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2. SPHERICAL MIRRORS
 A spherical mirror is a mirror which has the shape of a piece cut out of a
spherical surface. There are two types of spherical mirrors: concave,
and convex. he most commonly occurring examples of concave mirrors
are shaving mirrors and makeup mirrors. As is well-known, these types
of mirrors magnify objects placed close to them. The most commonly
occurring examples of convex mirrors are the passenger-side wing
mirrors of cars. These type of mirrors have wider fields of view than
equivalent flat mirrors, but objects which appear in them generally look
smaller (and, therefore, farther away) than they actually are.

3. Various different types of thin lens

4. IMAGE FORMATION BY PLANE MIRRORS
BOTH CONCAVE AND CONVEX SPHERICAL MIRRORS ASYMPTOTE TO
PLANE MIRRORS IN THE LIMIT IN WHICH THEIR RADII OF CURVATURE
$R$ TEND TO INFINITY. IN OTHER WORDS, A PLANE MIRROR CAN BE
TREATED AS EITHER A CONCAVE OR A CONVEX MIRROR , AND EQ.

5. A concave (left) and a convex (right) mirror
Image formation by a concave mirror.

6. Spherical aberration in a concave mirror.
Formation of a real image by a concave mirr

7. Formation of a virtual image by a concave mirror.
Image formation by a concave mirror

8. The virtual focus of a convex mirror.
Image formation by a convex mirror.

9. Magnification
 Ray diagrams provide useful information about
object-image relationships, yet fail to provide the
information in a quantitative form. While a ray
diagram may help one determine the approximate
location and size of the image, it will not provide
numerical information about image distance and
object size. To obtain this type of numerical
information, it is necessary to use the Mirror
Equation and the Magnification Equation. The
mirror equation expresses the quantitative
relationship between the object distance (do), the
image distance (di), and the focal length (f).

10. THE MAGNIFICATION EQUATION RELATES THE RATIO
OF THE IMAGE DISTANCE AND OBJECT DISTANCE TO
THE RATIO OF THE IMAGE HEIGHT (HI) AND OBJECT
HEIGHT (HO). THE MAGNIFICATION EQUATION IS
STATED AS FOLLOWS:

11. What is refection?
 Reflection is the change in direction of a wavefront at
an interface between two different media so that the wavefront
returns into the medium from which it originated. Common
examples include the reflection of light, sound and water
waves. The law of reflection says that for specular reflection the
angle at which the wave is incident on the surface equals the
angle at which it is reflected. Mirrors exhibit specular
reflection. In acoustics, reflection causes echoes and is used in sonar. In
geology, it is important in the study of seismic waves. Reflection is
observed with surface waves in bodies of water. Reflection is observed
with many types of electromagnetic wave, besides visible light. Reflection

13. Reflection of light is either specular (mirror-like) or diffuse (retaining the energy, but
losing the image) depending on the nature of the interface. In specular reflection
the phase of the reflected waves depends on the choice of the origin of coordinates, but
the relative phase between s and p (TE and TM) polarizations is fixed by the properties
of the media and of the interface between them.A mirror provides the most common
model for specular light reflection, and typically consists of a glass sheet with a metallic
coating where the reflection actually occurs. Reflection is enhanced in metals by
suppression of wave propagation beyond their skin depths. Reflection also occurs at the
surface of transparent media, such as water or glass. pecular reflection forms images.
Reflection from a flat surface forms a mirror image, which appears to be reversed from
left to right because we compare the image we see to what we would see if we were
rotated into the position of the image. Specular reflection at a curved surface forms an
image which may be magnified or demagnified; curved mirrors have optical power.

14.  Theincident ray,thereflectedrayandthenormalto thereflectionsurfaceat thepoint of
theincidencelieinthesameplane.
 Theanglewhichtheincidentraymakeswiththenormalisequalto theanglewhichthe
reflectedraymakesto thesamenormal.
 Thereflectedrayandtheincident rayareontheoppositesidesof thenormal.

16. MULTIPLE REFLECTIONS
• When light reflects off a mirror, one image appears. Two mirrors placed exactly face to face give the appearance of an infinite
number of images along a straight line. The multiple images seen between two mirrors that sit at an angle to each other lie
over a circle.The center of that circle is located at the imaginary intersection of the mirrors. A square of four mirrors placed
face to face give the appearance of an infinite number of images arranged in a plane. The multiple images seen between four
mirrors assembling a pyramid, in which each pair of mirrors sits an angle to each other, lie over a sphere. If the base of the
pyramid is rectangle shaped, the images spread over a section of a torus.

17. COMPLEX CONJUGATE REFLECTION
• In this process (which is also known as phase conjugation), light bounces exactly back in the
direction from which it came due to a nonlinear optical process. Not only the direction of the
light is reversed, but the actual wavefronts are reversed as well. A conjugate reflector can be
used to remove aberrations from a beam by reflecting it and then passing the reflection
through the aberrating optics a second time.

18. • Refraction is the change in direction of propagation of a wave due to a
change in its transmission medium.The phenomenon is explained by the
conservation of energy and the conservation of momentum. Due to the
change of medium, the phase velocity of the wave is changed but its
frequency remains constant. This is most commonly observed when a wave
passes from one medium to another at any angle other than 0° from the
normal. Refraction of light is the most commonly observed phenomenon, but
any type of wave can refract when it interacts with a medium, for example
when sound waves pass from one medium into another or when water
waves move into water of a different depth.

19. Refraction can be seen when looking into a bowl of water. Air has a refractive index of about 1.0003, and water has a
refractive index of about 1.3330. If a person looks at a straight object, such as a pencil or straw, which is placed at a
slant, partially in the water, the object appears to bend at the water's surface. This is due to the bending of light rays
as they move from the water to the air. Once the rays reach the eye, the eye traces them back as straight lines (lines
of sight). The lines of sight (shown as dashed lines) intersect at a higher position than where the actual rays
originated. This causes the pencil to appear higher and the water to appear shallower than it really is. The depth
that the water appears to be when viewed from above is known as the apparent depth. This is an important
consideration for spearfishing from the surface because it will make the target fish appear to be in a different place,
and the fisher must aim lower to catch the fish. Conversely, an object above the water has a higher apparent height
when viewed from below the water.

21. • Incident ray, reflected ray, refracted ray and the normal of the system lie in the same plane.
• Incident ray, coming from one medium to the boundary of another medium, is refracted with a rule derived from
a physicist Willebrord Snellius. He found that there is a constant relation between the angle of incident ray and
angle of refracted ray. This constant is the refractive index of second medium relative to the first medium.

22.  In medicine,particularly optometry, ophthalmology and or
thoptics, refraction (also known as refractometry) is a
clinical test in which a phoropter may be used by the
appropriate eye care professional to determine the
eye's refractive error and the best corrective lenses to
be prescribed. A series of test lenses in graded optical
powers or focal lengths are presented to determine which
provides the sharpest, clearest vision.