A closed system of the heart and blood vessels
The heart pumps blood
Blood vessels allow blood to circulate to all parts of the body
The function of the cardiovascular system is to deliver oxygen and nutrients and to remove carbon dioxide and other waste products
The heart contributes to homeostasis by pumping blood through blood vessels to the tissues of the body to deliver oxygen and nutrients and remove wastes.
Blood to reach body cells and exchange materials with them, it must be pumped continuously by the heart through the body’s blood vessels.
The heart beats about 100,000 times every day, which adds up to about 35 million beats in a year, and approximately 2.5 billion times in an average lifetime.
The left side of the heart pumps blood through an estimated 100,000 km (60,000 mi) of blood vessels, which is equivalent to traveling around the earth’s equator about three times.
The right side of the heart pumps blood through the lungs, enabling blood to pick up oxygen and unload carbon dioxide.
The appendicular skeleton consists of the
shoulder girdle with the upper limbs and the
pelvic girdle with the lower limbs
Shoulder girdle and upper limb:
Each shoulder girdle consists of:
•1 clavicle
•1 scapula.
Each upper limb consists of the following bones:
1 humerus, 1 radius, 1 ulna, 8 carpal bones, 5 metacarpal bones and 14 phalanges.
The muscular system is composed of specialized cells called muscle fibers. Their predominant function is contractibility. Muscles, attached to bones or internal organs and blood vessels, are responsible for movement. Nearly all movement in the body is the result of muscle contraction.
The outer ear
- pinna
- ear canal
- eardrum
2. The middle ear
- three ossicle bones;
(malleus, incus, stapes)
- two major muscles
(stapedial muscle, tensor
tympani)
- Eustachian tube
3. The inner ear
- cochlea (hearing)
- vestibular system (balance)
4. The central auditory system• PINNA: Important for sound
gathering and localization of
sound
• EAR CANAL or AUDITORY
MEATUS: important for
sound selection
• EARDRUM or TYMPANIC
MEMBRANE:
vibrates in response to
sound/pressure chan
The appendicular skeleton consists of the
shoulder girdle with the upper limbs and the
pelvic girdle with the lower limbs
Shoulder girdle and upper limb:
Each shoulder girdle consists of:
•1 clavicle
•1 scapula.
Each upper limb consists of the following bones:
1 humerus, 1 radius, 1 ulna, 8 carpal bones, 5 metacarpal bones and 14 phalanges.
The muscular system is composed of specialized cells called muscle fibers. Their predominant function is contractibility. Muscles, attached to bones or internal organs and blood vessels, are responsible for movement. Nearly all movement in the body is the result of muscle contraction.
The outer ear
- pinna
- ear canal
- eardrum
2. The middle ear
- three ossicle bones;
(malleus, incus, stapes)
- two major muscles
(stapedial muscle, tensor
tympani)
- Eustachian tube
3. The inner ear
- cochlea (hearing)
- vestibular system (balance)
4. The central auditory system• PINNA: Important for sound
gathering and localization of
sound
• EAR CANAL or AUDITORY
MEATUS: important for
sound selection
• EARDRUM or TYMPANIC
MEMBRANE:
vibrates in response to
sound/pressure chan
Skeletal system. anatomy and physiology of skeletal system. appendicular skel...mamtabisht10
SKELETAL SYSTEM
bones, cartilage and ligaments are tightly joined to form a strong, flexible framework called skeletal system
anatomy and physiology of axial and appendicular skeletal system
Axial Skeleton: The axial skeleton includes the skull, spine, ribs and sternum.
Appendicular Skeleton:
The appendicular skeleton includes the appendages of the body, which are the shoulders, arms, hips, and legs.
The blood vessels are the components of the circulatory system that transport blood throughout the human body. These vessels transport blood cells, nutrients, and oxygen to the tissues of the body. They also take waste and carbon dioxide away from the tissues.
Human cardiovascular system, organ system that conveys blood through vessels to and from all parts of the body, carrying nutrients and oxygen to tissues and removing carbon dioxide and other wastes. It is a closed tubular system in which the blood is propelled by a muscular heart. Two circuits, the pulmonary and the systemic, consist of arterial, capillary, and venous components.
The primary function of the heart is to serve as a muscular pump propelling blood into and through vessels to and from all parts of the body. The arteries, which receive this blood at high pressure and velocity and conduct it throughout the body, have thick walls that are composed of elastic fibrous tissue and muscle cells. The arterial tree—the branching system of arteries—terminates in short, narrow, muscular vessels called arterioles, from which blood enters simple endothelial tubes (i.e., tubes formed of endothelial, or lining, cells) known as capillaries. These thin, microscopic capillaries are permeable to vital cellular nutrients and waste products that they receive and distribute. From the capillaries, the blood, now depleted of oxygen and burdened with waste products, moving more slowly and under low pressure, enters small vessels called venules that converge to form veins, ultimately guiding the blood on its way back to the heart.
Skeletal system. anatomy and physiology of skeletal system. appendicular skel...mamtabisht10
SKELETAL SYSTEM
bones, cartilage and ligaments are tightly joined to form a strong, flexible framework called skeletal system
anatomy and physiology of axial and appendicular skeletal system
Axial Skeleton: The axial skeleton includes the skull, spine, ribs and sternum.
Appendicular Skeleton:
The appendicular skeleton includes the appendages of the body, which are the shoulders, arms, hips, and legs.
The blood vessels are the components of the circulatory system that transport blood throughout the human body. These vessels transport blood cells, nutrients, and oxygen to the tissues of the body. They also take waste and carbon dioxide away from the tissues.
Human cardiovascular system, organ system that conveys blood through vessels to and from all parts of the body, carrying nutrients and oxygen to tissues and removing carbon dioxide and other wastes. It is a closed tubular system in which the blood is propelled by a muscular heart. Two circuits, the pulmonary and the systemic, consist of arterial, capillary, and venous components.
The primary function of the heart is to serve as a muscular pump propelling blood into and through vessels to and from all parts of the body. The arteries, which receive this blood at high pressure and velocity and conduct it throughout the body, have thick walls that are composed of elastic fibrous tissue and muscle cells. The arterial tree—the branching system of arteries—terminates in short, narrow, muscular vessels called arterioles, from which blood enters simple endothelial tubes (i.e., tubes formed of endothelial, or lining, cells) known as capillaries. These thin, microscopic capillaries are permeable to vital cellular nutrients and waste products that they receive and distribute. From the capillaries, the blood, now depleted of oxygen and burdened with waste products, moving more slowly and under low pressure, enters small vessels called venules that converge to form veins, ultimately guiding the blood on its way back to the heart.
The circulatory system is an organ system that passes nutrients (such as amino acids, electrolytes and lymph), gases, hormones, blood cells, etc. to and from cells in the body to help fight diseases and help stabilize body temperature and pH to maintain homeostasis.
Welcome to "Anatomy of the Heart," an enlightening presentation that takes you on a captivating journey through the intricate structure of the human heart.
