The document provides an overview of research concepts including: - Definitions of research as an original investigation to contribute to knowledge and as a creative process leading to new knowledge. - Two ways of gaining knowledge: deductive and inductive logic. - The importance of research design in determining the general approach and ensuring research questions are answered. - An overview of the research process including developing a research question, stating the problem, and selecting a problem based on interest, significance and manageability. - Differences between qualitative and quantitative research in terms of assumptions, characteristics and methods.

1. DR. UBAIDULLAH KHAN
Essentials of Research
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2. Presenter’s Bio
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 Interests: Teacher development, language & social class,
cognitive development of language

3. Objectives
 What is academic research?
 How is knowledge gained?
 What is a Research Design?
 Process of Research
 Qualitative Research & methods
 Quantitative Research & methods
 Population & Sampling
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4. 4
 An original investigation undertaken in order to
contribute to knowledge and understanding in a
particular field
 A creative activity leading to the production of new
knowledge
 What is Research?

5. What is Research?
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 David Nunan describes research as:
 “a process of formulating questions, problems or
hypothesis; collecting data or evidence relevant to
these problems / questions / hypotheses; and
analysing or interpreting these data.

6. How is Knowledge Gained?
 The sole aim of research is to increase knowledge.
 Two ways to gain knowledge:
 Deductive Logic – methodology that relies on
logical reasoning and begins with a major premise.
 Inductive Logic – methodology that begins not
with a major premise but with an observation.
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7. 7
Often, the
person most
changed by the
research is the
researcher

8. According to David J. Luck and Ronald S. Rubin,
"A research design is the determination and statement
of the general research approach or strategy adopted for
the particular project. It is the heart of planning”.
If the design adheres to the research objective, it will
ensure that the researcher's questions will be answered.
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What is Research Design? (1)

9. What is Research Design? (2)
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 According to Kerlinger
 "Research design in the plan, structure and
strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain
answers to research questions and to control
variance."

10. According to Green and Tull
 A research design is the specification of methods
and procedures for acquiring the information
needed.
 It is the over-all operational pattern or framework
of the project that stipulates what information is to
be collected from which source by what procedures.
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What is Research Design? (3)

11. Why is Research Design Important?
 The research design is the plan of research that
is used to answer the research objectives.
 It is the structure or framework to solve a
specific problem.
 It gives direction and systematizes the research.
 The method you choose will affect your results
and how you conclude the findings.
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12.  The research design answers the question: How
are we going to get answers to these research
questions and test these hypotheses?
 The research design is a plan of action indicating
the specific steps that are necessary to provide
answers to those questions, test the hypotheses,
and thereby achieve the research purpose that
helps choose among the decision alternatives.
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Why is Research Design Important?2

13. The Research Process
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14. The Research Question
 The foundation of the research process
 It all begins with a question

15. Finding a Research Question
 From where ???????
 Curiosity
 Information Gaps
 Controversy
 Replication
 Literature Review
 Other People
 ...???

16. Statement of the Problem
 A very specific statement which clearly identifies
the problem being studied; will usually identify
the key variables as well as give some information
about the scope of the study
 May be in either question or declarative form
 May include inherent sub-problems, if appropriate
 Formulation of problem statement takes place after
an initial review of related literature and the
distillation process

17. Criteria for Selecting a Problem
 Interest
 Most important
 Significance
 Theoretical value
 Practical value
 Timeliness
 External review
 Manageability
 Expertise, time, resources
 Free from personal bias

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Different approaches to research means
different paradigms.
 A paradigm is a “worldview” or a set of
assumptions, perceptions and beliefs about how
things work.
 Rossman & Rollis define paradigm as “shared
understandings of reality”
 Quantitative and qualitative research methods
involve very different assumptions about how
research should be conducted and the role of the
researcher.

19. Qualitative vs Quantitative Mind
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20. Qualitative Research
Ethnographic
Case Study
Historical
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21. 21
Qualitative Research
a definition by (Banister et al., 1994)
“The goal of qualitative research is the
development of concepts which help us to
understand social phenomena in natural
(rather than experimental) settings, giving
due emphasis to the meanings, experiences,
and views of all the participants.”
Pope & mays. 1995; 311: 42, 45

22.  Holistic understanding
 Typically no group comparisons
 Ongoing analysis to form later strategies
 Researcher is the research instrument
 Flexible, researcher is able to adjust according to
data
Characteristics of Qualitative Design
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23. Characteristics of Qualitative Design (contd)
 Intense, long involvement
 Non-experimental, descriptive, natural setting
 No independent & dependent variables
 Employs interpersonal subjectivity to collect data
 Aims to expand the findings.
 Generalizability is not the intent of the study.
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24. The design of qualitative studies (overview)
In qualitative research , the study design typically
evolves over the course of the project. Decisions
about :
 how best to obtain data
 from whom to obtain data
 how to schedule data collection
 how long each data collection session should last are made
in the field as the study unfolds.
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25. A model of qualitative research design
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Written Record
Data Analysis Approach
Data Collection
Technique
Research Method
Philosophical
Assumptions
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26. Qualitative research
 Most qualitative studies are exploratory or
explanatory to understand peoples’ view of their
world .
 Qualitative research is concerned with
developing explanations of social phenomena. It
aims to help us to understand the world in which
we live and why things are the way they are.
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27. The qualitative researcher has been referred to as a
bricoleur, a person who is adept at performing
large number of diverse tasks, ranging from:
interviewing observing
interpreting
personal and
historical
documents
intensive reflection
and
introspection
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28.  Case Study: used to richly describe, explain or assess
and evaluate a phenomenon.
 Grounded theory: Focuses on generating / deriving
naturalistic theory based on the data. (reflexivity is the
focus).
 Ethnography: Study of an intact group in its natural
context (multiple tools are used).
 Phenomenology: Aims at understanding the subjects’
reality (i.e. event, belief, emotion) as they perceive it.
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Qualitative Research Methods

