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1. Research Process
(For ; Diploma, Undergraduate and Postgraduate students)
BY MUTHAMA, JAPHETH MUTINDA
19/08/15 Muthama 1

2. ©Jae 2013
DESINED AND EDITED
BY:
MUTHAMA, JAPHETH
MUTINDA
PhD; Pursuing(JKUAT)
MBA (Finance)-Maseno
University.
BA; Hons (Economics) with
information Technology –Maseno
university.
CPA, COMPUTERISED
ACCOUNTING….
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3. Lecture outlines
Objectives of quantitative research
Main features in quantitative and qualitative research
Data collection
Limitations in quantitative and qualitative research
Concept of using combined research
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4. I can define research as a scientific way of answering questions and
testing hypothesis.
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5. What is Research?
Research
Discover new knowledge
Seek answers to questions
Basic research
Goal: Expand man’s knowledge (e.g., which genes control social
behavior of honey bees? )
Often driven by curiosity (but not always)
Applied research
Goal: Improve human condition (i.e., improve the world) (e.g., how
to cure cancers?)
Driven by practical needs
The boundary is vague; distinction isn’t important
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6. Research Study
A research study can be undertaken for two
different purposes:
1. To solve a currently existing problem
(applied research)
2. To contribute to the general body of
knowledge in a particular area of interest
(basic/fundamental research)
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7. Overview to Research Studies
Why Do Research Studies?
To collect data on usual and unusual events,
conditions, & population groups
To test hypotheses formulated from observations
and/or intuition
Ultimately, to understand better one’s world and
make “sense of it”
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8. Research Methods
Empirical research: evaluate and compare existing
solutions (e.g., “a comparative evaluation of
treatment A vs. treatment B”)
 The “E-C-E cycle” of research:
exploratoryconstructiveempiricalexploratory…
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9. Research Process
Identification of the topic (e.g., Web search,
review of literature)
Hypothesis formulation (e.g., treatment X is
better than Y=state-of-the-art)
Experiment design (measures, methods, data,
etc)
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10. Research Process
Test hypothesis (e.g., compare X and Y on the
data)
Draw conclusions and repeat the cycle of
hypothesis formulation and testing if necessary
(e.g., Y is better only for some patients, now
what?)
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11. Typical Research Process
Look for a high-impact topic (basic or applied)
New problem: define/frame the problem
Identify weakness of existing solutions if any
Propose new methods
Choose study population/data sets (often a main
challenge)
Design evaluation measures/study design
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12. Typical Research Process
Collect data (need to have clear
research hypotheses)
Analyze results and repeat the steps
above if necessary
Publish research results
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13. Types of Research Questions and Results
Exploratory (Framework): What’s out there?
Descriptive (Principles): What does it look like?
How does it work?
Evaluative (Empirical results): How well does a
method solve a problem?
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14. Types of Research Questions and Results
Explanatory (Causes): Why does something
happen the way it happens?
Predictive (Models): What would happen if?
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15. Looking for Research
Questions
1. Driven by new data: X is a new type of
treatment (e.g., X= OT)
How is X different from existing treatment
alternatives?
What new issues/problems are raised by X?
Are existing methods sufficient for solving old
problems on X? If not, what are the new
challenges?
What new methods are needed?
Are old evaluation measures adequate?

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16. Looking for Research
Questions
2. Driven by new users: Y is a set of new users
How are the new users different from old
ones? What new needs do they have?
Can existing methods work well to satisfy their
needs? If not, what are the new challenges?
What new functions are appropriate for Y?
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17. Looking for Research
Questions
Driven by new tasks (not necessarily new
users or new data): Z is a new task (e.g., a
LLIN/itn use, condom use)
What information management functions
are needed to better support Z?
Can these new functions be reduced to old
ones? If not, what are the new challenges?
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18. Ways to select a research topic
Personal experience
Curiosity based on something in the
community/media
Interest
The state of knowledge in a field
Personal values
Personal circumstances?
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19. Design the study
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20. Various types of research study designs
Many classified as “Epidemiological Study
Designs”
Epidemiology often is defined as:
The study of the distribution and
determinants of health-related states or
events in specified populations, and the
application of this study to the control of
health problems.