A powerpoint designed for the South African Life Sciences syllabus for grade 11. Includes information about blood and it's transportation, the human heart, the lymph system etc. Hope it helps :)
Skin Pigmentation disorders and its management .pptxJagruti Marathe
Some of the most common are pigmented birthmarks, macular stains, hemangiomas, port wine stains, while disorders include albinism, melasma, vitiligo and pigmentation loss due to skin damage. Birthmarks and other skin pigmentation (coloration) disorders affect many people.
Skin pigmentation disorders are conditions that affect the color of the skin. Some common types of skin pigmentation disorders include:
Pigmented birthmarks
Macular stains
Hemangiomas
Port wine stains
Albinism
Melasma
Vitiligo
Skin pigment loss due to sun damage
Other factors that can affect skin pigmentation include: Pregnancy, Addison's disease, Sun exposure.
Some treatments for skin pigmentation disorders include:
Over-the-counter or prescription creams
Topical pimecrolimus or tacrolimus
Light therapy
Melanocytes in the basal epidermis control skin pigmentation through synthesis of melanin, a complex process thought to be primarily regulated by alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (αMSH)
Light therapy exposes your skin to a type of ultraviolet (UV) light that can restore your natural skin color. If a large area of your body needs treatment, your dermatologist may prescribe a type of light therapy called phototherapy. During phototherapy, you expose your skin to UV light for a specific amount of time.
Dermatological testing as perBISpecification.pptxJagruti Marathe
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is the National Standard Body of India.
BIS is responsible for the harmonious development of the activities of standardization, marking and quality certification of goods and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
BIS through its core activities of standardization and conformity assessment, has been benefiting the national economy by providing safe, reliable and quality goods; minimizing health hazards to consumers; protecting the environment, promoting exports and imports substitute; controlling over proliferation of varieties etc.
Dermatological testing assesses a product's potential to cause skin irritation or allergic reactions. A product is considered dermatologically tested if a qualified dermatologist supervises the testing and verifies the results. Some dermatological tests include: Repeat-insult patch testing: Stability testing: Cosmetics toxicology test:
Cosmetic pharmacology refers to the use of drugs to improve cognition in normal healthy individuals, for the purpose of enhancement rather than treatment of a formal pathology.
Some case reports with the antidepressant Prozac indicated that patients seemed "better than well," and authors hypothesized that this effect might be observed in individuals not afflicted with psychiatric disorders.
Following these case reports much controversy arose over the veracity and ethics of the cosmetic use of these antidepressants.
Opponents of cosmetic pharmacology state that such drug use is unethical and dangerous, and that the concept of cosmetic pharmacology is a manifestation of naive consumerism resulting from pharmaceutical marketing campaigns.
Proponents state that drugs used to treat many pathologies are just as dangerous, it is an individual's (rather than government's, or physician's) decision whether to use a drug for cosmetic purposes, and there are few if any legitimate ethical qualms with cosmetic pharmacology.
Thousands of metabolic processes in myriad body cells produce hundreds of waste products.
The urinary system removes them by filtering and cleansing the blood as it passes through the kidneys.
Another vital function is the regulation of the volume, acidity, salinity, concentration, and chemical composition of blood, lymph, and other body fluids. Under hormonal control, the kidneys continually monitor what they release into the urine to maintain a healthy chemical balance.
Nervous System
Your nervous system is your body’s command center. Originating from your brain, it controls your movements, thoughts and automatic responses to the world around you. It also controls other body systems and processes, such as digestion, breathing and sexual development (puberty). Diseases, accidents, toxins and the natural aging process can damage your nervous system.
nervous system uses specialized cells called neurons to send signals, or messages, all over your body. These electrical signals travel between your brain, skin, organs, glands and muscles.
The messages help you move your limbs and feel sensations, such as pain. Your eyes, ears, tongue, nose and the nerves all over your body take in information about your environment. Then nerves carry that data to and from your brain.
Different kinds of neurons send different signals. Motor neurons tell your muscles to move. Sensory neurons take information from your senses and send signals to your brain. Other types of neurons control the things your body does automatically, like breathing, shivering, having a regular heartbeat and digesting food.
ANATOMY :The nervous system has two main parts. Each part contains billions of cells called neurons, or nerve cells. These special cells send and receive electrical signals through your body to tell it what to do.
The main parts of the nervous system are:
Central nervous system (CNS): Your brain and spinal cord make up your CNS. Your brain uses your nerves to send messages to the rest of your body. Each nerve has a protective outer layer called myelin. Myelin insulates the nerve and helps the messages get through.
Peripheral nervous system: Your peripheral nervous system consists of many nerves that branch out from your CNS all over your body. This system relays information from your brain and spinal cord to your organs, arms, legs, fingers and toes. Your peripheral nervous system contains your:
Somatic nervous system, which guides your voluntary movements.
Autonomic nervous system, which controls the activities you do without thinking about them.
housands of disorders and conditions can affect your nerves. An injured nerve has trouble sending a message. Sometimes it’s so damaged that it can’t send or receive a message at all. Nerve injury can cause numbness, a pins-and-needles feeling or pain. It may be difficult or impossible for you to move the area that’s injured.
Skin is the largest organ in the body and covers the body's entire external surface. It is made up of three layers, the epidermis, dermis, and the hypodermis, all three of which vary significantly in their anatomy and function. The skin's structure is made up of an intricate network which serves as the body’s initial barrier against pathogens, UV light, and chemicals, and mechanical injury. It also regulates temperature and the amount of water released into the environment. This article discusses the relevant anatomical structures of the skin’s epidermal layer, its structure, function, embryology, vascular supply, innervation, surgical considerations, and clinical relevance.
Skin Thickness
The thickness of each layer of the skin varies depending on body region and categorized based on the thickness of the epidermal and dermal layers. Hairless skin found in the palms of the hands and soles of the feet is thickest because the epidermis contains an extra layer, the stratum lucidum. The upper back is considered thickest based on the thickness of the dermis, but it is considered “thin skin” histologically because the epidermal thickness lacks the stratum lucidum layer and is thinner than hairless skin.
Layers of Epidermis
The layers of the epidermis include the stratum basale (the deepest portion of the epidermis), stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum (the most superficial portion of the epidermis).
Stratum basale, also known as stratum germinativum, is the deepest layer, separated from the dermis by the basement membrane (basal lamina) and attached to the basement membrane by hemidesmosomes. The cells found in this layer are cuboidal to columnar mitotically active stem cells that are constantly producing keratinocytes. This layer also contains melanocytes.
Stratum spinosum, 8-10 cell layers, also known as the prickle cell layer contains irregular, polyhedral cells with cytoplasmic processes, sometimes called “spines”, that extend outward and contact neighboring cells by desmosomes. Dendritic cells can be found in this layer.
