General Introduction of Cardiovascular System and Anatomy of Cardiovascular System.
In this slide, you will be able to find the general anatomy of the heart and Basic introduction of Cardiovascular Sstem
Heart valves- A detailed medical information about heart valves .martinshaji
heart valves are the one which regulates the blood flow and heart health and all in overall . this is a detailed study on all the valves of the heart
please comment
thank you
Artery and veins, capillaries, arteriole and venules, systemic circulation an...Dr Shahid Alam
Artery and veins, capillaries, arteriole and venules, systemic circulation and pulmonary circulation, blood vessels, heart, chambers of heart, dr shahid alam, shahid alam, doctor shahid alam, shahid, alam
General Introduction of Cardiovascular System and Anatomy of Cardiovascular System.
In this slide, you will be able to find the general anatomy of the heart and Basic introduction of Cardiovascular Sstem
Heart valves- A detailed medical information about heart valves .martinshaji
heart valves are the one which regulates the blood flow and heart health and all in overall . this is a detailed study on all the valves of the heart
please comment
thank you
Artery and veins, capillaries, arteriole and venules, systemic circulation an...Dr Shahid Alam
Artery and veins, capillaries, arteriole and venules, systemic circulation and pulmonary circulation, blood vessels, heart, chambers of heart, dr shahid alam, shahid alam, doctor shahid alam, shahid, alam
The heart has four chambers. The two superior receiving chambers are the atria (= entry halls or chambers), and the two inferior pumping chambers are the ventricles (= little bellies).
On the anterior surface of each atrium is a wrinkled pouchlike structure called an auricle
A closed system of the heart and blood vessels
The heart pumps blood
Blood vessels allow blood to circulate to all parts of the body
The function of the cardiovascular system is to deliver oxygen and nutrients and to remove carbon dioxide and other waste products
The heart contributes to homeostasis by pumping blood through blood vessels to the tissues of the body to deliver oxygen and nutrients and remove wastes.
Blood to reach body cells and exchange materials with them, it must be pumped continuously by the heart through the body’s blood vessels.
The heart beats about 100,000 times every day, which adds up to about 35 million beats in a year, and approximately 2.5 billion times in an average lifetime.
The left side of the heart pumps blood through an estimated 100,000 km (60,000 mi) of blood vessels, which is equivalent to traveling around the earth’s equator about three times.
The right side of the heart pumps blood through the lungs, enabling blood to pick up oxygen and unload carbon dioxide.
This system has three main components: the heart, the blood vessel and the blood itself. The heart is the system's pump and the blood vessels are like the delivery routes. Blood can be thought of as a fluid which contains the oxygen and nutrients the body needs and carries the wastes which need to be removed.
1 GNM - Anatomy unit - 4 - CVS by thirumurugan.pptxthiru murugan
By:M. Thiru murugan
Unit – IV:
Heart : Structure, functions including conduction system & cardiac cycle
Blood vessels : Types, Structure and position
Circulation of blood
Blood pressure and pulse
Heart
The circulatory system:
It consisting of blood, blood vessels, and heart.
This supplies oxygen and other nutrients,
Transports hormones
Removes unnecessary waste products.
Heart and its Structure
The heart is a muscular organ about the size of a fist,
located in mediastinum just behind and slightly left of the breastbone (sternum).
The heart pumps blood through the blood vessels (arteries and veins called the cardiovascular system).
Structure of heart:
Layers of the heart (3)
Chambers of the heart (4)
Valves of the heart (4)
Blood vessels of the heart (5)
3 layers of the heart:
Epicardium/pericardium: outer protective layer of the heart. Visceral and parietal (pericardial fluid). Protection for the heart and big vessels and prevent collapse of heart,
Myocardium: muscular middle layer wall of the heart. Responsible for keeping the heart pumping blood around the body.
Endocardium: the inner layer of the heart. Regulate blood flow through the chambers of the heart and pass the electrical impulses
Chambers of the heart:
The atria: These are the 2 upper chambers, which receive blood. RA / LA
The ventricles: These are the 2 lower chambers, which discharge blood. RV/ LV
A wall of tissue called the septum separates the left and right atria called atrial septum and the left and right ventricle called ventricular septum.
Valves in the heart:
There are four valves
Two-atrio ventricular valves: The 2 types: bicuspid (mitral) - LA & LV, and tricuspid valves - RA & RV.
