor
This medal my father was awarded by the prime minister
Psychological
Subject
Grammatical
Subject
Logical Subject
Cont…

10. There are also other other conflations of Subject, Actor and Theme as we change
the structure of the sentence.
1. My father was awarded this medal by the prime minister.
10
my father was awarded this medal by the prime minister
Theme
Subject
Actor
this medal the prime minister awarded to my father
Theme Subject
Actor
2. This medal the prime minister awarded to my father….
by the prime minister my father was awarded the medal
Theme
Actor
Subject Actor
1. By the prime minister my father was awarded this medal
Cont…

11. Identifying Subject
 Subjects normally precede the finite in the declarative clauses and
determine the person and number of the finite (if marked).
 There are many formal characteristics used to identify subject.
These are:
I. Adding tag to the clause
 The pronoun in the tag refers back to the Subject of the clause.
For example:
1. The kid[subject] has gone home, hasn’t he?[tag]
2. …the sea-serpent [subject] would overturn fishing boats,
wouldn’t it?[tag]
3. You[subject] have won the prize, haven’t you?[tag]
11
Cont…

12. II. Subjects are typically noun groups.
 Pronouns and nominal clauses such as that clauses, wh-clauses, to+v
(infinitive) clauses and v+ ing clauses can function as a subject.
12
Clauses Examples
that clauses 1. That they actually helped was really appreciated.
2. That she is wise is known by many.
3. That you are here pleases me.
Wh-clauses 1. What I like best is football.
2. What he did was unexpected.
3. Why she said it was unclear.
to+v(infinitive) clause 1. To take such a risk was rather foolish.
2. ….but to finish the whole lot will take a week at least.
3. To become an opera singer takes years of training.
V+ing clause 1. Really understanding this aspect of grammar needs a fair bit of
work.
2. Being the chairman is a huge responsibility.
3. Having to go back for the tickets was a nuisance.
Cont …

13. III. Five pronouns have special Subject forms (I, he, she, we, they) as
opposed to (me, him, her, us and them).
For example:
1.They didn’t really believe her.
2.She didn’t really believe her.
IV. In declarative mood clauses (clauses that make statements), the
Subject is normally the noun group which immediately precedes
the finite.
For examples:
1. We [subject] have [finite] already been searching for the answer.
2. You [subject] should [finite] insult your self with a sleeve.
13
Cont…

14. Finites and non-finites
 Verbs can be classified into two main categories. These are Finite and non-finite
verbs.
FINITE
Finite verbs can give us information about three things:
1. Primary tense: shows whether the event is in the past, the
present or the future.
 For example:
1. None of them is big.
2. He has eight cars.
3. She studies literature.
4. He studied for a long time.
Underlined words are finites. We can tell what the tense is just
by looking at these single underlined words. 14

15. 2. Polarity: shows whether the proposition/statement presented in the clause
is positive or negative (is or is not, will or will not).
The finite in the first example ‘didn’t’ tells us that it is negative. The others
are all positive.
The finite verbs in the above examples are called time operators.
15
EXAMPLE FINITE
They didn't work yesterday didn't
The rain has started. has
The world is changing. is
He will go. will
PAST PRESENT FUTURE
did, was does, is will, shall
had, used to has would, should

16. 3. The speaker/writer's judgment about the proposition: must, might, can, should.
From the above sentences presented in the table may, aught to, should and was
to are finites. They are used to make a judgment in each sentence. The finites in
these examples are called modal operators. They are summed up in the following
table:
Modal Operators
16
EXAMPLE FINITE
He may go. may
He ought to listen. ought to
They should not have listened. should
He was to have helped me. was to
LOW MEDIUM HIGH
can, may will, would must, ought to
could, might should, is to, was to need, has to, had to

17. Non- finite
 Non-finite verb is a verb form that does not carry information about
primary tense and does not agree with subject.
 Non-finite verbs do not change their form even when the person and
the number of the subject changes.
For examples:
1. I want to eat something delicious.
2.Abebe has to eat apples every day.
3.They want to eat eggs for breakfast.
In the above sentences, the verb ‘eat’ does not change even though the
person and number of the subject change.
17

18. Kinds of non finite verbs
I. Gerund: The ‘-ing’ form of the verb which is used as a noun is called a gerund.
It is also called the verbal noun.
Examples:
1.Taking exercise is important.
2.Running is a good way to keep fit.
II. Infinite: The infinitive is the base form of the verb. It is often used with ‘to’ or
without ‘to’. Infinitives with ‘to’ before them are called ‘to-infinitives’.
Examples:
1.David and I agreed to meet at 4 o’clock.
2.I’ll arrange to see the dentist straight away.
18

19. III. Participle: There are two kinds of participles:
A. Present participles are formed by adding ‘-ing’ to the base verb.
Example:
I have been reading.
B. Past participles are formed by adding -d, -ed, -en, -t or -n to the base
verb.
Example:
I have worked.
19

20. Identifying Finites
1. Adding tag.
 For example:
 The kid[subject] has gone home, hasn’t he?[tag]
 …the sea-serpent [subject] would overturn fishing boats, wouldn’t it?[tag]
 You[subject] have won the prize, haven’t you?[tag]
On the above examples has, would and have served as finites.
2. If a verb group contains a Finite, the Finite will always be the first
constituent of the verb group.
For example:
1. She didn’t really believe them.
2. Philosophers have lately been explaining.
Note that if the verb group contains only one word, that word may function
as Finite.
For example:
A huge sea-serpent appeared at the bridge across the river. 20

21. 3. Only Finites are marked for tense.
For example:
1. They don’t really believe her.
2. Every day, a huge sea-serpent appears at the bridge across
the river.
4. Only Finites are marked for number
agreement, that is, their form changes according
to the number and person of the Subject.
For example:
1. They are measured in the same amount.
2. It is measured in the same amount.