Stratum granulosum, 3-5 cell layers, contains diamond shaped cells with keratohyalin granules and lamellar granules. Keratohyalin granules contain keratin precursors that eventually aggregate, crosslink, and form bundles. The lamellar granules contain the glycolipids that get secreted to the surface of the cells and function as a glue, keeping the cells stuck together.
Stratum lucidum, 2-3 cell layers, present in thicker skin found in the palms and soles, is a thin clear layer consisting of eleidin which is a transformation product of keratohyalin.
Stratum corneum, 20-30 cell layers, is the uppermost layer, made up of keratin and horny scales made up of dead keratinocytes, known as anucleate squamous cells. This is the layer which varies most in thickness, especially in callused skin. Within this layer, the dead keratinocytes secrete defensins which are part of our first immune
Definition :
Tissue is a group of cells that have similar structure and that function together as a unit. A nonliving material, called the intercellular matrix, fills the spaces between the cells.
Histology (his′-TOL-oˉ-jē; histo- = tissue; logy = study of) is the science that deals with the study of tissues.
A pathologist (pa-THOL-oˉ - jist; patho- = disease) is a physician who examines cells and tissues to help other physicians make accurate diagnoses.
1. Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces and lines hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts; it also forms glands. This tissue allows the body to interact with both its internal and external environments.
2. Connective tissue protects and supports the body and its organs. Various types of connective tissues bind organs together, store energy reserves as fat, and help provide the body with immunity to disease-causing organisms.
3. Muscular tissue is composed of cells specialized for contraction and generation of force. In the process, muscular tissue generates heat that warms the body.
4. Nervous tissue detects changes in a variety of conditions inside and outside the body and responds by generating electrical signals called nerve action potentials (nerve impulses) that activate muscular contractions and glandular secretions.
In biology, cell signaling or cell communication is the ability of a cell to receive, process, and transmit signals with its environment and with itself.
ell signaling is a fundamental property of all cellular life in prokaryotes and eukaryotes .
Signals that originate from outside a cell (or extracellular signals) can be physical agents like mechanical pressure, voltage, temperature, light, or chemical signals (e.g., small molecules, peptides, or gas).Signaling molecules can be synthesized from various biosynthetic pathways and released through passive or active transports, or even from cell damage.
Receptors play a key role in cell signaling as they are able to detect chemical signals or physical stimuli.
Receptors are generally proteins located on the cell surface or within the interior of the cell such as the cytoplasm, organelles, and nucleus.
Cell surface receptors usually bind with extracellular signals (or ligands), which causes a conformational change in the receptor that leads it to initiate enzymic activity, or to open or close ion channel activity. Some receptors do not contain enzymatic or channel-like domains but are instead linked to enzymes or transporters.
Other receptors like nuclear receptors have a different mechanism such as changing their DNA binding proper properties and cellular localization to the nucleus.
Structure and functions of cell, transport across cell membrane, cell
division, cell junctions. General principles of cell communication,
the smallest unit that can live on its own and that makes up all living organisms and the tissues of the body
The basic tenets of the cell theory are as follows:
All living things are made up of one or more cells.
The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living things.
Cells come from pre-existing cells through the process of division.
All cells are the same in regard to chemical composition.
Cells also communicate with each other. Whether in plants, humans, or animals, they connect to create a solid, well formed organism. In humans, cells build tissues, tissues form organs, and organs work together to keep the body alive.
Experts estimate that there are around 200Trusted Source cell types in the human body.
Allergies are the result of your immune system's response to a substance. Immune responses can be mild, from coughing and a runny nose, to a life-threatening reaction know as anaphylaxis.
A person becomes allergic when their body develops antigens against a substance
The purpose of the immune system is to defend itself and keep microorganisms, such as certain bacteria, viruses, and fungi, out of the body, and to destroy any infectious microorganisms that do invade the body.
The immune system is made up of a complex and vital network of cells and organs that protect the body from infection.
The organs involved with the immune system are called the lymphoid organs. They affect growth, development, and the release of lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell).
The blood vessels and lymphatic vessels are important parts of the lymphoid organs.
They carry the lymphocytes to and from different areas in the body.
Each lymphoid organ plays a role in the production and activation of lymphocytes.
1. Toxicology, Scope of Pharmacology in Cosmetic Tech .pptxJagruti Marathe
Cosmetology is the study and application of beauty treatment. Branches of specialty include hairstyling, skin care, cosmetics, manicures/pedicures, non-permanent hair removal such as waxing and sugaring, and permanent hair removal processes such as electrology and intense pulsed light.
Alopecia areata is a disease that happens when the immune system attacks hair follicles and causes hair loss. Hair follicles are the structures in skin that form hair. While hair can be lost from any part of the body, alopecia areata usually affects the head and face
Trichotillomania (trik-o-til-o-MAY-nee-uh), also called hair-pulling disorder, is a mental disorder that involves recurrent, irresistible urges to pull out hair from your scalp, eyebrows or other areas of your body, despite trying to stop.
Hair pulling from the scalp often leaves patchy bald spots, which causes significant distress and can interfere with social or work functioning. People with trichotillomania may go to great lengths to disguise the loss of hair.
For some people, trichotillomania may be mild and generally manageable. For others, the compulsive urge to pull hair is overwhelming. Some treatment options have helped many people reduce their hair pulling or stop entirely.Symptoms
Signs and symptoms of trichotillomania often include:
Repeatedly pulling your hair out, typically from your scalp, eyebrows or eyelashes, but sometimes from other body areas, and sites may vary over time
An increasing sense of tension before pulling, or when you try to resist pulling
A sense of pleasure or relief after the hair is pulled
Noticeable hair loss, such as shortened hair or thinned or bald areas on the scalp or other areas of your body, including sparse or missing eyelashes or eyebrows
Preference for specific types of hair, rituals that accompany hair pulling or patterns of hair pulling
Biting, chewing or eating pulled-out hair
Playing with pulled-out hair or rubbing it across your lips or face
Repeatedly trying to stop pulling out your hair or trying to do it less often without success
Significant distress or problems at work, school or in social situations related to pulling out your hair
Many people who have trichotillomania also pick their skin, bite their nails or chew their lips. Sometimes pulling hairs from pets or dolls or from materials, such as clothes or blankets, may be a sign. Most people with trichotillomania pull hair in private and generally try to hide the disorder from others.
For people with trichotillomania, hair pulling can be:
Focused. Some people pull their hair intentionally to relieve tension or distress — for example, pulling hair out to get relief from the overwhelming urge to pull hair. Some people may develop elaborate rituals for pulling hair, such as finding just the right hair or biting pulled hairs.
Automatic. Some people pull their hair without even realizing they're doing it, such as when they're bored, reading or watching TV.
The same person may do both focused and automatic hair pulling, depending on the situation and mood. Certain positions or rituals may trigger hair pulling, such as resting your head on your hand or brushing your hair.
Trichotillomania can be related to emotions:
Negative emotions. For many people with trichotillomania, hair pulling is a way of dealing with negative or uncomfortable feelings, such as stress, anxiety, tension, boredom, loneliness, fatigue or frustration.