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21. Classifications of Research Study Designs:
Three Main Types
1. Observational Studies:1. Observational Studies:
Groups are studied & contrasts made between groups
The observed data collected are analyzed
2. Analytic Studies:2. Analytic Studies:
 Also called Experimental
 Study the impact of a certain therapy
 Ultimately the investigator controls factor being studied
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22. Classifications of Research Studies: Three
Main Types
3. Clinical Trial:3. Clinical Trial:
Considered the “true” experimental study
“Gold Standard” of clinical research
Often a prospective study that compares the effect and
value of an intervention against a control in human
subjects
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23. The Different Study Designs
Case-control • Cohort
Case Reports • Case Series
Outcomes Based: • Survey Research:
- Questionnaires
-Quality of Life - Polls
-Decision analysis - Surveys
-Economic Analysis
Meta Analyses
Survival Analysis
Randomized Clinical Trial
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24. Basic Research Terminology
Retrospective:Retrospective: Refers to time of data
collection
Prospective:Prospective: Refers to time of data collection
Case Control Study:Case Control Study: Persons w/ disease &
those w/out are compared
Cohort Study:Cohort Study: Persons w/ and/or w/out
disease are followed over time
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25. Terminology (Cont.)
Cross-sectional Study:Cross-sectional Study: Presence or absence of
exposure to possible risk factor measured at one
point in time. Prevalence obtained.
Prevalence:Prevalence: The # of new cases and existing cases
during specified time period.
Incidence:Incidence: The # of NEW cases per unit of a
population at risk for disease occurring during
stated time period.
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26. Research Methods
Exploratory research: Identify and frame a new
problem (e.g., “a survey”)
Constructive research: Construct a (new) solution
to a problem (e.g., “a new method for laboratory
diagnosis”)
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27. Collect the Data
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28. Study Methods
Means of “harvesting” data
Qualitative
Quantitative
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29. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Methodological Assumption
(Cresswell 1994: 5)
QuantitativeQuantitative QualitativeQualitative
Deductive processDeductive process Inductive processInductive process
Cause and effectCause and effect Mutual simultaneous shaping ofMutual simultaneous shaping of
factorsfactors
Static design – categories isolatedStatic design – categories isolated
before studybefore study
Emerging design – categoriesEmerging design – categories
identified during research processidentified during research process
Generalization leading to prediction,Generalization leading to prediction,
explanation, and understandingexplanation, and understanding
Patterns, theories developed forPatterns, theories developed for
understandingunderstanding
Accurate and reliable throughAccurate and reliable through
validity and reliabilityvalidity and reliability
Accurate and reliable throughAccurate and reliable through
verificationverification
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30. Six assumptions of qualitative designs (Merriam 1988: 19-20)
1. Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with
process, rather than outcomes or products.
2. Qualitative researchers are interested in meaning.
3. The qualitative researcher is the primary instrument for
data collection and analysis. Data are mediated
through this human instrument, rather than through
inventories, questionnaires, or machines.
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31. Six assumptions of qualitative designs (Merriam
1988: 19-20)
4. Qualitative research involves fieldwork. The researcher
physically goes to the people setting, site, or institution
to observe or record behavior in its natural setting.
5. Qualitative research is descriptive in that the researcher
in interested in process, meaning and understanding
gained through words or pictures.
6. The process of qualitative research is inductive in that
the researcher builds abstractions, concepts,
hypotheses, and theories from details.
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32. Quantitative Methods
Quantitative Descriptive
Descriptive statistics: graphical and numerical
techniques for summarizing data.
Quantitative Analytic
Inferential statistics: procedures for making
generalizations about characteristics of a
population based on information obtained from a
sample taken from that population
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33. Quantitative research is similar to traditional
scientific methods
Stating in advance the hypothesis and research
question.
Determine the methods of data collection and
analysis.
The findings are presented in statistical
language.
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34. Quantitative research is similar to traditional
scientific methods (cont.)
Quantitative approach to research involves data
collection methods such as structured
questionnaire, interviews and observations
together with other tools.
On the other hand, in depth interviews and
unstructured observations are associated with
qualitative research.
Researches have to choose methods which are
appropriate for answering their questions.
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35. Quantitative research features
quantitative research method deals with
quantities and numbers while qualitative
research deals with quality and description
which is too simple and unhelpful.
The purpose of quantitative research is to
measure concepts or variables that are
predetermined objectively and to examine the
relationship between them numerically and
statistically.
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36. Measurement in Quantitative Research
The following criteria should be fulfilled:
- Validity
- Objectivity (reliability)
- Accuracy
- Precision
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37. Objective Measurement in Quantitative Research
Objectivity means that the researchers stands
outside the phenomena they study. Data
collected are free from bias.
