This document discusses quantitative research methods. It defines quantitative research as using numerical data to obtain objective information. The goals of quantitative research are to generalize findings, be objective, and test theories. The quantitative research process involves 10 steps: developing a theory and hypotheses, research design, defining concepts and variables, selecting respondents, data collection, data preparation, analysis, conclusions, and reporting. Several data collection methods are also discussed, including surveys, structured interviews, structured observations, and questionnaires.

1. In the name of Allah Kareem,
Most Beneficent, Most Gracious,
the Most Merciful !

3. Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is "a formal, objective, systematic process in
which numerical data are utilised to obtain information about the
world" (Burns and Grove cited by Cormack 1991). Quantitative
research is inclined to be deductive. In other words it tests theory.
General aims of quantitative research
•To generalize
•To be objective
•To test theories
SUPERIOR GROUP OF COLLEGES

4. Quantitative Research Process
1. Theory
2. Hypothesis
3. Research Design
4. Devise measures of concepts
5. Select research site / Respondents
6. Data Collection
7. Preparation of data
8. Analysis and interpretations
9. Drawing Conclusions
10. Report Writing

5. 1. THEORY
Theory is a standardized principle on which basis we can
explain the relationship between two or more concepts or
variables.
PURPOSE OF THEORY
1. Prediction
2. Understanding
LEVELS OF THEORY
1. Abstract level
2. Empirical level
PROCESS OF THEORY DEVELOPMENT
1. Induction
2. Deduction

6. 2. Hypothesis / Research Questions
A predictive statement of a relationship between two or more
variable, which may then be tested through research
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
1. Null Hypothesis Ho
2. Alternative Hypothesis H1
A good hypothesis should be:
A definite statement
Based on observations and knowledge
Predict the results very clear
Testable with straight forward experiment

7. 3. Research Design
1. Introduction
2. Purpose Statement
3. Significance
4. Objectives
5. Use of theory
6. Research Questions/Hypotheses
7. Limitations Delimitations
8. Ethical Consideration

8. 4. Devise Measure of Concepts
Concept:
Abstract realities or generalized ideas about objects,
attributes, occurrence or processes, that can not be
measured directly. Concepts are the building
blocks of theory.
Examples
level of motivation
Variable
Empirical realities that may have varied (different) values
that can be measured directly is called variables
Example: Gender (male or female)
Temperature ( 98o , 95o , 100o ) etc

9. Cont…..
Operationalization
Operationalization is the process of
defining a concept so that it becomes
measurable variable, which is
achieved by looking at behavioral
dimensions and categorizing them
into observable and measurable
elements.

10. Cont…..

11. Cont…..
Gender Motivation Temperature Time
1. Highly Motivated o
1. Male 1. 97 C 1. 10 seconds
2. Moderately Motivated o
2. Female 2. 98 C Means 10
3. Less Motivated 3. 99 o C seconds
more than 0

12. Cont…..
Comparison Chart
Scale Definition Properties Base Example
• Gender
A scale in which objects or individual is
Nominal
broken into categories that have no Identity Difference • Nationality
scale numerical properties. • Religion
A scale in which objects or individuals are
Ordinal
categorized and the categories form a Directional Order A is longer than B
Scale rank order along a continuum.
Scale Definition Properties Base Example
A scale in which the units of
Interval Equal unit
measurement (intervals) between the Magnitude A is 2 feet longer than B
Scale numbers on the scale are all equal. Size
A scale in which, in addition to order and A is 2 feet long means 2 feet more
equal units of measurement, there is an than “0”
Ratio Scale absolute zero that indicates an absence
Ratio Absolute zero
of the variables being measure.

13. Cont…..
Response formats for scales
Binary Response My job is usually interesting enough to keep me from getting bored
formats • agree
• disagree
Numerical Response My job is usually interesting enough to keep me for getting bored
formats 5 4 3 2 1
Verbal formats May job is usually interesting enough to keep me from getting bored
Strongly agree__ agree__ undecided__ disagree___ strongly disagree__
Bipolar numerical
I love my job 5 4 3 2 1I hate my job
formats
Frequency formats My job is usually interesting enough to keep me from getting bored
• All of the time ____
• often _____
• fairly often ____
• occasionally ___
• none of the time ____

14. Cont…..
Validity
Face Validity
(Validity where measure apparently
reflects the content of the concept in
question)
Predictive
(Researcher employs the criterion whereby
Validity a new scale predicts a future event)
(Are we Measuring the
Right thing)
Concurrent
(Researcher employs the criterion whereby
a new scale measures a current event)
Convergent
(A test has convergent validity if it has a high
correlation with another test that measures the
same construct)

15. Cont…..
Reliability
Test-retest reliability
Parallel-form reliability
Reliability
(Accuracy in
Measurement)
Inter-item consistency
Split- half reliability

16. 5.Selecting Research respondents
Population
the universe of units(nations, cities, regions, firms, students employees
etc.) from which the sample is to be selected.
Sample
the segment of the population that is selected for the investigation. It is
a subset of the population. The method of selection may be based on a
probability or a non-probability approach (see below).
Sampling frame
the listing of all the units in the population from which the sample will
be selected.
Representative Sample
a sample that reflects the population accurately so that it is a microcosm
of the population.
Sampling error
the difference between a sample and the population from which it is
selected, even though a probability sample has been selected.