Positive feelings.
The earliest indications of the biological nature of viruses came from studies in 1892 by the Russian scientist Dmitry I. Ivanovsky and in 1898 by the Dutch scientist Martinus W. Beijerinck.
Beijerinck first surmised that the virus under study was a new kind of infectious agent, which he designated contagium vivum
fluidum, meaning that it was a live, reproducing organism that differed from other organisms.
Both of these investigators found that a disease of tobacco plants could be transmitted by an agent, later called tobacco mosaic virus, passing through a minute filter that would not allow the passage of bacteria.
Allergies are the result of your immune system's response to a substance. Immune responses can be mild, from coughing and a runny nose, to a life-threatening reaction know as anaphylaxis.
A person becomes allergic when their body develops antigens against a substance.
The purpose of the immune system is to defend itself and keep microorganisms, such as certain bacteria, viruses, and fungi, out of the body, and to destroy any infectious microorganisms that do invade the body.
The immune system is made up of a complex and vital network of cells and organs that protect the body from infection.
The organs involved with the immune system are called the lymphoid organs. They affect growth, development, and the release of lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell).
The blood vessels and lymphatic vessels are important parts of the lymphoid organs.
They carry the lymphocytes to and from different areas in the body.
Each lymphoid organ plays a role in the production and activation of lymphocytes.
Lymphoid organs include:
Adenoids (two glands located at the back of the nasal passages)
Appendix (a small tube that is connected to the large intestine)
Blood vessels (the arteries, veins, and capillaries through which blood flows)
Bone marrow (the soft, fatty tissue found in bone cavities)
Lymph nodes (small organs shaped like beans, which are located throughout the body and connect via the lymphatic vessels)
Lymphatic vessels (a network of channels throughout the body that carries lymphocytes to the lymphoid organs and bloodstream)
Peyer's patches (lymphoid tissue in the small intestine)
Spleen (a fist-sized organ located in the abdominal cavity)
Thymus (two lobes that join in front of the trachea behind the breast bone)
Tonsils (two oval masses in the back of the throat)
Lymphoid organs include:
Adenoids (two glands located at the back of the nasal passages)
Appendix (a small tube that is connected to the large intestine)
Blood vessels (the arteries, veins, and capillaries through which blood flows)
Bone marrow (the soft, fatty tissue found in bone cavities)
Lymph nodes (small organs shaped like beans, which are located throughout the body and connect via the lymphatic vessels)
Lymphatic vessels (a network of channels throughout the body that carries lymphocytes to the lymphoid organs and bloodstream)
Peyer's patches (lymphoid tissue in the small intestine)
Spleen (a fist-sized organ located in the abdominal cavity)
Thymus (two lobes that join in front of the trachea behind the breast bone)
Tonsils (two oval masses in the back of the throat)
Anaphylactic shock, also called anaphylaxis, is a severe, life-threatening reaction to certain allergens.
Body tissues may swell, including tissues in the throat.
Anaphylactic shock is also characterized by a sudden drop in blood pressure.
The following are the most common symptoms of anaphylactic shock.
However, each person may experience symptoms differently.
Bacteria are small single-celled organisms. Bacteria are found almost everywhere on Earth and are vital to the planet's ecosystems. Some species can live under extreme conditions of temperature and pressure. The human body is full of bacteria, and in fact is estimated to contain more bacterial cells than human cells.
Microbiology is the study of all living organisms that are too small to be visible with the naked eye. This includes bacteria, archaea, viruses, fungi, prions, protozoa and algae, collectively known as 'microbes'.
In biology, the classical doctrine of the nervous system determines that it is a highly complex part of an animal that coordinates its actions and sensory information by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body. nervous system is your body's command center. Originating from your brain, it controls your movements, thoughts and automatic responses to the world around you. It also controls other body systems and processes, such as digestion, breathing and sexual development (puberty).
Global launch of the Healthy Ageing and Prevention Index 2nd wave – alongside...ILC- UK
The Healthy Ageing and Prevention Index is an online tool created by ILC that ranks countries on six metrics including, life span, health span, work span, income, environmental performance, and happiness. The Index helps us understand how well countries have adapted to longevity and inform decision makers on what must be done to maximise the economic benefits that comes with living well for longer.
Alongside the 77th World Health Assembly in Geneva on 28 May 2024, we launched the second version of our Index, allowing us to track progress and give new insights into what needs to be done to keep populations healthier for longer.
The speakers included:
Professor Orazio Schillaci, Minister of Health, Italy
Dr Hans Groth, Chairman of the Board, World Demographic & Ageing Forum
Professor Ilona Kickbusch, Founder and Chair, Global Health Centre, Geneva Graduate Institute and co-chair, World Health Summit Council
Dr Natasha Azzopardi Muscat, Director, Country Health Policies and Systems Division, World Health Organisation EURO
Dr Marta Lomazzi, Executive Manager, World Federation of Public Health Associations
Dr Shyam Bishen, Head, Centre for Health and Healthcare and Member of the Executive Committee, World Economic Forum
Dr Karin Tegmark Wisell, Director General, Public Health Agency of Sweden
The Importance of Community Nursing Care.pdfAD Healthcare
NDIS and Community 24/7 Nursing Care is a specific type of support that may be provided under the NDIS for individuals with complex medical needs who require ongoing nursing care in a community setting, such as their home or a supported accommodation facility.
How many patients does case series should have In comparison to case reports.pdfpubrica101
Pubrica’s team of researchers and writers create scientific and medical research articles, which may be important resources for authors and practitioners. Pubrica medical writers assist you in creating and revising the introduction by alerting the reader to gaps in the chosen study subject. Our professionals understand the order in which the hypothesis topic is followed by the broad subject, the issue, and the backdrop.
https://pubrica.com/academy/case-study-or-series/how-many-patients-does-case-series-should-have-in-comparison-to-case-reports/
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V - ROLE OF PEADIATRIC NURSE.pdfSachin Sharma
Pediatric nurses play a vital role in the health and well-being of children. Their responsibilities are wide-ranging, and their objectives can be categorized into several key areas:
1. Direct Patient Care:
Objective: Provide comprehensive and compassionate care to infants, children, and adolescents in various healthcare settings (hospitals, clinics, etc.).
This includes tasks like:
Monitoring vital signs and physical condition.
Administering medications and treatments.
Performing procedures as directed by doctors.
Assisting with daily living activities (bathing, feeding).
Providing emotional support and pain management.
2. Health Promotion and Education:
Objective: Promote healthy behaviors and educate children, families, and communities about preventive healthcare.
This includes tasks like:
Administering vaccinations.
Providing education on nutrition, hygiene, and development.
Offering breastfeeding and childbirth support.
Counseling families on safety and injury prevention.
3. Collaboration and Advocacy:
Objective: Collaborate effectively with doctors, social workers, therapists, and other healthcare professionals to ensure coordinated care for children.