Two-semilunar valves: The aortic valves and the pulmonary valve.
Major blood vessels of the heart
There are 5 major blood vessels
Pulmonary artery
Pulmonary veins
Aorta[artery]
Inferior vena cava [IVC] veins
Superior vena cava [SVC] veins
Functions of heart:
Pumping oxygenated blood to the body parts.
Pumping nutrients and other vital substances
Receiving deoxygenated blood and carrying metabolic waste products from the body
Pumping deoxygenated blood to the lungs for oxygenation.
Maintaining blood pressure.
Conduction system
The electrical conduction system that controls the heart rate.
This system generates electrical impulses and conducts them throughout the muscle of the heart, stimulating the heart to contract and pump blood.
The electrical pulses determine the order in which the chambers contract & the heart rate
Conductive system consist of:
SA Node
AV Node
Bundle of his or His Bundles – bundle of branches
( right and left)
4. Purkinje fibres
Sinoatrial node (SA) : also known as the pace maker of the heart and Located in the upper wall of the right atrium
Made up of both muscle and nervous tissue
Here the electrical impulse begins
Atrioventricular (AV) node:
located between the atria and ventricles of the heart
The electrical impulse is carried fr
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Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
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Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
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New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
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STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
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2. Cardiovascular System
It is the network of organs and elastic tubes trough which
blood flows as it carries oxygen and nutrients to all parts
of the body
Includes: The Heart & Blood vessels
Has two parts
The Pulmonary Circulation: transports deoxygenated blood
between the heart and lungs
The Systemic Circulation: transports oxygenated blood away from
the heart to tissues and cells, and returns oxygen back to the heart
5. • Carry blood away from the heart.
• “Branch” or “diverge” as they form smaller and smaller
division.
• They have Thick-walls to withstand pressure produced
when heart pushes blood into the arteries. Elastic fibers
(tunica media) allow the artery to stretch under pressure.
• Aorta: Largest artery vessels
• Arterioles: Smallest artery vessel that connect arteries to
capillaries
Pulmonary circulation
• Carry poor oxygenated blood from heart to the lungs.
Systemic circulation
• Carry rich oxygenated blood from heart to the organs and
tissues.
6. • Carry blood toward the heart.
• “Join” or “merge” into successfully larger vessels approaching
the heart.
• Have valves which act to keep the unidirectional flow blood.
• Body muscles surround the veins so that when the muscles
contract, the veins are squeeze and the blood been pushed
along the vessels.
• Vena cava: SVC (blood from upper body) & IVC (blood from
lower body) are the biggest veins.
• Venules: Smallest vein vessels that connect veins to
capillaries
Pulmonary circulation
• Carry rich oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart
Systemic circulation
• Carry poor oxygenated blood from other parts of body to the
heart
7. • Connect arteries and veins.
• Contact tissue cells and directly serve cellular needs.
• Exchange between blood and tissue cells occurs in them.
• Exchange:
• Drop off oxygen and nutrients from heart by arteries
• Pick up CO2 and other waste products and send to heart
by veins.
• Walls are one cell thick and very narrow.
8. The Heart
It Is made up of cardiac muscle fibers
Average beat is 60-100 bpm,pumping 8,000 liters each day.
Each time the cardiac muscle contracts, blood pushes through
the body within blood vessels
About the size of a fist, shaped like an up-side-down pear.
Located
In the mediastinum between the lungs
On the superior surface of diaphragm
⅔’s of it lies to the left of the midsternal line
Anterior to the vertebral column, posterior to the sternum
• It is approximately the size of your fist weighing aroundIt is approximately the size of your fist weighing around
250-300 grams covered in the pericardium.250-300 grams covered in the pericardium.
• It helps in the transport of Nutrients, waste pdts and Regulate
Temp.,Water balance ,Acid-Base Balance & Immunity.
10. PERICARDIUM :Coverings of the Heart
Pericardium is a double-layered sac around
the heart.
Confines heart to the mediastinum
Allows sufficient freedom of movement.
Protects and anchors the heart
Allows the heart to move in a friction-free
environment.
Layers of pericardium are
fibrous pericardium
serous pericardium
parietal layer
visceral layer or epicardium
Serous pericardium and epicardium are separated by
the fluid-filled cavity called the pericardial cavity.