22. More functions: Object, Complement, Adjunct and
Predicator
1. Objects
 Objects normally follow the finite and the rest of the verb group.
 Like Subjects, they are typically realized by noun groups.
 Object is divided into two: these are direct object and indirect object.
 When we construct sentences the indirect object precedes the direct
object.
A.Direct object is a noun, pronoun or word group that follows an action verb
and answers the question “Whom?” or “What?”
Not all action verbs require direct objects. Study the following examples:
1.Joe likes apples and corn. ( DO is apples and corns)
2.The boy in the red coat bought a new book. ( DO is book)
3.Henry waited on the corner. (There is no direct object following the
action verb “waited.”) 22

23. B. An indirect object is a noun, pronoun or a word that comes between
the action verb and the direct object.
 answers the question “To whom?” or “For whom?”.
 It doesn’t appear by itself without a direct object.
Example
Joe gave me [IO] an apple [DO].
The indirect object “me” answers “Joe gave an apple to whom?” “Me”
comes between the action verb “gave” and the direct object “apple.”
23

24. 2. Complement
 Complement is the adjective group or noun group that follows the
linking verb like: is, are, was, were, am, be, seems, feels, etc.
 renames or describes the subject of the sentence.
 In functional grammar, objects are also regarded as kinds of
complements.
 Clauses which have linking verbs like: be, look, and have, do not have
objects. They have what are called Complements.
 Complement is an element with in a residue that has the potential of
being subject but not.
 It is typically realized by a nominal group.
For example:
Joe is a vegetarian.
The subject complement “vegetarian” follows the linking verb “is” and
renames the subject “Joe.”
24

25. 3. Adjunct
 Adjunct is a word, group of words or phrase added to a clause that expresses
 Circumstantial meanings: place, time or manner
 Interpersonal meanings: fortunately, in my opinion, etc.
 Textual meanings: on the other hand, in addition, etc.
 In traditional grammar, these are sometimes referred to as ‘adverbials’.
 Adjuncts are typically realized by prepositional phrases or adverb groups.
 They do not have got the potential of being a subject.
Example:
My aunt was given that teapot yesterday by the duke.
 In this sentence there are two adjuncts. These are the adverbial ‘yesterday’
and the prepositional phrase ‘by the duke’.
 Prepositional phrase ‘by the duke’ contains complement with in it. ‘the
duke’ If the duke function as a subject, the preposition by disappears.
25

26. Main classes of adjuncts
 Adjuncts are grouped into three main classes based on their function in the
clause.
1.Circumstantial adjuncts
2. Stance adjuncts and
3.Connective adjuncts
1. Circumstantial adjuncts
Circumstantial adjuncts provide experiential details about the action or
state described by the verb.
It answer such questions as where? When? How? Why? and occasionally
What.
Example
It was last month that Tom bought a new car. (adjunct)
26

27. 2. Interpersonal(Stance) Adjuncts
 These express the speaker’s evaluation or comment on the content of
the message, or the viewpoint adopted.
 Syntactically, they often remain somewhat separate from the clause,
since their message refers to the whole of the clause or sentence.
 They are usually found before the clause, in or after it.
For example:
1. Naturally, he spoke to me when he saw me.
2. He spoke to me when he saw me, naturally.
3. He spoke to me, naturally, when he saw me.
27

28. 3. Connective(textual) Adjuncts
 These tell us how the speaker or writer understands the semantic
connection between two utterances, or parts of an utterance, while
indicating the semantic relationship holding between them.
For example: The hotel was rather noisy. On the other hand, it wasn’t
expensive (contrast). On this sentence they are not therefore elements
of structure, but connectors of structure.
These connectors can be between groups, clauses, sentences or
paragraphs.
For example:
1. Lord Shaftesbury was a persuasive speaker and furthermore a great
pioneer of social reform. (between groups)
2.The students are on strike; nevertheless, the examinations will not
be cancelled.(between clauses)
3. He has been undergoing treatment for asthma since he was a boy.
Consequently, he never went in for sports. (between sentences) 28

29. 4. Predicator
 Predicator is present in all major clauses, except those where it is displaced through
ellipsis.
 The predicator is the clause function that largely determines the remaining structure
of the clause, by virtue of being intransitive, transitive or copular.
There are four main functions of predicator. These are:
1. It adds time meanings through expressing a secondary tense.
For example, in have been going to read the primary tense (have, present) is specified
in the Finite, but the secondary tense (been going to) is specified in the Predicator.
2. It specifies aspect and phases: meanings such as seeming, trying, helping, which color
the verbal process without changing its ideational meaning. . . .
3. It specifies the process (action, event, mental process, relation) that is predicated of
the subject.
4. It specifies the voice of the clause: the distinction between active voice and passive
voice will be expressed through the Predicator.
1. Hadis Alemayehu wrote ‘Fikir iske mekabir’. (Active voice)
2. ‘Fikir iske mekabir’ was written by Hadis Alemayehu. (Passive voice) 29

30. The end!
Thank you!
30