Objective: Advocate for the rights and best interests of their patients, especially when children cannot speak for themselves.
This includes tasks like:
Communicating effectively with healthcare teams.
Identifying and addressing potential risks to child welfare.
Educating families about their child's condition and treatment options.
4. Professional Development and Research:
Objective: Stay up-to-date on the latest advancements in pediatric healthcare through continuing education and research.
Objective: Contribute to improving the quality of care for children by participating in research initiatives.
This includes tasks like:
Attending workshops and conferences on pediatric nursing.
Participating in clinical trials related to child health.
Implementing evidence-based practices into their daily routines.
By fulfilling these objectives, pediatric nurses play a crucial role in ensuring the optimal health and well-being of children throughout all stages of their development.
Health Education on prevention of hypertensionRadhika kulvi
Hypertension is a chronic condition of concern due to its role in the causation of coronary heart diseases. Hypertension is a worldwide epidemic and important risk factor for coronary artery disease, stroke and renal diseases. Blood pressure is the force exerted by the blood against the walls of the blood vessels and is sufficient to maintain tissue perfusion during activity and rest. Hypertension is sustained elevation of BP. In adults, HTN exists when systolic blood pressure is equal to or greater than 140mmHg or diastolic BP is equal to or greater than 90mmHg. The
Empowering ACOs: Leveraging Quality Management Tools for MIPS and BeyondHealth Catalyst
Join us as we delve into the crucial realm of quality reporting for MSSP (Medicare Shared Savings Program) Accountable Care Organizations (ACOs).
In this session, we will explore how a robust quality management solution can empower your organization to meet regulatory requirements and improve processes for MIPS reporting and internal quality programs. Learn how our MeasureAble application enables compliance and fosters continuous improvement.
Navigating Challenges: Mental Health, Legislation, and the Prison System in B...Guillermo Rivera
This conference will delve into the intricate intersections between mental health, legal frameworks, and the prison system in Bolivia. It aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current challenges faced by mental health professionals working within the legislative and correctional landscapes. Topics of discussion will include the prevalence and impact of mental health issues among the incarcerated population, the effectiveness of existing mental health policies and legislation, and potential reforms to enhance the mental health support system within prisons.
Explore our infographic on 'Essential Metrics for Palliative Care Management' which highlights key performance indicators crucial for enhancing the quality and efficiency of palliative care services.
This visual guide breaks down important metrics across four categories: Patient-Centered Metrics, Care Efficiency Metrics, Quality of Life Metrics, and Staff Metrics. Each section is designed to help healthcare professionals monitor and improve care delivery for patients facing serious illnesses. Understand how to implement these metrics in your palliative care practices for better outcomes and higher satisfaction levels.
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V PREVENTIVE-PEDIATRICS.pdfSachin Sharma
This content provides an overview of preventive pediatrics. It defines preventive pediatrics as preventing disease and promoting children's physical, mental, and social well-being to achieve positive health. It discusses antenatal, postnatal, and social preventive pediatrics. It also covers various child health programs like immunization, breastfeeding, ICDS, and the roles of organizations like WHO, UNICEF, and nurses in preventive pediatrics.
Antibiotic Stewardship by Anushri Srivastava.pptxAnushriSrivastav
Stewardship is the act of taking good care of something.
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
WHO launched the Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS) in 2015 to fill knowledge gaps and inform strategies at all levels.
ACCORDING TO apic.org,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
ACCORDING TO pewtrusts.org,
Antibiotic stewardship refers to efforts in doctors’ offices, hospitals, long term care facilities, and other health care settings to ensure that antibiotics are used only when necessary and appropriate
According to WHO,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a systematic approach to educate and support health care professionals to follow evidence-based guidelines for prescribing and administering antimicrobials
In 1996, John McGowan and Dale Gerding first applied the term antimicrobial stewardship, where they suggested a causal association between antimicrobial agent use and resistance. They also focused on the urgency of large-scale controlled trials of antimicrobial-use regulation employing sophisticated epidemiologic methods, molecular typing, and precise resistance mechanism analysis.
Antimicrobial Stewardship(AMS) refers to the optimal selection, dosing, and duration of antimicrobial treatment resulting in the best clinical outcome with minimal side effects to the patients and minimal impact on subsequent resistance.
According to the 2019 report, in the US, more than 2.8 million antibiotic-resistant infections occur each year, and more than 35000 people die. In addition to this, it also mentioned that 223,900 cases of Clostridoides difficile occurred in 2017, of which 12800 people died. The report did not include viruses or parasites
VISION
Being proactive
Supporting optimal animal and human health
Exploring ways to reduce overall use of antimicrobials
Using the drugs that prevent and treat disease by killing microscopic organisms in a responsible way
GOAL
to prevent the generation and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Doing so will preserve the effectiveness of these drugs in animals and humans for years to come.
being to preserve human and animal health and the effectiveness of antimicrobial medications.
to implement a multidisciplinary approach in assembling a stewardship team to include an infectious disease physician, a clinical pharmacist with infectious diseases training, infection preventionist, and a close collaboration with the staff in the clinical microbiology laboratory
to prevent antimicrobial overuse, misuse and abuse.
to minimize the developme
R3 Stem Cells and Kidney Repair A New Horizon in Nephrology.pptxR3 Stem Cell
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Leading the Way in Nephrology: Dr. David Greene's Work with Stem Cells for Ki...Dr. David Greene Arizona
As we watch Dr. Greene's continued efforts and research in Arizona, it's clear that stem cell therapy holds a promising key to unlocking new doors in the treatment of kidney disease. With each study and trial, we step closer to a world where kidney disease is no longer a life sentence but a treatable condition, thanks to pioneers like Dr. David Greene.
2. The Cardiovascular System
A closed system of the heart and blood vessels
The heart pumps blood
Blood vessels allow blood to circulate to all parts of
the body
The function of the cardiovascular system is to deliver
oxygen and nutrients and to remove carbon dioxide and
other waste products
3. The Heart and Homeostasis
The heart contributes to homeostasis by pumping blood
through blood vessels to the tissues of the body to deliver
oxygen and nutrients and remove wastes.
4. • Blood to reach body cells and exchange materials with them,
it must be pumped continuously by the heart through the
body’s blood vessels.
• The heart beats about 100,000 times every day, which adds
up to about 35 million beats in a year, and approximately 2.5
billion times in an average lifetime.
• The left side of the heart pumps blood through an estimated
100,000 km (60,000 mi) of blood vessels, which is
equivalent to traveling around the earth’s equator about three
times.
• The right side of the heart pumps blood through the lungs,
enabling blood to pick up oxygen and unload carbon
dioxide.
5. Location of the Heart
• The scientific study of the normal heart
and the diseases associated with it is
known as cardiology
6. Location of the Heart
Location
Thorax between the lungs
Pointed apex directed toward left hip
About the size of your fist
Less than 1 lb.