17. 5.Cont…..
Sampling
Sampling Technique
Probability Non-Probability
Simple random sample Convenience sampling
Stratified random sample Snowball sampling
Systematic sample Quota sampling

18. Methods of Data Collection
Surveys
Survey is a quantitative research strategy that involves the structured collection of
data from a pre-determined sample. It involves following methods
1.Structured interview
2.Structured Observation
3.Questionnaire
Survey
Structured Questionnaire
Structured Observation
Interview
Self administered On-line
Telephone Face to face Participant Non -Participant questionnaires questionnaires
Interviews interview Observation Observation
Postal
questionnaires

19. Structured Interviewing
Structured interviewing is the process of administering an interview schedule
by an interviewer.
The aim is for all interviewees to be given exactly the same context of
questioning. In this way the interviewers are supposed to read questions
exactly.
Types of Structured interviewing
1. Telephonic Interview
2. Face to face Interview
Structured Observations

20. QUESTIONNAIRES
“Questionnaire is pre-formulated written set of questions to which
respondents record their answers”.
Questionnaires can be:
 On-line questionnaires
 Postal questionnaires
 Self administered questionnaire

21. Variety of factors influence questionnaire
The choice of questionnaire will be influenced by a variety of factors related
to your
 Research question (s)
 Research objective
 Characteristics of respondents
 Size of sample
 Dimensions of the concept to be measured
 And availability of required resources.

22. DESIGNING A QUESTIONNAIRE
Designing a questionnaire is based on following principles
1- Principle of wording
i. The nature of the variable will determine what kind and number of questions
will be asked i.e. ranking, rating or dichotomous
ii. The wording should be simple, easy and appropriate
iii. Closed ended questions will be used with the intention to have ease, and
enhanced comparability.
iv. Add both positively as well as negatively worded questions
v. Always avoid double barreled, ambiguous, recall dependent, leading or loaded
questions
vi. The sequence of questions in the questionnaire should be from general to
specific, and easy to more difficult. It is also called funnel approach.

23. 2- Principle of Measurement:
i. Interval and Ratio scales should be used in preference to nominal or ordinal
scales
ii. The measure must be assessed through tests of validity and reliability
3- General Getup:
1. Start with good Introduction
2. Questions should be well organized with instructions and guidance
3. Only relevant personal information should be demanded that is not sensitive,
4. End with a courteous note.

24. Mode of Description Disadvantages
data Advantages
Can establish rapport and motivate respondents Takes personal time
Personal or face- The interviewer and Can clarify the questions, clear doubts add new Costs more when a wide geographic region is
to-face interviewee confronted each questions covered
interviews other Can read nonverbal cues Respondents may be concerned about confidentiality
Can use visual aids to clarify points. of information given
Rich data can be obtained Interviewers need to be trained
CAPI can be used and responses entered in a ‘can introduce interviewer biases
portable computer Respondents can terminate the interview any time
Telephone Interview which were Less costly and speedier that personal Nonverbal cues cannot be read
Interviews conducted through interviews. Interviews will have to be kept short
communication. Can reach a wide geographic area Obsolete telephone number could be contacted, and
Greater anonymity than personal interviews. unlisted ones omitted from the sample
Self-completion Self-questionnaire is a Can establish rapport and motivate respondent Organizations may be reluctant to give up company
questionnaire questionnaire in which Doubts can be clarified time for the survey with group of employees
interviewee answer the Less expensive when administered to groups assembled for the purpose
question by himself Almost 100 % response rate ensured
Anonymity of respondent is high
Postal It is a type of Anonymity is high Response rate is almost always Cannot clarify
Questionnaire questionnaire which can Wide geographic regions can be reached. questions
be sending to the Token gifts can be enclosed to seek Follow-up procedures for no responses are necessary
respondent through mail compliance
or any other postal mode. Respondent can take more time to respond at
convenience
Can be administered electronically, if desired
Electronic The questionnaire which Easy to administer Computer literacy in a must
Questionnaire you send through Can reach globally Respondents must have access to the facility
internet Very inexpensive Respondent must be willing to complete the survey
Fast delivery
Convenient for Respondents
Participants Researcher participates Better accuracy Participant observation takes time and commitment
Observation in the activities of the Less cost Usually does not examine motivation, attitude or
group being observed in Researcher is collecting observed data not feeling toward particular behavior
the same manner reported data Time cost
Can obtain data from those unable to
communicate in written or oral form
Non-Participants Researcher do not get The individual may simply be unaware of how The lack of interaction may, however make it
Observation involved in the activities they behave in a particular situation. difficult for the researcher to be able to clarify or
of the group but remains Safe the researcher time interrupt the phenomena been investigated

25. Mystery Shopping
Mystery shopping is a popular technique used in consumer research
that involves sending people (mystery shoppers) into a shop to buy
products with the intention to evaluate the effectiveness of retail staff.
After the interaction, the shoppers typically fill out rating sheet
detailing the nature of the interaction and service they receive. It’s a
type of field stimulation.

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