Objectivity is ensured by many ways e.g.
structured questions, representative sampling
and randomization.
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38. Objective Measurement in Quantitative Research
(cont.)
Sometimes, researchers may study concepts e.g.
pain, attitudes and fatigue. In such cases, scales
are constructed e.g. self-esteem scale as
subjective measures are crude and not accurate.
Objective measures are more valid and reliable
than subjective measures, the later depend on
self reports.
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39. Types of Quantitative Data
Data are used to classify groups.
Examples; numbers, amounts, prevalence,
incidence.
Variables can be classified as physical (wt.&
Ht.), physiological (attitude, anxiety), social……
etc.
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40. Quantitative research features (cont.)
Quantitative research studies the relationship
between concepts and variables e.g. the relation
between social support and quality of life.
Randomized control trials rely on quantitative
measure to determine if the interventions have
the desired effects. Although qualitative
methods may be used to explore some issues
related to intervention.
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41. Quantitative research features (cont.)
It is clear that quantitative research can provide
data to describe the distribution of a
characteristic or attributes in population, explore
the relationships between them and determine
cause and effect relationship.
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42. Quantitative Research Example
An evaluation of a teaching intervention to improve
the practice of endotracheal suctioning in I.C.U.
This study measures concepts (Know.& Pract.),
relation between them and tests the effectiveness of
K.&P. in I.C.U.
Data collection was structured and standardized. K. is
measured questionnaire and P. by “structured
observation schedule”
Data are analyzed by statistical tests.
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43. Quantitative approach as deductive
An approach which tests the researchers’
hypothesis in quantitative studies are termed
deductive.
As such approach tests whether variables are
correlated or one affects another e.g. nutritional
status and pressure ulcers, or factors related to
tobacco use.
Some quantitative studies are inductive as they lead
to formation of new questions ( generate new
hypothesis )
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44. Quantitative research Main feature
Quantitative research is described as producing
generalisable findings through randomization
and representative sampling.
However, the study is no less quantitative if a
random representative sample is not used.
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45. Data Collection in Quantitative Research
Questionnaire
Observation schedules
Scales to measure KAP
Instruments to measure physiological and
biomedical indicators
All the above methods should be pre-determined,
structured and standardized.
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46. Value of Quantitative Research to Nursing
Help nurses to grasp the reality as measurement
is central to every thing that nurses do;
symptoms, relief, improvement in patients i.e.
physical, physiological and psychosocial
phenomena.
Provide data for many questions that arise
during practice.
Useful in identifying trends.
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47. Value of Quantitative Research to Nursing ( cont. )
Needs assessment of patients and nurses.
Evaluations of interventions.
Measuring the competence and skills.
Useful for providing decision makers with
required information.
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48. Limitations of Quantitative Approach
It is difficult to understand human phenomena e.g.
when studying human behavior, it is possible only to
study what is observable. So the phenomena is
revealed partially.
Some researches claim that many influences affect
people’s response to questions i.e. it is not purely
objective.
Some standardized scales may be interpreted
differently by participants.
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49. Qualitative Research
Not everything that can be counted
counts and not everything that counts
can be counted.
( Albert Einstein )
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50. What is qualitative research?
To care for people and promote change
in behavior, it is required to
understand in-depth concepts such as
experience, believes, motivations and
intentions.
So, listening and observing may give
more information than sending
questions.
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51. What is qualitative research? (cont.)
Qualitative research is an approach
which seeks to understand , by means
of exploration, human experience,
perceptions, motivations, intentions
and behavior.
It is interactive, inductive, flexible,
holistic and reflexive method of data
collection and analysis.
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52. Main features of Qualitative Research
1- Exploration
2- Inductive approach
3- Interactive and Reflective
4- Holistic
5- Flexible
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53. Main features of Qualitative Research
( cont. )
1-Exploration is the essential feature of qualitative
approach in order to understand the
perceptions and actions of participants.
Exploration is to discover new people, customs,
and to learn from them.
Exploration is a difficult task that requires
training and experience.
It should be inductive, interactive, reflexive and
holistic.
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54. Main features of Qualitative Research
( cont. )
2- Inductive approach:
The purpose of qualitative approach is to
develop concepts and generates hypothesis. The
researcher is open to ideas which emerge from
listening or observing people.
The inductive approach is useful when little is
known about the topics one wants to study.