7. • The heart is relatively small, roughly the same size (but
not the same shape) as your closed fist.
• It is about 12 cm (5 in.) long, 9 cm (3.5 in.) wide at its
broadest point, and 6 cm (2.5 in.)
• thick, with an average mass of 250 g (8 oz) in adult
females and 300 g(10 oz) in adult males.
• The heart rests on the diaphragm, near the midline of the
thoracic cavity.
• Recall that the midline is an imaginary vertical line that
divides the body into unequal left and right sides.
• The heart lies in the mediastinum (mē′-dē-as-TĪ-num),
an anatomical region that extends from the sternum to
the vertebral column, from the first rib to the diaphragm,
and between the lungs.
8. • The pointed apex is formed by the tip of the left ventricle
(a lower chamber of the heart) and rests on the
diaphragm.
• It is directed anteriorly, inferiorly, and to the left .
• The base of the heart is opposite the apex and is its
posterior aspect.
• It is formed by the atria (upper chambers) of the heart,
mostly the left atrium .
9. The Heart
Position of the heart and associated structures in the mediastinum.
The positions of the heart and associated structures in the mediastinum are
indicated by dashed outlines. The heart is located in the mediastinum, with
two-thirds of its mass to the left of the midline.
10. • the heart has several distinct surfaces.
• The anterior surface is deep to the sternum and
ribs.
• The inferior surface is the part of the heart between
the apex and right surface and rests mostly on the
diaphragm (Figure ).
• The right surface faces the right lung and extends
from the inferior surface to the base.
• The left surface faces the left lung and extends from
the base to the apex.
11. The Heart: Coverings
Pericardium – a double serous
membrane
Visceral pericardium
Next to heart
Parietal pericardium
Outside layer
Serous fluid fills the space between the
layers of pericardium
12.
13. The Heart: Heart Wall
Three layers
Epicardium
Outside layer
This layer is the parietal pericardium
Connective tissue layer
Myocardium
Middle layer
Mostly cardiac muscle
Endocardium
Inner layer
Endothelium
15. The Heart: Chambers
Right and left side act as separate pumps
Four chambers
Atria
Receiving chambers
Right atrium
Left atrium
Ventricles
Discharging chambers
Right ventricle
Left ventricle
16. The Heart: Valves
Allow blood to flow in only one direction
Four valves
Atrioventricular valves – between atria and
ventricles
Bicuspid valve (left)
Tricuspid valve (right)
Semilunar valves between ventricle and
artery
Pulmonary semilunar valve
Aortic semilunar valve
17. The Heart: Valves
Valves open as blood is pumped
through
Held in place by chordae tendineae
(“heart strings”)
Close to prevent backflow
18. Operation of the Atrioventricular Valves
• Because they are located between an atrium and a ventricle,
the tricuspid and bicuspid valves are termed atrioventricular
(AV) valves.
• When an AV valve is open, the rounded ends of the cusps
project into the ventricle.
• When the ventricles are relaxed, the papillary muscles are
relaxed, the chordae tendineae are slack, and blood moves
from a higher pressure in the atria to a lower pressure in the
ventricles through open AV valves .
• When the ventricles contract, the pressure of the blood drives
the cusps upward until their edges meet and close the opening
. At the same time, the papillary muscles contract, which pulls
on and tightens the chordae tendineae
19. • This prevents the valve cusps from everting (opening into
the atria) in response to the high ventricular pressure.
• If the AV valves or chordae tendineae are damaged, blood
may regurgitate (flow back) into the atria when the
ventricles contract.
20. Operation of the Semilunar Valves
• The aortic and pulmonary valves are known as the semilunar
(SL) valves because they are made up of three crescent
moon–shaped cusps .
• Each cusp attaches to the arterial wall by its convex outer
margin.
• The SL valves allow ejection of blood from the heart into
arteries but prevent backflow of blood into the ventricles.
• The free borders of the cusps project into the lumen of the
artery.
• When the ventricles contract, pressure builds up within the
chambers.
21. • The semilunar valves open when pressure in the ventricles
exceeds the pressure in the arteries, permitting ejection of
blood from the ventricles into the pulmonary trunk and aorta
• As the ventricles relax, blood starts to flow back toward the
heart.
• This backflowing blood fills the valve cusps, which causes
the free edges of the semilunar valves to contact each other
tightly and close the opening between the ventricle and
artery .
• Surprisingly perhaps, there are no valves guarding the
junctions between the venae cavae and the right atrium or
the pulmonary veins and the left atrium.
• As the atria contract, a small amount of blood does flow
backward from the atria into these vessels.
• However backflow is minimized by a different mechanism;
as the atrial muscle contracts, it compresses and nearly
collapses the weak walls of the venous entry points.
25. Systemic and Pulmonary Circulation
In postnatal (aft er birth) circulation, the heart pumps
blood into two closed circuits with each beat—
systemic circulation and pulmonary circulation
(pulmon- = lung)
The two circuits are arranged in series: The output
of one becomes the input of the other.
The left side of the heart is the pump for systemic
circulation; it receives bright red oxygenated (oxygen-rich)
blood from the lungs.
26. Systemic and Pulmonary Circulation
• The left side of the heart is the pump for systemic
circulation; it receives bright red oxygenated (oxygen-
rich) blood from the lungs.
• The left ventricle ejects blood into the aorta .
• From the aorta, the blood divides into separate streams,
entering progressively smaller systemic arteries that
carry it to all organs throughout the body—except for the
air sacs (alveoli) of the lungs, which are supplied by the
pulmonary circulation.
• In systemic tissues, arteries give rise to smaller-diameter
arterioles, which finally lead into extensive beds of
systemic capillaries.
27. Systemic and Pulmonary Circulation
• Exchange of nutrients and gases occurs across the thin
capillary walls. Blood unloads O2 (oxygen) and picks up
CO2 (carbon dioxide).
• In most cases, blood flows through only one capillary
and then enters a systemic venule. Venules carry
deoxygenated (oxygen-poor) blood away from tissues
and merge to form larger systemic veins.
• Ultimately the blood flows back to the right atrium.
28. Systemic and Pulmonary Circulation
• The right side of the heart is the pump for pulmonary
circulation; it receives all of the dark-red deoxygenated
blood returning from the systemic circulation. Blood
ejected from the right ventricle flows into the pulmonary
trunk, which branches into pulmonary arteries that carry
blood to the right and left lungs.
• In pulmonary capillaries, blood unloads CO2, which is
exhaled, and picks up O2 from inhaled air.
• The freshly oxygenated blood then flows into pulmonary
veins and returns to the left atrium.
29. Systemic and Pulmonary Circulation
• walls of the two ventricles with oxygenated blood. The marginal
branch beyond the coronary sulcus runs along the right margin
of the heart and transports oxygenated blood to the wall of the
right ventricle.