12. Layers of the Heart Wall
Epicardium – visceralEpicardium – visceral
pericardiumpericardium
Myocardium – cardiacMyocardium – cardiac
muscle layer formingmuscle layer forming
the bulk of the heartthe bulk of the heart
Endocardium –Endocardium –
endothelial layer of theendothelial layer of the
inner myocardialinner myocardial
surfacesurface
13. • External markings
• Apex - pointed inferior region
• Base - upper region
• Coronary sulcus
• Indentation that separates atria from ventricles
• Anterior and posterior interventricular sulcus
• Separates right and left ventricles
FEATURES
15. Atria of the Heart
Atria - receiving chambers of the heart
Receive venous blood returning to heart
Separated by an interatrial septum (wall)
Foramen ovale - opening in interatrial septum in fetus
Fossa ovalis - remnant of foramen ovale
Each atrium has a protruding auricle
They pump blood into ventricles
Blood enters right atria from superior and
inferior venae cavae and coronary sinus
Blood enters left atria from pulmonary
veins
17. Ventricles of the Heart
Ventricles are the discharging chambers of the heart
Papillary muscles and trabeculae carneae muscles mark
ventricular walls
Separated by an interventricular septum
Contains components of the conduction system
Right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary trunk and it is
a much low pressure system requiring less energy output by
ventricle
Left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta
Has thicker(3 times) myocardium due to greater work load
18. Heart valves ensure unidirectional blood flow
through the heart
They are 2 Atrio-ventricular valves & 2
HEART VALVES
19. Atrioventricular (AV) valves lie between the atria and the
ventricles
R-AV valve = tricuspid valve
L-AV valve = bicuspid or mitral valve
AV valves prevent backflow of blood into the atria when
ventricles contract
Chordae tendineae anchor AV valves to papillary
muscles of ventricle wall
Semilunar valves prevent backflow of blood into the
ventricles
Aortic semilunar valve lies between the left ventricle and the
aorta
Pulmonary semilunar valve lies between the right ventricle and
pulmonary trunk
Fibrous Skeleton Surrounds all four valves Composed of
dense connective tissue. They anchors valve cusps and
prevents over dilation of valve openings.
24. SYSTOLE DIASTOLE
CARDIAC CYCLE
1) Isometric contraction
0.05 seconds
2) Ejection period
0.22seconds
Total 0.27 seconds
1.Protodiastole 0.04 sec.
2.Isometric relaxation 0.08s
3.Rapid filling 0.11s
4.Slow filling 0.19s
5.Last rapid filling 0.11s
Total 0.53 seconds
Cardiac cycle is total 0.8seconds
25. SYSTOLE-0.27s.
Atria contract and small amount of blood enters
ventricles.
ISOMETRIC CONTRACTION-0.5s.
All valves closed. Ventricles undergo isometric
contraction and pressure in the ventricles is
increased
EJECTION PERIOD-0.22s
Semilunar valves are opened ventricles contracts
and blood is ejected out
DIASTOLE-0.53S.
RAPID AND SLOW FILLING-0.3s.
Atrioventricular valves are opened. Ventricles
undergo isometric relaxation and pressure in
ventricles is reduced.
ISOMETRIC RELAXATION-0.08s.
All valves are closed and pressure in the
ventricles is reduced.
PROTODIASTOLE-0.04s.
First stage of diastole. The semilunar valves are
closed at the end of this period.
26. HEART SOUNDSHEART SOUNDS
PRODUCED FROM BLOODPRODUCED FROM BLOOD
TURBULENCE CAUSED BY CLOSINGTURBULENCE CAUSED BY CLOSING
OF HEART VALVES.OF HEART VALVES.
S1 – ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVES1 – ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVE
CLOSURECLOSURE
S2 – SEMILUNAR VALVE CLOSURES2 – SEMILUNAR VALVE CLOSURE
S3 – RAPID VENTRICULAR FILLINGS3 – RAPID VENTRICULAR FILLING
S4 – ATRIAL SYSTOLES4 – ATRIAL SYSTOLE
27. THE CONDUCTION SYSTEM
Formed by the modified cardiac
muscle fibers. They conduct
impulses from SA node to ventricles
These fibers have 2 important
function
Act as pace maker
Form the conduction system
SA node would initiates action
potential about every 0.6 sec or 100
times/min.
the ANS alters the strength and
timing of heart beats.
