1. The document lists important scientific discoveries and developments from 1665 to 1898, including Hooke's discovery of cells in 1665, Van Leeuwenhoek's observation of bacteria in 1683, and Maxwell's unification of electricity and magnetism in 1864. 2. It then discusses the connection between science and technology in the 18th and 19th centuries, noting they found common ground in the 19th century. 3. The development of several sciences is summarized, including physics with discoveries about electricity, magnetism, and thermodynamics; chemistry with atomic theory and organic chemistry; and biology with Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.

1. WHO DONE WHAT? SAID WHAT? WHEN
Robert Hooke Describe cells for the first time. 1665
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek 1. Bacteria first observed.
2. Microorganism discovered.
1683
1696
Gabriel Fahrenheit Constructed first mercury thermometer. 1714
Benjamin Franklin Distinguished between negative and positive
charge.
Proposed conservation of charge.
1751
Carolus Linnaeus Used binary nomenclature to classify of
species.
1753
Antoine Lavoisier Experiments on burning. 1772
Abraham Werner Classification of minerals. 1774
William Herschel Discovered the planet Uranus. 1781
Henry Cavendish Combustion of oxygen produces water. 1783
Charles Coulomb Formulated Coulomb’s law of interactions
between charges and between magnets.
1785
Henry Cavendish Measured mass of earth after determining the
gravitational constant.
1798
Alessandro Volta Invented galvantic cell for storing and as a
source of electricity.
1800
John Dalton Formulated atomic theory of matter. 1808
Mary Anning Found first fossils of Ichthyosaur. 1811
Georges Cuvier Founded the science of comparative anatomy. 1812
Hans Christian Oersted Discovered the electric current generates
magnetism.
1820
Andre Marie Ampere Formulated Ampere’s law that tells how
electric current generates magnetism.
1820
Paul Erman First measurement of earth’s magnetism. 1828

2. Michael Faraday Formulated the law of induction that tells how
magnetism generated electricity.
1830
Robert Brown Discovered the nucleus in the cell. 1831
Crawford Long First use of ether in surgery. 1842
James Clerk Maxwell
Unified mathematically electricity and
magnetism into four equations. Predicted
existence of electromagnetic waves such as
light.
1864
Heinrich Hertz
Discovered, produced and detected radio
waves.
1887
Louis Pasteur
Developed vaccine against rabies. 1885
Daniel Williams First open heart surgery. 1893
William Roentgen Discovered x-rays 1895
Henri Becquerel Discovered natural radioactivity 1896
Michael S. Pupin First diagnostic x-ray taken 1896
J.J Thomson Discovered electron 1897
Martinus W. Beijerinck First known virus found 1898

3. IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENT IN SCIENCE
◦ Connection between science and technology were minimal in the 18th
century. In
19th
century these changed when science, technology and industry found a
common ground and common cause. Science became a growing force with
technology for a change in intellectual and material climate of the 19th
century.
Development of Science
 Physics
- Coulomb’s law on electrostatic interaction published in 1785 and frictional electrostatic
instrumentation led to the new science of electricity.
- Volta invention of cell or battery led to the important discovery of Oersted in the 1820
that electricity generates magnetism.
- Faraday’s discovery in 1830 that magnetism generates electricity among others led
Maxwell unification theory of electricity and magnetism in 1864 predicting the radiation of
electromagnetic waves such as light of changing current.
- The work of Carnot, Claussius, Helmholtz resulted in the Development of thermodynamics
with 4 laws, statistical-molecular explanation of thermodynamics together with the refinement of
Newton’s by Laplace and Maxwell’s theory made physics and mathematical in character.
 Chemistry
- Lavoisier made chemistry a science based upon analysis and measurements Dalton’s
atomic theory in 1808 provided for interpreting analysis and expressing chemical composition.
- The work of Humprey Day, Berzeliu and others led to the discovery of new elements
- The middle of 19th
century saw the birth of organic chemistry pioneered by Laurent and
Gerhadt.
- Thermodynamics and thermo chemistry that led to physical chemistry.
 Biology
- In 1859 a breakthrough in understanding of evolution, was presented by Charles Darwin
(1809-1882) in his Origin of Species by natural selection theory which states that one species
could develop from another.

4. Darwin argued that:
1. Some individuals within a species have characteristics that allow them to survive better
than the rest.
2. Those who survive and reached adulthood are likely to breed passing on their
characteristics to the next generations.
3. With successive generations there will be an increase within a species of those
characteristics improving its survival chances.
4. The characteristics of a species are gradually modified.
 Geology
Geology had emerged as a science capable of revealing information from the past from
fossils evidence as illustrated by the work of William Smith (1769-1839) and Charles Lyall.
They studied rock strata and the fossils in them noting that the deeper and older the strata the
greater are the difference in showed life forms and concluding a continuous process of change.