• parts of the body receive blood from branches of more than one
artery, and where two or more arteries supply the same region,
they usually connect. These connections, called anastomoses (a-
nas′-toˉ-MŌ-sēs), provide alternate routes, called collateral
circulation, for blood to reach a particular organ or tissue.
• .
30. Systemic and Pulmonary Circulation
• The myocardium contains many anastomoses that connect
branches of a given coronary artery or extend between branches
of different coronary arteries.
• They provide detours for arterial blood if a main route becomes
obstructed. This is important because the heart muscle may
receive sufficient oxygen even if one of its coronary arteries is
partially blocked.
31. Systemic and Pulmonary Circulation
• The right side of the heart is the pump for pulmonary
circulation; it receives all of the dark-red deoxygenated
blood returning from the systemic circulation. Blood
ejected from the right ventricle flows into the pulmonary
trunk, which branches into pulmonary arteries that carry
blood to the right and left lungs.
• In pulmonary capillaries, blood unloads CO2, which is
exhaled, and picks up O2 from inhaled air.
• The freshly oxygenated blood then flows into pulmonary
veins and returns to the left atrium.
32. Valve Pathology
• Incompetent valve = backflow and repump
• Stenosis = stiff= heart workload increased
• May be replaced
• Lup Dub Heart Sound
33. The Heart: Associated Great Vessels
Aorta
Leaves left ventricle
Pulmonary arteries
Leave right ventricle
Vena cava
Enters right atrium
Pulmonary veins (four)
Enter left atrium
34. Coronary Circulation
Blood in the heart chambers does not
nourish the myocardium
The heart has its own nourishing
circulatory system
Coronary arteries
Cardiac veins
Blood empties into the right atrium via the
coronary sinus
35. • Nutrients are not able to diff use quickly enough from
blood in the chambers of the heart to supply all layers
of cells that make up the heart wall.
• For this reason, the myocardium has its own network
• of blood vessels, the coronary circulation or cardiac
circulation (coron- = crown).
• The coronary arteries branch from the ascending
aorta and encircle the heart like a crown encircles the
head.
• While the heart is contracting, little blood flows in the
• coronary arteries because they are squeezed shut.
• When the heart relaxes, however, the high pressure of
blood in the aorta propels blood through the coronary
arteries, into capillaries, and then into coronary veins
.
36. The principal tributaries carrying blood into the coronary
sinus are the following:
• Great cardiac vein in the anterior interventricular sulcus,
which
drains the areas of the heart supplied by the left coronary
artery (left
and right ventricles and left atrium)
• Middle cardiac vein in the posterior interventricular sulcus,
which
drains the areas supplied by the posterior interventricular
branch of
the right coronary artery (left and right ventricles)
• Small cardiac vein in the coronary sulcus, which drains the
right
atrium and right ventricle
• Anterior cardiac veins, which drain the right ventricle and
open
directly into the right atrium
37. The coronary circulation. The views of the heart from the
anterior aspect in (a) and(b) are drawn as if the heart were
transparent to reveal blood vessels on the posterior aspect.
The left and right coronary arteries deliver blood to the heart; the
coronary veins drain blood from
39. The Heart: Conduction System
Intrinsic conduction system
(nodal system)
Heart muscle cells contract, without nerve
impulses, in a regular, continuous way
40. The Heart: Conduction System
Special tissue sets the pace
Sinoatrial node (right atrium)
Pacemaker
Atrioventricular node (junction of r&l atria
and ventricles)
Atrioventricular bundle (Bundle of His)
Bundle branches (right and left)
Purkinje fibers
41. The Heart: Conduction System
Cardiac action potentials propagate through the conduction
system in the following sequence :
• Cardiac excitation normally begins in the sinoatrial (SA)
node, located in the right atrial wall just inferior and
lateral to the opening of the superior vena cava. SA node
cells do not have a stable resting potential. Rather, they
repeatedly depolarize to threshold spontaneously. The
spontaneous depolarization is a pacemaker potential.
When the pacemaker potential reaches threshold, it
triggers an action potential . Each action potential from
the SA node propagates throughout both atria via gap
junctions in the intercalated discs of atrial muscle fibers.
Following the action potential, the two atria contract at
the same time.
42. The Heart: Conduction System
• By conducting along atrial muscle fibers, the action
potential reaches the atrioventricular (AV) node, located
in the interatrial septum, just anterior to the opening of the
coronary sinus. At the AV node, the action potential slows
considerably as a result of various differences in cell
structure in the AV node. This delay provides time for the
atria to empty their blood into the ventricles.
• From the AV node, the action potential enters the
atrioventricular (AV) bundle (also known as the bundle
of His, pronounced HIZ). This bundle is the only site
where action potentials can conduct from the atria to the
ventricles. (Elsewhere, the fibrous skeleton
43. The Heart: Conduction System
• Aft er propagating through the AV bundle, the action potential
enters both the right and left bundle branches. The bundle
branches extend through the interventricular septum toward
the apex of the heart.
• Finally, the large-diameter Purkinje fibers (pur-KIN-jē)
rapidly conduct the action potential beginning at the apex of
the heart upward to the remainder of the ventricular
myocardium. Then the ventricles contract, pushing the blood
upward toward the semilunar valves.
46. • Three formations
– P wave: impulse across atria
– QRS complex: spread of impulse down septum,
around ventricles in Purkinje fibers
– T wave: end of electrical activity in ventricles
Electrocardiograms (EKG/ECG)
50. Pathology of the Heart
• Damage to AV node = release of ventricles from control = slower
heart beat
• Slower heart beat can lead to fibrillation
• Fibrillation = lack of blood flow to the heart
• Tachycardia = more than 100 beats/min
• Bradychardia = less than 60 beats/min
52. The Heart: Cardiac Cycle
Atrial Systole = contraction(Systole During atrial
systole, which lasts about 0.1 sec , the atria are contracting. At
the same time, the ventricles are relaxed.)
• Ventricular Systole = relaxation(During
ventricular systole, which lasts about 0.3 sec, the ventricles are
contracting. At the same time, the atria are relaxed in atrial
diastole.)
53. The Heart: Cardiac Cycle
Atrial Systole
1Depolarization of the SA node causes atrial depolarization,
marked by the P wave in the ECG.
2 Atrial depolarization causes atrial systole. As the atria contract,
they exert pressure on the blood within, which forces blood through
the open AV valves into the ventricles.
3 Atrial systole contributes a final 25 mL of blood to the volume
already in each ventricle (about 105 mL). The end of atrial systole is
also the end of ventricular diastole (relaxation). Thus, each ventricle
contains about 130 mL at the end of its relaxation period (diastole).
This blood volume is called the end-diastolic volume (EDV).
4 The QRS complex in the ECG marks the onset of ventricular
depolarization.
54. The Heart: Cardiac Cycle
Ventricular Systole
5 Ventricular depolarization causes ventricular systole. As ventricular
systole begins, pressure rises inside the ventricles and pushes blood
up against the atrioventricular (AV) valves, forcing them shut. For
about 0.05 seconds, both the SL (semilunar) and AV valves are closed.