30. ARTERIAL SUPPLY
• The cardiac muscle is supplied by two coronary
arteries the right and left coronary arteries.
• Both arteries arises from the sinuses behind the
cusps of the aortic valves at the root of the aorta.
31. RT. CORONARY ARTERY
Smaller than left coronary artery.
•Arises from anterior coronary sinus.
COURSE:
•Emerges from the surface of heart between pulmonary
trunk and right auricle.
•Winds round the inferior border to reach the
diaphragmatic surface to reach the posterior inter-
ventricular groove.
•Terminates by anastomising with left
coronary artery
BRANCHES
•Large Branches
• marginal
• Post-inter ventricular
•Small branches:
• Right atrial
• Infundibular
• Nodal – in 60% cases
• Terminal
32. Anterior schematic diagram of heart shows course of dominant right coronary artery and its
tributaries. AV = atrioventricular, PDA = posterior descending artery, RCA = right coronary artery,
RV = right ventricular, SA = sinoatrial
33. AREAS OF DISTRIBUTION
•Right atrium
•Ventricles
• Greater part of right ventricle, except the
area adjoining the anterior inter-ventricular
groove.
• A small part of the left ventricle adjoining
the posterior interventricular groove.
•Posterior part or the inter-ventricular septum
•Whole of the conducting system of the heart
except a part of the left branch of AV bundle.
The SA node is supplied by left coronary
artery in 40% cases
34. LEFT CORONARY ARTERY
Larger than the right coronary artery.
•Arises from left posterior aortic sinus.
COURSE
•Runs forward and to the left and emerges
between the pulmonary trunk and the left
auricle.
•Here the anterior inter-ventricular branch is
given .
•The further continuation of the left coronary
artery is sometimes called the circumflex
artery.
•After giving off the anterior inter ventricular
branch it runs into the left anterior coronary
sulcus.
•It winds around the left border and near
posterior inter ventricular groove it terminates
by anastomosing with the right coronary
artery.
35. BRANCHES:
•Large Branches:
• Anterior interventricular
• Branch to the diaphragmatic surface of the left
ventricle
•Small Branches:
― Left atrial
― Pulmonary
― Terminal
36. Dominant left coronary artery anatomy. Left anterior oblique schematic diagram of dominant left
coronary artery anatomy, including left anterior descending artery and left circumflex artery
tributaries, is shown. AVGA = atrio ventricular groove artery, PDA = posterior descending artery.
37. Areas of distribution
•Left atrium
•Ventricles:
−Greater part of left ventricle, except the area
adjoing the posterior interventricular groove.
−A small part of right ventricle adjoining the anterior
interventricular groove.
•Anterior part of interventricular septum.
•Part of left branch of AV bundle
38. COLLATERAL CIRCULATION
• Cardiac anatomosis: The two coronary arteries
anastomose in the myocardium.
• Extra cardiac anastomosis: The coronary arteries
anastomose with the
• Vasa vasorum of the aorta,
• Vasa vasorum of pulmonary arteries,
• Internal thoracic arteries
• The bronchial arteries
• Phrenic arteries.
• These channels open up in the emergencies when the
coronary arteries are blocked.
39. CORONARY ARTERY DOMINANCE
•The artery that gives the posterior interventricular artery determines
the coronary dominance.
•If the posterior interventricular artery is supplied by the right coronary
artery (RCA), then the coronary circulation can be classified as "right-
dominant".
•If the posterior interventricular artery is supplied by the circumflex
artery (CX), a branch of the left artery, then the coronary circulation can
be classified as "left-dominant".
•If the posterior interventricular artery is supplied by both the right
coronary artery (RCA) and the circumflex artery, then the coronary
circulation can be classified as "co-dominant".
40. VENOUS DRAINAGE OF THE HEART
• The venous drainage of the
heart is by three means:
• Coronary sinus.
• Anterior cardiac veins
• Venae Cordis minimae.
41. CORONARY SINUS
•This is the largest of vein of heart situated in the left
posterior coronary sulcus. It is about 3 cm long and ends
by opening into the posterior wall of the right atrium.
•Its tributaries are:
−Great cardiac vein: It enters the left end of the
coronary sinus.