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55. Main features of Qualitative Research
( cont. )
3- Interactive and Reflexive process
To avoid bias in quantitative approach, the
researchers try to study phenomena in a detached
way.
In qualitative studies, researchers use interaction
between them and participants to get closer to the
topic under study. The researcher becomes an
instrument of data collection. The researchers
probe, facilitate, and note tone, hesitations and
repetition in participants responses.
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56. Main features of Qualitative Research
( cont. )
3- Interactive and Reflexive process (cont.)
There should be trust between participants and
researchers.
The qualitative research should be reflexive i.e.
examining not only what people say and do, but
also why they say and do so.
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57. Main features of Qualitative Research
( cont. )
4- Holistic exploration
In quantitative research, the researcher is
constrained by a number of variables to be
studied.
In qualitative research, participants are allowed
to put their responses in context.
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58. Main features of Qualitative Research
( cont. )
5- Flexible methods
Qualitative research relies on personal, intimate
and private world of participants. So flexible,
imaginative, creative and varied strategies are used
to facilitate this process.
Data collection methods include; interviews,
observations, group discussion, analysis of video
recording, letters, diaries and other documents.
In quantitative research, data collection methods
are constructed in advance.
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59. Common approaches in
qualitative research
1- Ethnograghy
2- Phenomenology
3- Discourse analysis
4- Grounded theory
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60. Common approaches in
qualitative research
1- Ethnography: is an approach relying on the
collection of data in the natural environment.
Ethnographers are interested in how the
behavior of individuals is influenced or
mediated by culture in which they live.
So, human behavior can only be understood if
studied in the setting in which it occurs. As
people can influence and be influenced by the
groups they live in.
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61. Common approaches in
qualitative research
2- Phenomenology: It focuses on individuals'
interpretation of their experience and the ways
in which they express them.
The researchers task is to describe phenomena as
experienced and expressed by individuals.
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62. Common approaches in
qualitative research
3- Discourse analysis: Discourse is a term used to
describe the systems we use in communication
with others. These include verbal, non-verbal and
written material.
What we say, how we say it, our choice of words,
tone, timing are full of values, meanings and
intentions.
So, analysis of discourse increases our
understanding of human behavior through
language and interaction.
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63. Common approaches in qualitative
research
4- Grounded theory: It is an inductive approach to
research whereby hypotheses and theories
emerge out or are grounded in data.
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64. Common approaches in qualitative research
(conclusion)
The above 4 approaches are similar in that they
place emphasis on interpretation rather than
objective empirical observations. They are
interactive.
They are different in that; ethnography focuses
on culture, phenomenology on consciousness,
discourse analysis on language and ground
theory’s aim is the development of theory
through induction.
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65. Qualitative Research in Nursing and health
Research
1- explore patients’ experience and behavior.
2- explore the experience and behavior of nurses
and other health professionals.
3- evaluate intervention and services.
4- explore core concepts relevant to nursing and
health.
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66. Limitations of Qualitative Research
1- It is anecdotal (stories told for dramatic quality
without critical evaluation)
2- Unscientific
3- Producing findings that are not generalisable
4- Impressionistic
5- Subjective
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67. Combining Quantitative and
Qualitative Methods
Humans are both rational calculating
beings…and they also operate on a
deeper level of feelings, drivers and
irrationality.
H. Mariampolski
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68. Combining Quantitative and
Qualitative Methods
An old debate between quantitative and qualitative
methods can be traced back to the two opposed
Greek philosophical visions of human science that
emphasize number (Pythagoras) and meaning
(Socrates) as the essence of mind.
Qualitative research has been described as; noble,
good and empowering by some researchers.
By others it is; story telling, touchy – feely, biased,
subjective, lacking reliability validity and
generalisabilty.
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69. Types and purposes of combining methods
1- To develop and enhance the validity of scales,
questionnaire and tools.
2- To develop, implement and evaluate interventions.
3- To further explore or test the findings of one
method.
4- To study different aspects of the same topics.
5- To explore complex phenomena from different
perspectives.
6- To confirm or cross-validate data.
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70. 19/08/15 Muthama 70

71. Analyze the data
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72. success
Designed by:
MUTHAMA, JAPHETH MUTINDA
PhD; Pursuing(JKUAT)
MBA (Finance)-Maseno University.
BA;Hons (Economics) with
information Technology –Maseno
university.
CPA, COMPUTERISED ACCOUNTING….
19/08/15 Muthama 72

73. THE END
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