This is the period of isovolumetric contraction(ī-soˉ-VOL-ū-met′-rik;
iso- = same). During this interval, cardiac muscle fibers are contracting
and exerting force but are not yet shortening. Thus, the muscle
contraction is isometric (same length). Moreover, because all four
valves are closed, ventricular volume remains the same (isovolumic).
6 Continued contraction of the ventricles causes pressure inside the
chambers to rise sharply. When left ventricular pressure surpasses
aortic pressure at amillimeters of mercury (mmHg) and right ventricular
pressure rises above the pressure in the pulmonary trunk (about 20
mmHg), both SL valves openbout 80. At this point, ejection of blood
from the heart begins. The period when the SL valves are open is
ventricular ejection and lasts for about 0.25 sec. The pressure in the
left ventricle continues to rise
55. The Heart: Cardiac Cycle
Ventricular Systole
to about 120 mmHg, and the pressure in the right ventricle climbs to
about 25–30 mmHg.
7 The left ventricle ejects about 70 mL of blood into the aorta and
the right ventricle ejects the same volume of blood into the
pulmonary trunk. The volume remaining in each ventricle at the end
of systole, about 60 mL, is the end-systolic volume (ESV). Stroke
volume, the volume ejected per beat from each ventricle, equals
end-diastolic volume minus end-systolic volume: SV = EDV − ESV.
At rest, the stroke volume is about 130 mL − 60 mL = 70 mL (a little
more than 2 oz).
8 The T wave in the ECG marks the onset of ventricular
repolarization.
56. The Heart: Cardiac Cycle
Relaxation Period
• During the relaxation period, which lasts about 0.4 sec, the atria and
the ventricles are both relaxed. As the heart beats faster and faster, the
relaxation period becomes shorter and shorter, whereas the durations
of atrial systole and ventricular systole shorten only slightly.
57. The Heart: Cardiac Cycle
• Ventricular repolarization causes ventricular diastole. As the ventricles
relax, pressure within the chambers falls, and blood in the aorta and
pulmonary trunk begins to flow backward toward the regions of lower
pressure in the ventricles. Backflowing blood catches in the valve cusps
and closes the SL valves. The aortic valve closes at a pressure of about
100 mmHg. Rebound of blood off the closed cusps of the aortic valve
produces the dicrotic wave on the aortic pressure curve. Aft er the SL
valves close, there is a brief interval when ventricular blood volume
does not change because all four valves are closed. This is the period of
isovolumetric relaxation.
10 As the ventricles continue to relax, the pressure falls quickly. When
ventricular pressure drops below atrial pressure, the AV valves open, and
ventricular filling begins. The major part of ventricular filling occurs just
aft er the AV valves open. Blood that has been flowing into and building
up in the atria during ventricular systole then rushes rapidly into the
ventricles. At the end of the relaxation period, the ventricles are about
three-quarters full. The P wave appears in the ECG, signaling the start of
another cardiac cycle.
58. Cardiac cycle. (a) ECG. (b) Changes in left atrial pressure
(green line), left ventricular pressure (blue line), and aortic
pressure (red line) as they relate to the opening and closing of
heart valves. (c) Heart sounds. (d) Changes in left ventricular
volume. (e) Phases of the cardiac cycle.
A cardiac cycle is composed of all of the events associated with
one heartbeat
61. The Heart: Cardiac Output
Cardiac output (CO)
Amount of blood pumped by each side of
the heart in one minute
CO = (heart rate [HR]) x (stroke volume
[SV])
Stroke volume
Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle
in one contraction
62. Cardiac output, cont.
• CO = HR x SV
• 5250 ml/min = 75 beats/min x 70 mls/beat
• Norm = 5000 ml/min
• Entire blood supply passes through body once per minute.
• CO varies with demands of the body.
64. The Heart: Regulation of Heart
Rate
Stroke volume usually remains relatively
constant
Starling’s law of the heart – the more that
the cardiac muscle is stretched, the
stronger the contraction
Changing heart rate is the most
common way to change cardiac output
66. The Heart: Regulation of Heart
Rate
Decreased heart rate
Parasympathetic nervous system
High blood pressure or blood volume
Dereased venous return
In Congestive Heart Failure the heart is
worn out and pumps weakly. Digitalis
works to provide a slow, steady, but
stronger beat.
67. Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)
•Decline in pumping efficiency of heart
•Inadequate circulation
•Progressive, also coronary atherosclerosis, high
blood pressure and history of multiple Myocardial
Infarctions
•Left side fails = pulmonary congestion and
suffocation
•Right side fails = peripheral congestion and edema
68. Blood Vessels: The Vascular
System
Taking blood to the tissues and back
Arteries
Arterioles
Capillaries
Venules
Veins
70. Blood Vessels: Anatomy
Three layers (tunics)
Tunic intima
Endothelium
Tunic media
Smooth muscle
Controlled by sympathetic nervous
system
Tunic externa
Mostly fibrous connective tissue
71. Differences Between Blood Vessel
Types
Walls of arteries are the thickest
Lumens of veins are larger
Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins
toward the heart
Walls of capillaries are only one cell
layer thick to allow for exchanges
between blood and tissue
72. Movement of Blood Through
Vessels
Most arterial blood is
pumped by the heart
Veins use the milking
action of muscles to
help move blood
Figure 11.9
73. Capillary Beds
Capillary beds
consist of two
types of vessels
Vascular shunt –
directly connects an
arteriole to a venule
Figure 11.10
74. Capillary Beds
True capillaries –
exchange vessels
Oxygen and
nutrients cross to
cells
Carbon dioxide
and metabolic
waste products
cross into blood
Figure 11.10
76. Vital Signs
• Arterial pulse
• Blood pressure
• Repiratory Rate
• Body Temperature
• All indicate the efficiency of the system
77. Pulse
Pulse –
pressure wave
of blood
Monitored at
“pressure
points” where
pulse is easily
palpated
Figure 11.16
78. Blood Pressure
Measurements by health professionals
are made on the pressure in large
arteries
Systolic – pressure at the peak of
ventricular contraction
Diastolic – pressure when ventricles relax
Pressure in blood vessels decreases as
the distance away from the heart
increases
80. Blood Pressure: Effects of Factors
Neural factors
Autonomic nervous system adjustments
(sympathetic division)
Renal factors
Regulation by altering blood volume
Renin – hormonal control
81. Blood Pressure: Effects of Factors
Temperature
Heat has a vasodilation effect
Cold has a vasoconstricting effect
Chemicals
Various substances can cause increases or
decreases
Diet
82. Variations in Blood Pressure
Human normal range is variable
Normal
140–110 mm Hg systolic
80–75 mm Hg diastolic
Hypotension
Low systolic (below 110 mm HG)
Often associated with illness
Hypertension
High systolic (above 140 mm HG)
Can be dangerous if it is chronic