−Middle cardiac vein: It accompanies the
posterior inter ventricular artery and joins the
right end of the coronary sinus.
−Small cardiac vein: It accompanies the right
coronary artery and joins the right end of the
coronary sinus.
42. −Posterior vein of left ventricle: It runs on the
diaphragmatic surface of the left ventricle and ends in
the middle of the coronary sinus.
−Oblique vein of left atrium : It runs on the posterior
surface of the left atrium, joins the left end of
coronary sinus and develops from the left common
cardinal vein.
−The right marginal vein: It accompanies the marginal
branch of the right coronary artery.
43. ANTERIOR CARDIAC VEIN
3 to 4 small veins run on the anterior wall of
the right ventricle, open directly into the right atrium.
VENAE CORDIS MINIMAE
(also called smallest cardiac veins, venae cardiae
minimae, or Thebesian veins)
•Numerous small veins present in all 4 chambers of
heart which open directly into the cavities.
•The Thebesian venous network is considered an
alternative (secondary) pathway of venous drainage
of the myocardium. It is named after German
anatomist Adam Christian Thebesius , who
described them.
44. PECULIARITIES OF COR.CIRCULATION
• Blood Flow during diastole
• End arteries
• High capillary density
• Anatomical anastomosis
• The coronary vessels are susceptible to degeneration and
atherosclerosis.
• There is evident regional distribution: The subendocardial myocardial
layer in the left ventricle receives less blood, due to more myocardial
compression (but this is normally compensated during diastoles by
V.D). However, this renders this area more liable to ischemia and
infarction.
• The resting coronary blood flow is about 225 ml/min., which is
about 0.7 – 0.8 ml/gm of heart muscle, or 4- 5 % of the total
cardiac output. In severe muscular exercise, the work of the
heart increased and the CBF may be increased up to 2 liters/
minute.
46. MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION & ECG in MI
MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION means necrosis of a part of the
myocardium due to
− Severe & prolonged ischemia due to narrowing of the coronary arteries.
− Occlusion of one of the coronary arteries or its branches by coronary
thrombosis → severe ischemia.
Myocardial Infarction produces also chest pain which is more
severe than that of angina and it cannot be relieved by rest or
coronary VD drugs.
ECG is the technique by which the electrical activities of the
heart is recorded for diagnosing various conditions.
This technique was discovered by Dutch physiologist
Einthoven William and he is considered as father of ECG.
47. The machine receives impulses by placing electrodes from the
body Electrocardiograph or an ECG machine amplifies the
electrical signals produced by the heart and records these
signals on a moving ECG paper.
They are placed on the right arm , left arm and left leg the
heart is said to be in the center of this imaginary equilateral
triangle called EINTHOVEN’S Triangle.
BIPOLAR LEADS /Standard limb leads- Has three standard
limb leads .
1. Lead I – right arm (-ve) to left arm(+ve)
2. Lead II – right arm (-ve) to left leg (+ve)
3. Lead III – left arm (-ve) to left leg (+ve)
Unipolar leads
I. Unipolar limb leads/ Augmented limb leads
II. Unipolar chest leads/ Precardial leads
E C G
48. The 12-Leads
The 12-leads include:
3 Limb leads
(I, II, III)
3 Augmented leads3 Augmented leads
(aVR, aVL, aVF)(aVR, aVL, aVF)
6 Precordial leads
(V1- V6)
The machine receives impulses by placing electrodes on the body
49. ECG Basics
How to Analyze a Rhythm
Normal Sinus Rhythm
Heart Arrhythmias
Diagnosing a Myocardial Infarction
Advanced 12-Lead Interpretation
50. Basic laws of ECG
If the impulse(vector/current) moving towards the
positive pole of a lead it will create a +ve
deflection in that lead
51. Law of Continuation
• If the impulse (vector/current) is moving away from
the positive pole (towards negative pole) it will
create a negative deflection in that lead
52. Precceds QRS complex
Amplitude 2- 2.5 mm
Duration 0.06- 0.11
Configuration :usually rounded
and upright
L 1 - + ve (Upright
L 2 - +ve
L3 - Usually +ve
AVR - Usually – ve
AVL - Usually +ve
AVF - +ve
VI - Biphasic (variable)
V1- V6- +ve
55. Impulse Conduction & the ECG
Sino atrial node
AV node
Bundle of His
Bundle Branches
Purkinje fibers
56. The “PQRST”
P wave - Atrial depolarization
• T wave – Ventricular repolarization
• QRS – Ventricular depolarization
57. The PR Interval
Atrial depolarization
+
delay in AV junction
(AV node/Bundle of His)
(delay allows time for the atria to
contract before the ventricles
contract)
58. Pacemakers of the Heart
SA Node - Dominant pacemaker with an intrinsic rate of 60 - 100
beats/minute.