29.  Biographical: seeks to understand the changing
experiences and outlooks of individuals in their daily
lives. It may include autobiography, biography or
narrative
 Historical: Aims to describe, analyse and explain
past events based on the records and diaries etc.
 Participatory : Researchers and stakeholders
collaborate in design and conduct of all phases (e.g.,
design, data collection, analysis) of research process.
Goal is taking action to solve problem
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Qualitative Research Methods

30.  Qualitative researchers tend to put together a
complex array of data, derived from a variety of
sources and using a variety of methods. This
tendency has sometimes been described as
bricolage.
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Qualitative Data

31. Quantitative Research
Experimental
Quasi Experimental
Descriptive
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32. 32
 In a quantitative study, researchers often start with a
theory, framework, or conceptual model
 On the basis of theory researchers make prediction
about how phenomena will behave in the real world if
the theory is true
 In other words researchers use deductive reasoning to
develop from the general theory specific prediction
that can be tested empirically
Quantitative Research

33. Quantitative Research
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 Formal, objective, rigorous, systematic process for generating
information
 Describes new situations, events, or concepts
 Examines relationships among variables
 Determines the effectiveness of treatments
 Statistical Procedures
 Test and Measurement Practices
 Correlational procedures
 Comparing groups
 Cause/Effect relationships

34. Quantitative research
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 Predicting achievement from standardized
measurements
 Educational Surveys (late 19th century)
 Simple Experiments (early 20th century)
 Multiple groups and tests (by 1935)
 Longitudinal designs

35.  Controlled
 Objectivity valued
 Specific, small piece of reality
 Experimental, Quasi-experiment, Non-experimental
 Short or long involvement
Quantitative Design Characteristics
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36. Quantitative Design Characteristics
(contd)
 Tool = instrument; Avoid researcher influence
 Data analyzed at specific time point
 Hypotheses possible
 Independent & dependent variables usually (may have only
1 variable)
 Typically within group or between group comparisons
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37. Describing Correlational Research
 Looks at the relationship between two or more
variables
 Determines the strength and type of relationship
 Explains what is seen
 No cause and effect

38. Quasi-experimental Research?
 Examines cause-and-effect relationships
 Less control by researcher than true experimental
designs
 Samples are not randomly selected.
 All variables in the study cannot be controlled by the
researcher.

39. Experimental Research
 Controlled manipulation of at least one independent
variable
 Uses experimental and control groups
 Random assignment of the sample to the
experimental and control groups

40. Experimental Research
 Looks at cause-and-effect relationships
 Highly controlled, objective, systematic studies
 Involves the measurement of independent and
dependent variables

41. Variables
 We want to study the outcome when we vary
some input variables in a process.
 There are two kinds of variables in an
experiment:
 Dependent Variables – the outcome or effect of
change.
 Independent Variables – variables that are
manipulated or controlled by the experimenter,
the change or the treatment.
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42. Population and Sample
Population
 All elements that meet
certain criteria for
inclusion in study
 Example: all women
students in higher
education
Sample
 A subset of the
population that is
selected for study
 Example: women
students from a
particular city / state

43. Sampling and Sampling Methods
 Process of selecting subjects who are representative
of the population
 Random sampling
 Each member has an equal chance of being selected.
 Has the most control
 Convenience sampling
 Whoever is available

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Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative
Research in the Process of Research
Steps in the
Research Process
Analyze and Interpret Data
Report and Evaluate
Collecting Data
Specifying a Purpose
Reviewing the Literature
Identifying a Problem
Quantitative
Characteristics
Qualitative
Characteristics
Description of trends and
Explanation Oriented
Exploratory/ Understanding
a Central Phenomenon
•Major Role
•Justify Problem
•Minor Role
•Justify Problem
•Specific and Narrow
•Measurable/Observable
•General and Broad
•Participants’ Experience
•Pre-determined Instruments
•Numeric Data
•Large numbers
•Emerging Protocols
•Text or image data
•Small Number
•Statistical
•Description of Trends
•Comparisons/Predictions
•Text Analysis
•Description/Themes
•Larger meanings of findings
•Standard and Fixed
•Objective and Unbiased
•Flexible and Emerging
•Reflexive and Biased

45. TIPS!!!!!!
Schedule
Start, don’t end, with Wikipedia.
Mine bibliographies
Have a research question in mind
Deal with one piece at a time
Use a system
Know your resources
Ask for help
Carry an idea book.
Bring it up to date
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Thanks for Patience
ubaidkhan81@gmail.com