AV Node - Back-up pacemaker with an intrinsic rate of 40 - 60
beats/minute.
Ventricular cells - Back-up pacemaker with an intrinsic rate of 20
- 45 bpm.
59. The ECG Paper
Horizontally
One small box - 0.04 s
One large box - 0.20 s
Vertically
One large box - 0.5 mV
60. The ECG Paper (cont)
Every 3 seconds (15 large boxes) is marked by a vertical line.
This helps when calculating the heart rate.
NOTE: the following strips are not marked but all are 6 seconds
long.
3 sec 3 sec
63. Step 2: Determine regularity
Look at the R-R distances (using a caliper or
markings on a pen or paper).
Regular (are they equidistant apart)?
Occasionally irregular? Regularly irregular?
Irregularly irregular?
Interpretation? Regular
R R
64. Step 3: Assess the P waves
Normal P waves with 1 P
wave for every QRS
69. ST Elevation
One way to
diagnose an
acute MI is to
look for
elevation of the
ST segment.
70. ST Elevation (cont)
Elevation of the ST segment
(greater than 1 small box) in
2 leads is consistent with a
myocardial infarction.
71. ST Elevation Infarction
Here’s a diagram depicting an evolving infarction:
A. Normal ECG prior to MI
B. Ischemia from coronary artery occlusion results
in ST depression (not shown) and peaked T-
waves
C. Infarction from ongoing ischemia results in
marked ST elevation
D/E. Ongoing infarction with appearance of
pathologic Q-waves and T-wave inversion
F. Fibrosis (months later) with persistent Q- waves,
but normal ST segment and T- waves
72. Locations of MI
Now that you know where to look for an anterior wall myocardial infarction
let’s look at how you would determine if the MI involves the lateral wall or
the inferior wall of the heart.
73. How to determine the
location of the Infarction.
Using the 12 leads of the ECG
74. Anterior Myocardial Infarction
If you see changes in leads V1 - V4 that
are consistent with a myocardial
infarction, you can conclude that it is an
anterior wall myocardial infarction.
75. i.e., the 12-leads of the ECG look at different portions of
the heart. The limb and augmented leads “see” electrical
activity moving inferiorly (II, III and aVF ), to the left (I,
aVL ) and to the right ( aVR ). Whereas, the precordial
leads “see” electrical activity in the posterior to anterior
direction.
Limb Leads Augmented Leads Precordial Leads
76. Anterior MI
Remember the anterior portion of the heart is
best viewed using leads V1- V4.
Limb Leads Augmented Leads Precordial Leads
77. Antero- Septal Wall
V1, V2
Along sternal borders
I
II
III
aVR
aVL
aVF
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
(LAD)
78. Anterior Wall
V3, V4
Left anterior chest
I
II
III
aVR
aVL
aVF
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
(LAD)
These leads are positioned one on each side of the sternum. From that placement they “look through” the right ventricle and “see” the septal wall.
NOTE: The septum is left ventricular tissue.
The positive electrode for these two leads is placed on the anterior wall of the left chest. This correlates to their designation as anterior leads.
Leads I and aVL share the positive electrode on the left arm.
From the perspective of the left arm, these leads “see” the lateral wall of the left ventricle.
V5 and V6 are positioned on the lateral wall of the left chest which is why these two leads also “see” the lateral wall of the left ventricle.
Portions of the lateral wall are shown here from both the anterior and posterior perspective.
Leads I, aVL, V5 and V6 “see” the lateral wall. When ST segment elevation is seen in these leads, consider a lateral wall infarction.
NOTE: This is a posterior view of the heart.
The portion of the heart that rests on the diaphragm is called the “inferior wall”.
Leads II, III, and aVF, “look” up and see the inferior wall.
When ST segment elevation is noted in II, III and aVF, suspect an inferior infarction.